Chapter 8 Elasmobranch Transport Techniques and Equipment€¦ · 1990-005, Lisboa, Portugal....

105

Chapter 8

Elasmobranch Transport Techniques and Equipment

MARK F. L. SMITH

Oceanário de Lisboa,Esplanada D. Carlos I - Doca dos Olivais,

1990-005, Lisboa, Portugal.E-mail: [email protected]

ALLAN MARSHALL

Pittsburgh Zoo & PPG Aquarium,One Wild Place,

Pittsburgh, PA 15206, USA.E-mail: [email protected]

JOÃO P. CORREIA

Oceanário de Lisboa,Esplanada D. Carlos I - Doca dos Olivais,

1990-005, Lisboa, Portugal.E-mail: [email protected]

JOHN RUPP

Point Defiance Zoo & Aquarium,5400 North Pearl St,

Tacoma, WA 98407, USA.E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: Elasmobranchs are delicate animals and appropriate care should be observedduring their transport or permanent damage and even death can result. Key considerationsinclude risk of physical injury, elevated energy expenditure, impaired gas exchange,compromised systemic circulation, hypoglycemia, blood acidosis, hyperkalemia,accumulation of metabolic toxins, and declining water quality. Carefully planned logistics,appropriate staging facilities, minimal handling, suitable equipment, an appropriate transportregime, adequate oxygenation, comprehensive water treatment, and careful monitoringwill all greatly increase the chances of a successful transport. In special cases the use ofanesthesia and corrective therapy may be merited.

The Elasmobranch Husbandry Manual: Captive Care of Sharks, Rays and their Relatives, pages 105-131.© 2004 Ohio Biological Survey

Despite common perception to the contrary,sharks and rays are delicate animals. Thisdelicate nature is nowhere more evident thanduring the difficult process of capturing andtransporting these animals from their naturalhabitat to a place of study or display. If sufficientcare is not used, i t is not uncommon for

elasmobranchs to perish during transport orshortly thereafter (Essapian, 1962; Clark, 1963;Gohar and Mazhar, 1964; Gruber, 1980).

Any elasmobranch transport regime should takeinto account a number of considerations relatedto species biology and transport logistics. A list of

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SMITH, MARSHALL, CORREIA, & RUPP

Ampullae of Lorenzini

Elasmobranchs detect weak electromagneticfields using a specialized sensory organ calledthe Ampullae of Lorenzini, allowing them to detectelectrical signatures produced by potential prey.They are sensitive to electrochemical cellsinduced by metals immersed in seawater andintolerant of dissolved heavy metall ic ions(especially copper) (Gruber, 1980).

Optimal swimming velocity

An elasmobranch has achieved optimal swimmingvelocity when its energy expenditure per unitdistance traveled, or total cost of transport (TCT),is minimized (Parsons, 1990; Carlson et al.,1999). If the elasmobranch swims slower or fasterthan this speed it will consume more energy.Carlson et al. (1999) observed that the optimalswimming veloci ty for blacknose sharks(Carcharhinus acronotus) was at speeds of 36-39 cm s-1 where TCT was 0.9-1.0 cal g-1 km-1. Ifthe sharks slowed down to 25 cm s-1, then energyexpenditure increased to 1.7 cal g-1 km-1.

Negative buoyancy

Elasmobranchs have no swim bladder and arenegatively buoyant (Bigelow and Schroeder,1948). Sharks maintain or increase their verticalposition within the water column by using theircaudal fin to provide thrust and their rigid pectoralfins and snout to generate lift.

One technique negatively buoyant fishes use toconserve energy is to powerlessly glide at anoblique angle, gradually increasing depth, thenreturn to the original depth by actively swimmingupward. An energy saving in excess of 50% hasbeen calculated for animals that adopt thisstrategy referred to as the swim-glide hypothesis(Weihs, 1973; Klay, 1977). An uninterruptedhorizontal distance is required for the completionof the glide phase of this swimming strategy. Ifthis minimum horizontal distance is not availablethe fish will consume excess energy through themuscular contractions required to turn. In the caseof extreme interruptions the fish may stall andconsume valuable energy reserves as it attemptsto regain its position within the water column andre-attain a near-optimal swimming velocity. If thissituation persists, the animal can becomeexhausted and ultimately die (Klay, 1977; Gruberand Keyes, 1981; Stoskopf, 1993).

these considerations has been outlined in Table8.1 and each will be covered in this chapter orelsewhere in this volume.

1. Elasmobranch biology2. Species selection (refer chapter 2)3. Legislation and permitting (refer chapter 3)4. Logistics and equipment preparation5. Specimen acquisition (refer chapter 7)6. Handling and physical activity7. Staging8. Oxygenation, ventilation and circulation9. Transport regime

10. Water treatment11. Anesthesia (see also chapter 21)12. Corrective therapy13. Monitoring14. Acclimation and recovery15. Quarantine (refer chapter 10)16. Specimen introduction (refer chapter 11)

Table 8.1. Important issues to consider whenformulating an elasmobranch transport.

ELASMOBRANCH BIOLOGY

Before discussing elasmobranch transporttechniques it is important to understand the basicsof elasmobranch biology as they pertain tocapture, restraint, and handling.

Cartilaginous skeleton

Unlike teleosts (i.e., bony fishes), sharks and rayshave a skeleton made of cartilage and lack ribs.This characteristic means that the internal organsand musculature of elasmobranchs are poorlyprotected and susceptible to damage withouthorizontal support (Clark, 1963; Gruber andKeyes, 1981; Murru, 1990).

Integument

Like other fishes elasmobranch skin is delicateand susceptible to abrasions especially on thesnout and distal section of the fins (Howe, 1988).

Lateral line

Elasmobranchs detect low-frequency vibrations andpressure changes using a sensory organ called thelateral line (Boord and Campbell, 1977).

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CHAPTER 8: ELASMOBRANCH TRANSPORT TECHNIQUES AND EQUIPMENT

Anaerobic metabolism

Many sedentary elasmobranchs have a lowaerobic capacity relying heavily on the anaerobicmetabolism of white muscle to support activity(Bennett, 1978). This strategy provides a greatopportunity for sudden bursts of activity butimplies long periods of immobility during recovery.Conversely, pelagic elasmobranchs have anincreased commitment to the aerobic red musclemore suitable for their constantly cruising lifestyle.If oxygen (O

2) demand increases to a point where

an insufficient supply feeds the working tissueaerobic red muscle will also start to metabolizeanaerobically.

The veloci ty beyond which a swimmingelasmobranch starts to metabolize anaerobicallyis referred to as U

crit or the maximum aerobically

sustainable swimming speed (Lowe, 1996). TheU

crit for leopard sharks (Triakis semifasciata) has

been measured at 1.6 L s-1 for 30-50 cm TLspecimens (where L = a distance equivalent to onebody length and TL = total length of the specimen).U

crit was found to vary inversely with body size; 120

cm TL sharks exhibit a Ucrit

of 0.6 L s-1 (Graham etal., 1990). It is believed that less-active sharks havea lower U

crit than species adapted to a cruising

pelagic lifestyle (Lowe, 1996).

Once an elasmobranch starts to metabolizeanaerobically, be it benthic or pelagic, it produceslactic acid as a byproduct (Bennett, 1978).

Ventilation

Elasmobranchs have a small gill surface and theirblood has a low oxygen-carrying capacity (Gruberand Keyes, 1981). Most demersal and benthicspecies ventilate gas-exchange surfaces usingmovements of the mouth to actively pump wateracross their gills. Pelagic species often use ramventilation (i.e., forward motion and induced headpressure to force water into their mouth and outacross their gill surfaces) to improve their abilityto extract oxygen from the water. Species that areobl iged to swim forward for effect ive gasexchange are referred to as obl igate ramventilators (Hughs and Umezawa, 1968; Clarkand Kabasawa, 1977; Gruber and Keyes, 1981;Hewitt, 1984; Graham et al., 1990; Lowe, 1996;Carlson et al., 1999). An increased dependenceon ram ventilation by pelagic species is possiblyrelated to their increased reliance on oxygenatedred swimming muscle.

Muscular pumping and systemic circulation

Elasmobranchs have limited cardiac capacity, lowblood pressure, and low vascular flow rates. Theyrely on vascular valves and muscular contractionsto aid systemic circulation. Optimal oxygenation ofmusculature and removal of toxic metabolitestherefore occurs while swimming rather than at rest(Gruber and Keyes, 1981; Murru, 1984; Baldwin andWells, 1990; Lowe, 1996). Muscular-assistedcirculation is particularly important for pelagic andsome demersal elasmobranchs because theiraerobic swimming muscle requires constantoxygenation (Hewitt, pers. com.; Powell, pers. com.).

Hypoglycemia

During hyperactivity blood-glucose concentrationstend to rise as liver glycogen stores are mobilized(Mazeaud et al., 1977; Cliff and Thurman, 1984;Jones and Andrews, 1990). Cliff and Thurman(1984) observed an increase in the blood-glucoseconcentration of dusky sharks (Carcharhinusobscurus) from 5 to 10 mmol l-1 following 70 minutesof hyperactivity. Blood-glucose concentrationsremained at 10 mmol l-1 for three hours and thencontinued to rise to a level in excess of 15 mmol l-1

over the next 24 hours. Glucose enters muscle cellswhere it supplies energy and raw material to restoreglycogen reserves. If hyperactivity is prolongedblood-glucose elevation can be followed by adecline as liver glycogen reserves becomeexhausted (Cliff and Thurman, 1984; Hewitt, 1984;Jones and Andrews, 1990; Wood, 1991; Wells etal., 1986). Cliff and Thurman (1984) observed adecrease in blood-glucose concentrations to 2.9mmol l-1 and 5.7 mmol l-1 in two dusky sharks thathad struggled to the point of death.

Acidosis

Blood acid becomes elevated (i.e., pH declines)during hyperactivity. Acidosis is the result of twoprocesses: increased plasma carbon dioxide (CO

2)

concentration, and anaerobic metabolism and lacticacid production (Piiper and Baumgarten, 1969;Holeton and Heisler, 1978; Cliff and Thurman, 1984).

When CO2 production in the muscles exceeds

excret ion via the gi l ls, blood pH decl ines(Murdaugh and Robin, 1967; Albers, 1970). ThispH decline happens because CO

2 reacts with H

2O

according to Equation 8.1. This process is fast,happening within minutes of hyperactivity (Piiper

108


and Baumgarten, 1969; Cliff and Thurman, 1984;Lai et al., 1990; Wood, 1991). Cliff and Thurman(1984) observed a sharp blood-pH decline in adusky shark from 7.29 to 7.12 within 10 minutesof hyperactivity. This decline is equivalent to aneffective 57% increase in hydrogen ions (H+).

Lactic acid produced during anaerobic metabolismdissociates into lactate and H+ further lowering bloodpH (Piiper and Baumgarten, 1969; Albers, 1970;Piiper et al., 1972; Bennett, 1978; Martini, 1978;Holeton and Heisler, 1978; Wardle, 1981; Holetonand Heisler, 1983; Cliff and Thurman, 1984; Wood,1991). Cliff and Thurman (1984) observed that bloodpH continued to decline during hyperactivity in adusky shark from 7.12 at 10 minutes to 6.96 by the70th minute. This slow decline, following an initialCO

2-induced decline, was attributed to the formation

of lactic acid, and thus, H+.

It has been suggested that only 20% of H+

produced during anaerobic metabol ism isreleased from the cells. Therefore, extracellularacidosis may be indicative of a more profoundintracellular acidosis (Wood et al., 1983).

Hyperkalemia

Hyperactivity and blood acidosis can result inelevated serum electrolytes—in part icularpotassium ion (K+) concentration—through theeffusion of cellular electrolytes into the bloodserum (Wood et al., 1983; Cliff and Thurman,1984; Wells et al., 1986; Jones and Andrews,1990; Wood, 1991). Cliff and Thurman (1984)observed an increase in plasma K+ concentrationfrom 3.3 mmol l-1 to 5.3 mmol l-1 in a dusky sharkduring hyperactivity.

Increased plasma K+ concentration can disruptcardiac function and promote muscular tetanus,augmenting anaerobic metabolism and promotingacidosis (Cliff and Thurman, 1984; Wells et al., 1986).

Excretion of metabolites

Elasmobranchs excrete many biochemicalmetabolites into the surrounding environment viatheir gills. Amongst others CO

2, H+, and ammonia

ion (NH4

+) are excreted during normal metabolism

(Robin et al., 1965; Murdaugh and Robin, 1967;Albers, 1970). Unless they are diluted or removedenvironmental accumulation of these metaboliteswill become toxic. As elasmobranchs are hyper-osmotic to their environment an elevated NH

4+

concentration may induce or further promoteacidosis (Murru, 1990).

Transport mortality

Although mortality during and after elasmobranchtransport is not fully understood it appears to bedue, at least in part, to: depletion of blood-glucoseconcentrations and starvation of muscle tissue;blood acidosis, circulatory disruption, and centralnervous system damage; elevated plasma K+

concentrat ion and cardiac dysfunct ion;accumulation of toxic metabolites within theimmediate environment; or a combination of allthese factors (Mazeaud et al., 1977; Bennett, 1978;Gruber and Keyes, 1981; Wood et al., 1983; Cliffand Thurman, 1984; Hewitt, 1984; Murru, 1984;Wells et al., 1986; Dunn and Koester, 1990; Stoskopf,1993). The effect of these processes may not alwaysbe immediately obvious and their contribution to post-transport mortality may be overlooked orunderestimated (Gruber and Keyes, 1981).

In conclusion the following challenges need to beconsidered during the transport of elasmobranchs:(1) risk of injury to internal organs, delicate skin,and sensitive sensory organs; (2) increased turningfrequency and elevated energy expenditure; (3)impaired ventilation and compromised systemicoxygenation; (4) decreased muscular pumpingresulting in reduced vascular circulation, reducedmuscular oxygenation, and reduced metaboliteelimination; (5) hypoglycemia; (6) blood acidosis;(7) hyperkalemia; and (8) the excretion andenvironmental accumulation of CO

2 , H+ and NH

4+.

An overview of these challenges and possiblesolutions has been outlined in Table 8.2.

LOGISTICS AND EQUIPMENT PREPARATION

A fundamental aspect of any elasmobranchtransport, determining ultimate success or failure,is logistical planning and equipment preparation.Equipment malfunction, vehicular breakdowns,

Equation 8.1

CO2 + H2O H2CO3 HCO3- + H+ CO3

2- + 2H+

Carbon Water Carbonic Bicarbonate Hydrogen Carbonate Hydrogendioxide acid ion ion

→← →← →←

109


8.1 Where possible, transport specimens in 'free-swimming' mode to allow natural muscular pumping.

8.2 When transporting in 'restrained' mode periodically flex the trunk of the specimen to stimulate muscular pumping.

9.1 Minimize hyperactivity (as per 6.1 - 6.3).9.2 Consider use of IV- or IP-administered glucose supplementation.

10.1 Minimize hyperactivity (as per 6.1 - 6.3).10.2 Maximize O2 and CO2 exchange by facilitating ventilation (as per 7.1 and 7.2),

degassing transport water (as per 15.2), and oxygenating transport water (as per 12.2 and 12.3).

10.3 Minimize blood [CO2] and [H+] increase by facilitating systemic circulation (as per 8.1 and 8.2).

10.4 Consider use of IV- or IP-administered bicarbonate or acetate to buffer the blood.11.1 Minimize hyperactivity (as per 6.1 - 6.3).11.2 Minimize blood acidosis (as per 10.1 - 10.4).12.1 Minimize hyperactivity (as per 6.1 - 6.3).12.2 Maximize dissolved oxygen concentration within transport vessel by supplementing

with pure O2 at ~120-200% saturation.

12.3 Maximize dissolved oxygen concentration within transport vessel by degassing transport water and liberating excess CO2.

13.1 Mitigate temperature fluctuations by insulating transport vessel.13.2 Ensure vessel is transported and staged in temperature-controlled environments.13.3 Modify temperature as required using bagged ice, immersion heaters, etc.14.1 Minimize hyperactivity (as per 6.1 - 6.3).14.2 Minimize waste accumulation by applying water exchanges, mechanical filtration,

adsorption or chemical filtration, and foam fractionation to transport water.

15.1 Minimize hyperactivity (as per 6.1 - 6.3).15.2 Minimize pH decline by degassing transport water and liberating excess CO2.

15.3 Minimize pH decline by buffering transport water with bicarbonate, carbonate, or Tris-amino®.

16.1 Minimize hyperactivity (as per 6.1 - 6.3).16.2 Minimize [NH3 / NH4

+] accumulation by performing periodic water exchanges, using ammonia sponges (e.g., AmQuel), and applying adsorption or chemical filtration (as per 14.2).

Carbon dioxide (CO2) buildup and pH decline

Nutrient buildup

Hyperkalemia

Acidosis

Muscular pumping and systemic circulation

Hypoglycemia

Temperature fluctuation

Oxygen (O2) depletion

Excreted particulates and 'organics'

Biological characteristics Solutions

1.1 While handling, ensure horizontal support using water-filled plastic bags for small specimens or stretchers for large specimens.

1.2 Always transport in a water-filled vessel.2.1 Use plastic bags or soft knot-less nets when catching specimens, and flexible

plastic stretchers when restraining them.2.2 Minimize handling and use sterilized plastic gloves if handling is absolutely

necessary.2.3 Minimize obstructions to natural swimming patterns within transport tank.2.4 Construct transport tank from non-abrasive material.2.5 In extreme cases, consider the use of sedation to minimize handling time and

reduce physical injury.Lateral line 3.1 Minimize external physical impacts to the transport tank.

4.1 Avoid using metallic objects, especially within transport tank.4.2 Avoid using copper as a chemico-therapeutic.4.3 Where possible minimize electric currents in and around the transport vessel.5.1 Generate gentle current in transport tank to facilitate hydrodynamic lift, maintain

specimen buoyancy, and simulate swimming behavior.5.2 Minimize turning frequency by transporting small specimens and reducing

obstructions within transport tank (e.g., LSS equipment, conspecifics, etc.).6.1 Minimize hyperactivity by catching and restraining specimens quickly and calmly.6.2 Minimize transport duration.6.3 In extreme cases, consider the use of anesthesia to slow metabolic rate and to

reduce O2 consumption and metabolic waste production.

6.4 Maximize dissolved O2 concentration (as per 12.2 and 12.3)

6.5 Maximize ventilation and systemic circulation (as per 7 and 8)7.1 Where possible, transport specimens in 'free-swimming' mode to allow natural

ventilation.7.2 When transporting in 'restrained' mode simulate natural ventilation by directing a

current of oxygenated water into the mouth of the specimen.

Optimal swimming velocity and negative buoyancy

Anaerobic metabolism

Ventilation

Table 8.2. Biological characteristics of elasmobranchs and possible strategies to mitigate negative effects during transport.

Cartilaginous skeleton

Ampullae of Lorenzini

Integument

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Table 8.3. Basic logistics and equipment preparation required for a typical intercontinental elasmobranch transport. Thisbasic model may be adapted and used as a checklist for any transport.

Research 1.1 Information is power! Research as much as possible about the chosen species - appropriateness fordisplay, special requirements, reliable sources (e.g., collection sites / professional collectors / otheraquaria), transportability, etc.

1.2 Obtain references for professional collectors. Inspect collector's facilities. Finalize species list and fixagreement with professional collector (i.e., fees, dates, responsibilities, etc.). Ensure that both you and thecollector have appropriate permits.

1.3 Determine shipment routes, dates, and times. Obtain references for haulers, carriers, airports, etc. Ensureshipment route is as direct as possible, secure, and requires minimal cargo handling. Have a freight agentnegotiate with carriers to determine the best routes, minimize costs, and handle paperwork. Strive for non-peak times and working days when customs / quarantine staff are readily available.

1.4 Clarify available transport conditions: Is climate control available throughout? Can staff easily enter cargoareas? Can animals be accompanied and checked in-flight? What are the plane loading and unloadingrestrictions (e.g., door dimensions, lifting equipment, etc.) at both the origin and destination?

Plan 2.1 Think your way through the entire transport process considering all equipment, transport, and infrastructurerequirements (e.g., forklifts, pallet jacks, power supplies, water exchanges, etc.). Ensure that transporttanks and ancillary equipment will fit on trucks, airplanes, forklifts, and through all doors and corridors.Consider urban restrictions between staging facility, airports, and destination aquarium. Verify your planwith an individual experienced in the type of transport you are undertaking. Formulate final plan and reviewwith all parties.

2.2 Make a manifest of all required equipment and transport tanks (refer Table 8.4). Ensure that all equipmentconforms to regulation (e.g., HazMat of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and theInternational Air Transport Association (IATA)) and understand any possible restrictions. Calculate requiredamount of consumables (e.g. oxygen, batteries, water conditioners, etc.).

2.3 Make a comprehensive list of all required permits and other documentation for exportation and importation(e.g., conservation certification (federal, state, etc.), health certification, HazMat documentation, way-bills,customs declarations, insurance policies, passports, visas, etc.).

2.4 Make a comprehensive list of all tasks with completion dates / times and individuals responsible. Establishteams of people for every task (e.g., catching specimens, handling specimens, transporting specimens,receiving and acclimatization, post-transport monitoring, etc.). Ensure that the plan is clearly understood byeveryone. Build in critical ‘mileposts’ for ‘go’ / ‘no-go’ decisions (e.g., carrier confirmed landed = commenceloading animals into transport tanks, etc.). Be reasonable with timing estimates for each step and build inextra time.

Contingency 3.1 Ensure suitable infrastructure is available at all points throughout the transport route (e.g., lifting equipment,power supplies, climate control, water for exchanges, security, police escorts, etc.). Identify areas of riskand ensure suitable contingencies are in place.

3.2 Adapt! You have a clear plan but be prepared to change the plan if it is simply not workable. Ensure anychanges to the plan are communicated to everyone.

Communicate 4.1 Establish clear channels of communication with all parties and make a comprehensive contact list. Circulateplan, equipment manifest, required documentation, task list, and contact sheet to appropriate parties.These will include, but may not be limited to: husbandry staff, local security, public relations staff, localconstabulary, freight agent, hauler, hazmat specialist, airport cargo handlers, carrier administration, carriercargo handlers, customs officials, US Fish and Wildlife Service (or equivalent), Department of Agriculture(or equivalent), Department of Transport (or equivalent) and Immigration. Appoint the freight agent, or otherappropriate party, to be the primary liaison with transport personnel. Using one spokesperson will minimizeomissions and conflicting information.

Educate 5.1 Be prepared to be a teacher! Educate all personnel along the route of the transport (as per list detailed in4.1 above). Airport officials are always interested in a transport and will cooperate if they are correctly andpolitely apprised of the situation. Ensure that all are aware of the need for expeditious processing of anydocuments and loading of cargo, etc. Likewise, local constabulary, security guards, and company PRpersonnel will be more sympathetic if everything is explained clearly and politely.

Prepare 6.1 Acquire all equipment on manifest (as per 2.2 above) and ensure it functions correctly.6.2 Acquire required permits (as per 2.3 above). Carry originals and copies throughout transport.6.3 Collect specimens and allow to recuperate in staging facility.6.4 Fast specimens (48 - 72 hours) if appropriate and verify that they are healthy and ready for transport.6.5 Prepare equipment, double-checking the manifest (as per 2.2 above) to ensure you have everything -

remember permits! Include backups. Include tools for every pump, filter, battery, oxygen bottle, bolt, nut,screw, fastener, etc. Wash filtration media and pack filters. Test all batteries and pumps. Check oxygensupplies. Ensure transport tanks are robust, leak-proof, and have no pipes protruding where they could besheared off. Calculate required quantities of water conditioners (e.g., AmQuel®, etc.) and prepare inadvance. Ensure all loose equipment is stored in robust waterproof boxes.

6.6 Pack tanks and ancillary equipment on trucks so they form discrete self-contained units for ease ofmovement with forklifts, pallet jacks, etc. Orientate and securely strap down tanks to minimize surge andallow ease of access to all equipment.

6.7 Allocate specimens to specific tanks and make a check-list for final loading.6.8 Final check! On the day before the transport ensure EVERYTHING is prepared! Ensure all contingencies

are in place. Review tasks and timing with team members adjusting where necessary. Get some rest!

Execute 7.1 Verify that all team members and infrastructures are ready.7.2 Start and verify that all LSSs (life support systems) are functioning (i.e., oxygen supplies, pumps,

mechanical filtration, directed water currents, etc.).7.3 Capture and transfer specimens to transport tanks quickly and calmly. Have extra personnel available to lift

and carry.7.4 When all specimens and equipment is loaded re-check LSSs. If all is OK transport specimens to airport for

processing.7.5 At the airport ensure tanks are secure throughout processing and be prepared to perform water exchanges

and equipment repairs before loading. Pack tanks in aircraft securely (as per 6.6). Pack tanks on the finalpallet spaces so they are the first off the aircraft on arrival.

7.6 Monitor specimens, LSSs, and water quality throughout transport and make appropriate adjustments (e.g.,adjust oxygen regulators, add water conditioners, etc.).

7.7 On landing re-check LSSs and water quality. Perform water exchanges if necessary. Expedite customs andairport processing.

7.8 Load tanks on truck(s) (as per 6.6) and transfer to destination aquaria.7.9 On arrival off-load tanks and commence specimen acclimation. Apply prophylactic measures as

appropriate. Transfer specimens to quarantine tanks.

111


belligerent officials, and replacement resources(e.g., water, filtration media, spares, etc.) shouldbe taken into account and cont ingenciespreviewed (Young, pers. com.). Use a competentfreight agent to handle negotiations, transportbureaucracy, hazardous material documentation,and logistics communication (McHugh, pers. com.).Logistical planning and equipment preparation fora typical elasmobranch transport can be divided intoseven basic steps. These steps have been outlinedin Table 8.3 and a corresponding equipmentmanifest detailed in Table 8.4.

HANDLING AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

When initially restraining a specimen it is oftennecessary to use a net made of soft knot-lessnylon to prevent abrasions (Powell, pers. com.).Some sharks, in particular the sand tiger shark(Carcharias taurus), are prone to catching theirteeth in nets. Care should be taken to minimizetooth entanglement as permanent damage to theupper jaw may result (Mohan, pers. com.).

Another consideration for the sand tiger shark is itsunique ability to swallow air and store it in its stomachto assist buoyancy (Hussain, 1989). If a portion ofthe air is not removed before transport the sand tigershark may float upside-down in the transport tank. Itis preferable to induce the sand tiger to expel someof the air before transport commences.

At no stage should the body of an elasmobranchbe allowed to hang loosely from the head or tail.Sharks and rays should always be maintained ina horizontal position (Clark, 1963; Gruber andKeyes, 1981; Andrews and Jones, 1990; Stoskopf,1993). When lifting and moving large specimens

a stretcher has been employed (Clark, 1963;Davies et al., 1963; Murru, 1984; Smith, 1992;Visser, 1996). A stretcher consists of a flexiblereinforced vinyl or canvas sheet stretchedbetween two parallel poles. The shark is lifted outof the water while lying in a horizontal positionwithin the bag formed by the sheet (Figure 8.1).

Table 8.3 (continued). Basic logistics and equipment preparation required for a typical intercontinental elasmobranchtransport. This basic model may be adapted and used as a checklist for any transport.

Figure 8.1. Flexible vinyl stretcher used to maintain sharks ina horizontal position while handling.

For small sharks horizontal support can beachieved by using a strong, rip-resistant, plastic

bag. The water provides support while the flexibleand smooth walls of the bag allow the specimento move without damaging i tsel f . Theelasmobranch remains submerged and cancontinue to respire (Marshall, 1999; Ross andRoss, 1999). Double bagging provides securityagainst breakage. Rays require support for theirpectoral fins. Support can be achieved by usinga vinyl or canvas sheet stretched within a rigid,circular, exterior hoop (Figure 8.2).

When handling elasmobranchs the use of sterileplastic gloves is recommended (Gruber, 1980;

112


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Tab

le 8

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preh

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st o

f eq

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cons

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eces

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para

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113


Young et al., 2002). Sterile gloves will help preventthe development of post-handling infections of theskin. To minimize struggling during restraint it ispossible to induce a trance-like state in manyshark species by holding them in an upside-downposition for a few minutes. This phenomenon isreferred to as tonic immobility (Watsky andGruber, 1990; Henningsen, 1994).

Throughout specimen restraint and transportphysical activity must be minimized to reduceadverse biochemical reactions and the risk ofspecimens abrading their delicate snout and fintips (Murru, 1990; Smith, 1992). A transport tankwith smooth walls and a dark interior will reducephysical injury. Physical injury will be furtherreduced by the minimization of external stimuliand a reduction of surge by thoughtful design andpositioning of the transport tank (i.e., placementof a rectangular tank transversely across thetransport vehicle) (Smith, 1992; Arai, 1997).

STAGING

Staging refers to the process of temporarilymaintaining a specimen in a large secure recoveryenclosure close to the collection site. This processis important, as the biochemical changes inducedduring elasmobranch capture are often profound.Staging a specimen for at least 24 hours beforetransport commences will dramatically increasethe chances of success (Cliff and Thurman, 1984;Murru, 1984; Wisner, 1987; Andrews and Jones,1990; Arai, 1997; Young et al., 2002). It is criticalthat the staging facility has sufficient dimensionsand water parameters to adequately maintain thespecimen(s). If not, you will simply compound thealready damaging biochemical changes.

A typical temporary staging facility comprises aplastic-lined pool supplied with raw seawater viaan offshore intake and pumping system. A securefence, for security from onlookers, and roofing tocut down radiant energy is beneficial (Visser,1996). Water parameters, especially oxygen,temperature, pH, and nitrogenous wastes becomea critical issue if water is not being constantlyreplenished. A re-circulating water treatmentsystem capable of maintaining optimal waterparameters is then required.

OXYGENATION, VENTILATION ANDCIRCULATION

Oxygenation

The importance of oxygenation cannot be over-emphasized. Fishes consume up to three timestheir normal oxygen requirement under transportconditions. Exhausted fishes may consume asmuch as 5-10 times their normal requirement(Wardle, 1981; Froese, 1988). The greater acommitment to aerobic respiration, the moreimportant an unimpeded oxygen supply (Wardle,1981). This increasing demand for oxygen isillustrated by adjusted oxygen consumption ratesfor increasingly pelagic elasmobranchs (i.e., 296,395 and 849 mg of O

2 kg-1 h-1 for Sphyrna tiburo,

Carcharhinus acronotus, and Isurus oxyrinchus,respectively) (Parsons, 1990; Graham et al.,1990; Carlson et al., 1999).

The ability of elasmobranch blood to carry oxygento the tissues, as demonstrated in the white shark(Carcharodon carcharias), is determined by: (1)the amount of oxygen transferred across the gills;(2) the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood; and(3) the ability of the circulatory system to deliveroxygen to the tissues (Emery, 1985). Theserestrictions emphasize the importance of a steadysupply of dissolved oxygen, adequate gi l lventilation, and unimpaired systemic circulationto achieve normal metabolic respiration (Butlerand Taylor, 1975; Wardle, 1981; Cliff and Thurman1984; Lai et al., 1990; Smith, 1992).

Dissolved oxygen concentrations of 120-160%saturation have been reported as appropriate forthe transport of elasmobranchs (Thoney, pers.com.). Other workers recommend concentrationsas high as 200% saturation (i.e., 15 mg l-1 at 20°C)(Stoskopf, 1993). It has been suggested thathigher concentrations may cause neurologicaldamage or may be responsible for burning or

Figure 8.2. Rigid vinyl stretcher used to maintain rays in ahorizontal position while handling.

114


oxidizing the gills (Stoskopf, 1993). However otherworkers have supersaturated transport water to30 mg l-1 and observed no apparent adversereactions (Hewitt, pers. com.; Powell, pers. com.).Regardless, caution should be exercised as hyper-oxygenation may depress respiration and reduceoffloading of CO

2 at the gill surface. This process

will induce acidosis, one of the biochemical changesthat oxygenation is intended to reduce.

Ventilation

Water flow across the gills is normally quite high inthe shark. In the dogfish (Squalus acanthias) waterflow across the gills can equal half the body weightof the animal every minute (Murdaugh and Robin,1967). Water movement within the transport tankenhances ventilation and helps reduce anaerobicrespiration by allowing the specimen to takeadvantage of the oxygen-rich environment. Bydirecting currents so they flush across the gills of astationary shark, it is possible to approximate ramventilation (Ballard, 1989; Smith, 1992).

Circulation

When an elasmobranch is prevented from normallocomotion, muscular pumping of blood andlymphatic vessels can be impaired. If restraint is

prolonged, lack of systemic circulation may resultin both anaerobic metabolism and a buildup oftoxic metabolites. Increased concentrations ofmetabolites can be associated with an increasedrigidity progressing forward from the caudal regionalong the length of an animal. Another sign of thiscondition may be a reddening of the skin on theventral surface (Powell, pers. com.). In extremecases the animal can become completelyimmobile and die (Gruber and Keyes, 1981; Cliffand Thurman, 1984; Stoskopf, 1993).

When transport ing non-sedentary elasmo-branchs, in a restrained manner, considerationshould be given to gent ly massaging themusculature by flexing the caudal peduncle andstroking the dorsal surface (Gruber and Keyes,1981; Dunn and Koester, 1990; Powell, pers.com.; Young, pers. com.). Care should beexercised during this operation to repeat theprocess regular ly. Delays may al low theaccumulation of toxic metabolites that could beinadvertently introduced into systemic circulation ina single bolus dose (Smith, 1992; Stoskopf, 1993).

TRANSPORT REGIME

Transport regimes may be grouped into threebasic types: (1) sealed bag and insulated box;(2) free-swimming; and (3) restrained.

Figure 8.3. Sealed bag and insulated box transport regime.

115


Sealed bag and insulated box

One of the simplest means to transportelasmobranchs is using the sealed bag andinsulated box technique (Figure 8.3) (Gruber andKeyes, 1981; Wisner, 1987; Froese, 1988;Stoskopf, 1993; Ross and Ross, 1999). Thisoption is appropriate for small benthic and somesmall demersal species (i.e., < 1 m TL).

The specimen is placed in a large, tough, plasticbag (e.g., 0.25 mm polyethylene) half filled withseawater. The dimensions of the bag should preventthe specimen from turning and getting wedged inan awkward position, or alternatively, be sufficientlylarge that it may swim gently (Gruber and Keyes,1981). Double or triple bagging is preferred as itwill help prevent leaks due to tearing. The upperhalf of the bag is filled with pure oxygen and sealed.The specimen remains in the bottom-half of the bag,covered with water, while the void above is filledwith oxygen. Oxygen slowly diffuses into the waterthroughout the transport. The bagged shark or rayis placed into an insulated box (e.g., Styrofoamicebox) providing thermal isolation and protectionagainst physical and visual stimuli. It is possible toinclude a basic water treatment system in the formof an ammonia scrubber (e.g., Poly-Filter®, Poly-Bio-Marine®, USA) and microwave heat beads or icepacks to maintain an appropriate temperature(Wisner, 1987).

Prepared in this manner a small elasmobranchcan travel for 24-48 hours. An advantage of thistechnique is that specimens can be movedunattended, allowing a greater range of transportoptions and reduced expense.

Free-swimming

The second transport option, used principally forsmaller pelagic elasmobranchs, is the free-swimming technique (Figure 8.4) (Hiruda et al.,1997; Marshall, 1999; Young et al., 2002). Thistechnique consists of a circular, smooth-walled,plastic or fiber-reinforced polyester tank (e.g., 2.5m diameter x 1 m deep) within which theelasmobranchs are free to move. The animals areoften encouraged to swim against a gentle currentgenerated by a 12 Volt submersible pump. Ingeneral, the pump should be capable of movingwater equivalent to the volume of the tank everyhour. In the example detai led above thisrequirement would necessitate a pump capableof moving 5 m3 hour-1 (e.g., Model 02, Rule ITTIndustries, USA). Pumped water is sent to a watertreatment system and returned to the transporttank via a directed line. The transport vehicle maysupply energy for the pump, however, it is wise tohave an independent and portable supply ofenergy (e.g., 12 Volt deep-cycle battery, Model800-S, Optima, USA). This alternative supply

Figure 8.4. Free-swimming transport regime.

116


provides an energy source during transfersbetween vehicles and can be used as a backupin emergencies.

The submersible pump is usually suspended fromthe underside of the transport tank lid, keeping itoff the floor where it could disrupt the swimmingpattern of the specimens. It is possible to have apump mounted externally, with the intake linedraining from the side of the tank. If such is thecase, care must be exercised to ensure the intakeline is flush with the interior wall of the tank andcovered with a large, smooth, protective meshmanifold. This manifold prevents animals frombecoming trapped by the suction of the intake line.Care must be taken to ensure that external pipesand fittings cannot be sheared off in transit.

The water treatment system typically consists ofa canister f i l ter f i l led with mechanical andadsorption media (see below). Once the water isfiltered, it is returned above the surface to facilitategas exchange (i.e., O

2 dissolution and CO

2

liberation) and drive the gentle current. Duringlong transports it may be necessary to useadditional diffusers (i.e., air-stones) to eliminateaccumulated CO

2. Monitoring pH will give an

indicat ion of changes in dissolved CO2

concentration (Thoney, pers. com.). Dissolvedoxygen is increased using bottled O

2, a reliable

regulator, and a diffuser situated in the center ofthe tank (Smith, 1992). Oxygen may be introduceddirectly into the suction line of the submersiblepump for better dissolution (Powell, pers. com.).

The transport tank should be leak-proof but allowventilation for the elimination of excess CO

2.

Ventilation can be achieved with both breather holesand a centrally located access hatch. The hatch maybe opened periodically to flush out CO

2 and to

manipulate equipment or animals as required. Arobust side-mounted inspection window is useful.The entire top of the tank should be strong enoughto withstand the weight of a person and provide agood seal against leaks. The top of the tank shouldbe easy to remove for effective handling ofspecimens on arrival at the final destination.

The free-swimming technique is preferred forthose species that are rel iant on aerobicrespiration, ram ventilation, and muscular-assisted vascular return. When formulating a free-swimming transport regime it is important toconsider: (1) swimming behavior; (2) specimensize; (3) specimen number; (4) tank shape; (5)tank size; and (6) the number of obstructionswithin the tank (Young et al., 2002). These factors

will determine the number of interactions withobstructions or conspecifics, turning frequency, andtherefore energy expenditure. The less encumberedan environment, the lower the consumption of vitalenergy reserves, the lower the production of toxins,and the lower the risk of metabolic shock. Anexample of a transport regime with a good safetymargin would be three 0.5 m TL scallopedhammerheads (Sphyrna lewini), transported for 48hours, in a tank of dimensions 2.5 m diameter x0.65 m deep (Young et al., 2002).

Some workers have found that circular tanks workwell for short-duration, free-swimming transportswhere specimens potentially impacting the walls isof primary concern (Wisner, 1987; Marshall, 1999).However for long-term transports, where biochemicalchanges become increasingly important, thecontinuous turning required to negotiate a circulartank may be too energetically challenging (Powell,pers. com.). It has been equated to the energeticinefficiency of a constantly turning aircraft (Klay,1977; Gruber and Keyes, 1981). It has beensuggested that a larger rectangular tank, allowinganimals to swim normally for short distances andthen opt for discrete turns, will be less energeticallychallenging during long-term transports.

Restrained

Some elasmobranchs are simply too large totransport free-swimming. In such cases it may bepossible to transport them in a restrained manner(Gruber, 1980; Gruber and Keyes, 1981; Hewitt,1984; Ballard, 1989; Andrews and Jones, 1990;Murru, 1990; Smith, 1992). This techniqueconsists of a smooth-walled rectangular plasticor fiber-reinforced polyester transport tank, onlyslightly larger than the specimen to be transported(Figure 8.5). A typical tank size would be 2.5 m x0.5 m x 0.5 m. The dimensions should be suchthat the animal cannot turn easily and lies in thesame position throughout the transport. Theinterior, especial ly the wall in front of thespecimen’s snout, may be padded with a softflexible material (e.g., neoprene). Degassing andwater treatment are performed in a similar mannerto that described for the free-swimming technique.A pump is often employed to drive oxygenatedwater from the rear to the front of the tank, whereit is gently jetted into the mouth of the specimen.This water circulation system is referred to as araceway and is designed to approximate ramventilation. In some cases a custom-designedharness has been employed to maintain theposition of the shark relative to both the tank and

117


Figure 8.5. Restrained transport regime.

water flow (Hewitt, 1984; Andrews and Jones,1990; Jones and Andrews, 1990; Murru, 1990).

Table 8.5 details a list of elasmobranch speciesthat have been transported successfully using thethree techniques described. Quoted durations arenot a guarantee of survival. Capture technique,specimen size, handling technique, and waterquality will all impact the success of the transport.Minimizing transport times should be the ultimategoal of any transport regime.

It is important to note that many workers reportedlimited success transporting the following species:thresher sharks (Alopias spp.), white sharks,mako sharks, porbeagle sharks (Lamna nasus), andblue sharks. Transport of these species should onlybe attempted by very experienced personnel.

WATER TREATMENT

Elasmobranchs cont inual ly excrete wasteproducts that contaminate water in a transporttank. Decreasing water quality may be responsiblefor more losses during transport than any other

factor (Murru, 1990). For a successful transport,water quality must be monitored closely andadjusted where necessary.

Before start ing, transport tanks should bescrubbed thoroughly with seawater. Ensure thatall traces of possible contaminants are removed.Transport water should be clean and preferablyfrom the same source as the specimens to betransported. When transporting animals from astaging facility it is preferable to fast them for 48-72 hours beforehand. Referred to as conditioning,this process reduces water contamination viaregurgitation and defecation in transit (Stoskopf,1993; Sabalones, 1995; Ross and Ross, 1999).Once specimens are loaded and settled into thetransport tank, a comprehensive water exchange(i.e., >75%) is recommended before transportcommences. The water exchange will dilute stress-related metabolites and other contaminants, andgreatly extend the period of time before waterquality starts to decline (James, pers. com.). Iftransporting by boat there may be access to acontinuous supply of fresh seawater; precludingthe need to treat the water further. Land and airtransports, on the other hand, may require a water

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Jam

es; T

hom

as; V

iole

tta; Y

oung

4 -

40G

rube

r an

d K

eyes

, 198

1; A

ndre

ws

and

Jone

s, 1

990;

Cho

rom

ansk

i; T

hom

as; V

iole

tta;

5 -

15M

arte

l Bou

rbon

3 -

48H

iruda

et a

l., 1

997;

Cho

rom

ansk

i; F

arqu

ar; H

enni

ngse

n; K

innu

nen;

Tho

mas

; Vio

letta

2 -

84S

mith

, 199

2; C

horo

man

ski;

Hen

nin g

sen;

Rom

ero;

Tho

mas

; Vio

letta

; Mar

shal

l2

Kin

nune

n16

- 2

4G

rube

r an

d K

e yes

, 198

1; H

ewitt

, 198

57

Kin

nune

n12

- 3

6H

owar

d; T

hom

as; M

arsh

all

40T

hom

as20

- 2

4C

hris

tie; V

iole

tta24

Chr

istie

12 -

36

Hen

nin g

sen;

Tho

mas

; Vio

letta

; You

ng10

- 7

0H

enni

ngse

n; T

hom

as; V

iole

tta; Y

oung

54M

arsh

all

2 (t

)K

innu

nen

26H

iruda

et a

l., 1

997

118


Tab

le 8

.5.

Suc

cess

fully

tran

spor

ted

elas

mob

ranc

hs, s

how

ing

tech

niqu

e an

d du

ratio

n of

tran

spor

t; (j)

refe

rs to

juve

nile

and

(t) r

efer

s to

a to

wed

sea

-cag

e. If

mor

e th

an o

nere

fere

nce

is a

vaila

ble,

dur

atio

ns a

re g

iven

as

a ra

nge

show

ing

min

imum

s an

d m

axim

ums.

All

refe

renc

es w

ere

pers

onal

com

mun

icat

ions

unl

ess

othe

rwis

e in

dica

ted

by a

date

of p

ublic

atio

n.

Sp

ecie

s n

ame

Co

mm

on

nam

eT

ech

niq

ue

Du

rati

on

(h

)

Das

yatis

bre

vis

Whi

ptai

l stin

gray

Fre

e-sw

imm

ing

3D

asya

tis c

entr

oura

Rou

ghta

il st

ingr

ayS

eale

d ba

g an

d bo

x30

Res

trai

ned

28D

asya

tis c

hrys

onot

a

Res

trai

ned

84D

asya

tis m

arm

orat

aM

arbl

ed s

tingr

ayS

eale

d ba

g an

d bo

x20

- 3

0F

ree-

swim

min

g84

Das

yatis

pas

tinac

aC

omm

on s

tingr

ayF

ree-

swim

min

g5

- 21

Das

yatis

vio

lace

aP

elag

ic s

tingr

ayF

ree-

swim

min

g9

(=

Pte

ropl

atyt

rygo

n)

Res

trai

ned

8D

iptu

rus

batis

Ska

teF

ree-

swim

min

g14

Ech

inor

hinu

s co

okei

Pric

kly

shar

kR

estr

aine

d2

Gal

eoce

rdo

cuvi

erT

iger

sha

rkF

ree-

swim

min

g1

- 3

Res

trai

ned

2 -

24G

aleo

rhin

us g

aleu

sT

ope

shar

kF

ree-

swim

min

g6

- 26

Res

trai

ned

2 -

6G

ingl

ymos

tom

a ci

rrat

umN

urse

sha

rkS

eale

d ba

g an

d bo

x24

- 4

8 (j)

Fre

e-sw

imm

ing

12 -

50

Res

trai

ned

1 -

36G

ymnu

ra a

ltave

laS

piny

but

terf

ly r

ayF

ree-

swim

min

g3

Res

trai

ned

5G

ymnu

ra m

icru

raS

moo

th b

utte

rfly

ray

Sea

led

bag

and

box

24F

ree-

swim

min

g7

- 9

Hap

lobl

epha

rus

edw

ards

iiP

uffa

dder

shy

shar

kS

eale

d ba

g an

d bo

x20

- 3

0F

ree-

swim

min

g42

Hap

lobl

epha

rus

fusc

usB

row

n sh

ysha

rkS

eale

d ba

g an

d bo

x30

Fre

e-sw

imm

ing

42H

aplo

blep

haru

s pi

ctus

Dar

k sh

ysha

rkS

eale

d ba

g an

d bo

x20

- 3

0F

ree-

swim

min

g42

Hem

iscy

llium

oce

llatu

mE

paul

ette

sha

rkS

eale

d ba

g an

d bo

x14

- 2

0H

eter

odon

tus

fran

cisc

iH

orn

shar

kS

eale

d ba

g an

d bo

x14

- 3

6F

ree-

swim

min

g48

Het

erod

ontu

s ga

leat

usC

rest

ed b

ullh

ead

shar

kR

estr

aine

d2

- 26

Het

erod

ontu

s ja

poni

cus

Japa

nese

bul

lhea

d sh

ark

Fre

e-sw

imm

ing

56H

eter

odon

tus

port

usja

ckso

niP

ort J

acks

on s

hark

Sea

led

bag

and

box

14 -

38

Fre

e-sw

imm

ing

10R

estr

aine

d26

Hex

anch

us g

riseu

sB

lunt

nose

six

gill

shar

kF

ree-

swim

min

g3

Res

trai

ned

3H

iman

tura

ble

eker

iB

leek

er's

whi

pray

Fre

e-sw

imm

ing

24 -

48

Him

antu

ra fa

iP

ink

whi

pray

Res

trai

ned

56H

iman

tura

ger

rard

iS

harp

nose

stin

gray

Fre

e-sw

imm

ing

24 -

48

Him

antu

ra im

bric

ata

Sca

ly w

hipr

ayF

ree-

swim

min

g24

- 4

8H

iman

tura

sch

mar

dae

Chu

pare

stin

gray

Fre

e-sw

imm

ing

2H

iman

tura

uar

nak

Hon

eyco

mb

stin

gray

Fre

e-sw

imm

ing

24 -

48

Res

trai

ned

10 -

56

Him

antu

ra u

ndul

ata

Leop

ard

whi

pray

Res

trai

ned

56H

ydro

lagu

s co

lliei

Spo

tted

ratfi

shS

eale

d ba

g an

d bo

x12

Fre

e-sw

imm

ing

44

Ref

eren

ce

Tho

mas

You

n gS

tesl

owU

npub

. Res

ults

Far

quar

; Sab

alon

esM

arsh

all

Jam

es; J

anse

Tho

mas

Mar

shal

lJa

mes

O'S

ulliv

anK

innu

nen;

Mar

ín-O

sorn

oG

rube

r an

d K

eyes

, 198

1; B

alla

rd, 1

989;

Chr

istie

; Mar

ín-O

sorn

o; T

hom

asJa

mes

; Tho

mas

Eng

elbr

echt

; How

ard;

Tho

mas

Car

rier;

Vio

letta

; You

ngJa

mes

; Tho

mas

; Vio

letta

; You

ngC

lark

, 196

3; C

hris

tie; M

arín

-Oso

rno;

Tho

mas

; Vio

letta

Hen

nin g

sen

Mar

shal

lY

oung

Hen

ning

sen

Far

quar

; Sab

alon

esM

arsh

all

Sab

alon

esM

arsh

all

Far

quar

; Sab

alon

esM

arsh

all

McE

wan

; Vio

letta

Jam

es; T

hom

as; V

iole

tta; M

arsh

all

Tho

mas

Hiru

da e

t al.,

199

7; K

innu

nen

Mar

shal

lJa

mes

; McE

wan

; Rom

ero

Mar

shal

lH

iruda

et a

l., 1

997

Tho

mas

Eng

elbr

echt

; Tho

mas

McE

wan

Mar

shal

lM

cEw

anM

cEw

anC

hris

tieM

cEw

anM

arsh

all

Mar

shal

lM

arsh

all

Cor

reia

, J. 2

001

119


Tab

le 8

.5 (c

on

tin

ued

). S

ucce

ssfu

lly tr

ansp

orte

d el

asm

obra

nchs

, sho

win

g te

chni

que

and

dura

tion

of tr

ansp

ort;

(j) r

efer

s to

juve

nile

and

(t)

ref

ers

to a

tow

ed s

ea-c

age.

Ifm

ore

than

one

refe

renc

e is

ava

ilabl

e, d

urat

ions

are

giv

en a

s a

rang

e sh

owin

g m

inim

ums

and

max

imum

s. A

ll re

fere

nces

wer

e pe

rson

al c

omm

unic

atio

ns u

nles

s ot

herw

ise

indi

cate

d by

a d

ate

of p

ublic

atio

n.

Sp

ecie

s n

ame

Co

mm

on

nam

eT

ech

niq

ue

Du

rati

on

(h

)

Isur

us o

xyrin

chus

Sho

rtfin

mak

oF

ree-

swim

min

g2

- 7

(j)R

estr

aine

d1.

5M

anta

biro

stris

Gia

nt m

anta

Fre

e-sw

imm

ing

1 -

3M

obul

a m

unki

ana

Mun

k's

devi

l ray

Fre

e-sw

imm

ing

12M

uste

lus

anta

rctic

usG

umm

y sh

ark

Fre

e-sw

imm

ing

8M

uste

lus

aste

rias

Sta

rry

smoo

th-h

ound

Fre

e-sw

imm

ing

10M

uste

lus

calif

orni

cus

Gre

y sm

ooth

-hou

ndS

eale

d ba

g an

d bo

x36

Fre

e-sw

imm

ing

36R

estr

aine

d6

Mus

telu

s he

nlei

Bro

wn

smoo

th-h

ound

Sea

led

bag

and

box

36F

ree-

swim

min

g1

- 36

Mus

telu

s m

uste

lus

Sm

ooth

-hou

ndS

eale

d ba

g an

d bo

x12

Fre

e-sw

imm

ing

10 -

50

Myl

ioba

tis a

quila

Com

mon

eag

le r

ayF

ree-

swim

min

g20

Res

trai

ned

84M

ylio

batis

aus

tral

isA

ustr

alia

n bu

ll ra

yF

ree-

swim

min

g8

Myl

ioba

tis c

alifo

rnic

aB

at e

agle

ray

Sea

led

bag

and

box

30 (

j)F

ree-

swim

min

g1

- 36

Res

trai

ned

3M

ylio

batis

frem

invi

llii

Bul

lnos

e ea

gle

ray

Fre

e-sw

imm

ing

3R

estr

aine

d84

Nar

cine

bra

silie

nsis

Bra

zilia

n el

ectr

ic r

ayS

eale

d ba

g an

d bo

x24

Neb

rius

ferr

ugin

eus

Taw

ny n

urse

sha

rkS

eale

d ba

g an

d bo

x14

Res

trai

ned

56N

egap

rion

acut

iden

sS

ickl

efin

lem

on s

hark

Res

trai

ned

32N

egap

rion

brev

irost

risLe

mon

sha

rkS

eale

d ba

g an

d bo

x14

- 4

8F

ree-

swim

min

g30

- 3

6R

estr

aine

d23

- 3

6N

otor

ynch

us c

eped

ianu

sB

road

nose

sev

engi

ll sh

ark

Fre

e-sw

imm

ing

3 -

5R

estr

aine

d1

- 6

Ore

ctol

obus

mac

ulat

usS

potte

d w

obbe

gong

Sea

led

bag

and

box

24 -

30

Fre

e-sw

imm

ing

8 -

10R

estr

aine

d4

- 26

Ore

ctol

obus

orn

atus

Orn

ate

wob

bego

ngS

eale

d ba

g an

d bo

x18

- 2

4R

estr

aine

d3

- 26

Par

agal

eus

rand

alli

Sle

nder

wea

sel s

hark

F

ree-

swim

min

g24

- 4

8P

astin

achu

s se

phen

Cow

tail

stin

gray

Fre

e-sw

imm

ing

24 -

56

Pla

tyrh

inoi

dis

tris

eria

taT

horn

back

gui

tarf

ish

Fre

e-sw

imm

ing

4P

orod

erm

a af

rican

umS

trip

ed c

atsh

ark

Sea

led

bag

and

box

20 -

30

Fre

e-sw

imm

ing

56P

orod

erm

a pa

nthe

rinum

Leop

ard

cats

hark

Sea

led

bag

and

box

20 -

30

Fre

e-sw

imm

ing

56P

otam

otry

gon

mot

oro

Oce

llate

riv

er s

tingr

ayF

ree-

swim

min

g4

Prio

nace

gla

uca

Blu

e sh

ark

Fre

e-sw

imm

ing

1.5

- 4

(j, t)

Res

trai

ned

3 -

8P

ristis

pec

tinat

aS

mal

ltoot

h sa

wfis

hS

eale

d ba

g an

d bo

x12

Res

trai

ned

12 -

24

Ref

eren

ce

Kin

nune

n; S

tesl

ow; T

hom

asP

owel

lC

hris

tie; M

arín

-Oso

rno

O'S

ulliv

anK

innu

nen

Jans

eT

hom

asT

hom

asE

n gel

brec

htT

hom

asH

owar

d; T

hom

asJa

mes

Jans

e; R

omer

oF

arqu

arM

arsh

all

Kin

nune

nT

hom

asH

owar

d; T

hom

asE

n gel

brec

htH

enni

n gse

nM

arsh

all

You

n gM

cEw

anM

arsh

all

En g

elbr

echt

Hen

nin g

sen;

You

ngT

hom

as; V

iole

ttaG

rube

r an

d K

e yes

, 198

1; H

enni

ngse

n; T

hom

as; Y

oung

Kin

nune

n; T

hom

asE

n gel

brec

ht; H

owar

dC

hris

tie; R

omer

oK

innu

nen;

Mar

shal

lH

iruda

et a

l., 1

997;

Mar

shal

lC

hris

tie; V

iole

ttaH

iruda

et a

l., 1

997;

Kin

nune

nM

cEw

anM

cEw

an; M

arsh

all

Tho

mas

Far

quar

; Sab

alon

esM

arsh

all

Far

quar

; Sab

alon

esM

arsh

all

Jans

eK

innu

nen;

Tho

mas

How

ard;

Pow

ell;

Ste

slow

; Tho

mas

Chr

istie

; Hen

nin g

sen

Chr

istie

; En g

elbr

echt

; Hen

ning

sen;

Vio

letta

120


Tab

le 8

.5 (c

on

tin

ued

). S

ucce

ssfu

lly tr

ansp

orte

d el

asm

obra

nchs

, sho

win

g te

chni

que

and

dura

tion

of tr

ansp

ort;

(j) r

efer

s to

juve

nile

and

(t)

ref

ers

to a

tow

ed s

ea-c

age.

Ifm

ore

than

one

refe

renc

e is

ava

ilabl

e, d

urat

ions

are

giv

en a

s a

rang

e sh

owin

g m

inim

ums

and

max

imum

s. A

ll re

fere

nces

wer

e pe

rson

al c

omm

unic

atio

ns u

nles

s ot

herw

ise

indi

cate

d by

a d

ate

of p

ublic

atio

n.

Sp

ecie

s n

ame

Co

mm

on

nam

eT

ech

niq

ue

Du

rati

on

(h

)

Pris

tis p

ristis

Com

mon

saw

fish

Res

trai

ned

32R

aja

bino

cula

taB

ig s

kate

Sea

led

bag

and

box

12 (

j)F

ree-

swim

min

g1

- 5

Res

trai

ned

6R

aja

clav

ata

Tho

rnba

ck r

ayS

eale

d ba

g an

d bo

x24

Fre

e-sw

imm

ing

10R

aja

egla

nter

iaC

lear

nose

ska

teS

eale

d ba

g an

d bo

x30

Raj

a rh

ina

Long

nose

ska

teF

ree-

swim

min

g3

- 16

Raj

a st

ellu

lata

Sta

rry

skat

eF

ree-

swim

min

g3

- 15

Raj

a un

dula

taU

ndul

ate

ray

Fre

e-sw

imm

ing

8R

hina

anc

ylos

tom

aB

owm

outh

gui

tarf

ish

Res

trai

ned

5R

hinc

odon

typu

sW

hale

sha

rkR

estr

aine

d2

Rhi

noba

tos

annu

latu

sLe

sser

san

dsha

rkS

eale

d ba

g an

d bo

x20

- 3

0F

ree-

swim

min

g42

Rhi

noba

tos

gran

ulat

usS

harp

nose

gui

tarf

ish

Fre

e-sw

imm

ing

24 -

48

Rhi

noba

tos

lent

igin

osus

Atla

ntic

gui

tarf

ish

Sea

led

bag

and

box

6 -

30R

hino

bato

s pr

oduc

tus

Sho

veln

ose

guita

rfis

hF

ree-

swim

min

g36

Rhi

noba

tos

typu

sG

iant

sho

veln

ose

ray

Res

trai

ned

56R

hino

pter

a bo

nasu

sC

owno

se r

ayS

eale

d ba

g an

d bo

x6

- 60

Fre

e-sw

imm

ing

12 -

76

Rhi

zopr

iono

don

terr

aeno

vae

Atla

ntic

sha

rpno

se s

hark

Sea

led

bag

and

box

10F

ree-

swim

min

g3

- 30

(j)

Res

trai

ned

6 -

8R

hync

hoba

tus

djid

dens

isG

iant

gui

tarf

ish

Res

trai

ned

2 -

42S

cylio

rhin

us c

anic

ula

Sm

alls

potte

d ca

tsha

rkS

eale

d ba

g an

d bo

x3

- 25

(j)

Fre

e-sw

imm

ing

26S

cylio

rhin

us r

etife

rC

hain

cat

shar

kS

eale

d ba

g an

d bo

x18

Scy

liorh

inus

ste

llaris

Nur

seho

und

Sea

led

bag

and

box

10 -

24

Fre

e-sw

imm

ing

3 -

26S

omni

osus

pac

ificu

sP

acifi

c sl

eepe

r sh

ark

Fre

e-sw

imm

ing

5S

phyr

na le

win

iS

callo

ped

ham

mer

head

Fre

e-sw

imm

ing

6 -

60 (

j)S

phyr

na m

okar

ran

Gre

at h

amm

erhe

adF

ree-

swim

min

g12

- 2

1S

phyr

na ti

buro

Bon

neth

ead

Sea

led

bag

and

box

8 -

48 (

j)F

ree-

swim

min

g8

- 76

Sph

yrna

zyg

aena

Sm

ooth

ham

mer

head

Fre

e-sw

imm

ing

8 (t

)S

qual

us a

cant

hias

Spi

ny d

ogfis

hF

ree-

swim

min

g1

- 36

Res

trai

ned

1 -

6S

quat

ina

aust

ralis

Aus

tral

ian

ange

lsha

rkR

estr

aine

d3.

5S

quat

ina

calif

orni

caP

acifi

c an

gels

hark

Fre

e-sw

imm

ing

4R

estr

aine

d6

Squ

atin

a du

mer

ilS

and

devi

lR

estr

aine

d0.

5 -

1S

quat

ina

squa

tina

Ang

elsh

ark

Sea

led

bag

and

box

17S

tego

stom

a fa

scia

tum

Zeb

ra s

hark

Sea

led

bag

and

box

14 -

24

Fre

e-sw

imm

ing

8 -

20R

estr

aine

d6

- 56

Tae

niur

a ly

mm

aB

lues

potte

d rib

bont

ail r

ayS

eale

d ba

g an

d bo

x14

- 2

4R

estr

aine

d56

Ref

eren

ce

Rom

ero

How

ard

How

ard;

Tho

mas

En g

elbr

echt

Mar

shal

lJa

nse

You

n gH

owar

d; T

hom

asH

owar

d; T

hom

asM

arsh

all

Sm

ith, 1

992

Kin

nune

nF

arqu

ar; S

abal

ones

Mar

shal

lM

cEw

anC

hris

tie; Y

oun g

Tho

mas

Mar

shal

lC

hris

tie; V

iole

tta; Y

oun g

Hen

ning

sen;

You

ngH

enni

ngse

nC

hris

tie; H

enni

n gse

n; V

iole

ttaS

tesl

owK

innu

nen;

Un p

ub. R

esul

tsJa

mes

; Jan

se; M

arsh

all

Jam

esM

arsh

all

Jam

es; M

arsh

all

Jam

es; J

anse

Tho

mas

Ara

i, 19

97; Y

oun g

, 200

2; T

hom

as; V

iole

ttaC

hris

tie; Y

oun g

Chr

istie

; Jam

es; T

hom

as; V

iole

tta; Y

oung

Chr

istie

; Jam

es; H

enni

ngse

n; T

hom

as; V

iole

tta; Y

oung

Kin

nune

nH

owar

d; J

ames

; Tho

mas

En g

elbr

echt

; How

ard

Kin

nune

nH

owar

dE

n gel

brec

htM

arín

-Oso

rno

Rom

ero

Chr

istie

; McE

wan

; Vio

letta

Kin

nune

n; R

omer

o; V

iole

ttaS

mith

, 199

2; H

iruda

et a

l., 1

997;

Mar

shal

lM

cEw

an; M

arsh

all

Mar

shal

l

121


Tab

le 8

.5 (c

on

tin

ued

). S

ucce

ssfu

lly tr

ansp

orte

d el

asm

obra

nchs

, sho

win

g te

chni

que

and

dura

tion

of tr

ansp

ort;

(j) r

efer

s to

juve

nile

and

(t)

ref

ers

to a

tow

ed s

ea-c

age.

Ifm

ore

than

one

refe

renc

e is

ava

ilabl

e, d

urat

ions

are

giv

en a

s a

rang

e sh

owin

g m

inim

ums

and

max

imum

s. A

ll re

fere

nces

wer

e pe

rson

al c

omm

unic

atio

ns u

nles

s ot

herw

ise

indi

cate

d by

a d

ate

of p

ublic

atio

n.

Sp

ecie

s na

me

Co

mm

on

nam

eT

ech

niq

ue

Du

rati

on (

h)

Tae

niur

a m

eyen

iB

lotc

hed

fant

ail r

ayR

estr

aine

d56

Tor

pedo

cal

iforn

ica

Pac

ific

elec

tric

ray

Fre

e-sw

imm

ing

2 -

6T

orpe

do m

arm

orat

aM

arbl

ed e

lect

ric r

ayF

ree-

swim

min

g8

Tor

pedo

nob

ilian

aE

lect

ric r

ayF

ree-

swim

min

g18

Tor

pedo

pan

ther

aP

anth

er e

lect

ric r

ayF

ree-

swim

min

g24

- 4

8T

riaen

odon

obe

sus

Whi

tetip

ree

f sha

rkS

eale

d ba

g an

d bo

x10

- 1

8 (j)

Fre

e-sw

imm

ing

7 -

34R

estr

aine

d26

- 5

6T

riaki

s m

egal

opte

rus

Sha

rpto

oth

houn

dsha

rkF

ree-

swim

min

g20

- 3

0R

estr

aine

d84

Tria

kis

sem

ifasc

iata

Leop

ard

shar

kS

eale

d ba

g an

d bo

x24

- 3

6 (j)

Fre

e-sw

imm

ing

1 -

48R

estr

aine

d6

Try

gono

rrhi

na f

asci

ata

Sou

ther

n fid

dler

Sea

led

bag

and

box

3 -

10F

ree-

swim

min

g10

Res

trai

ned

26U

rolo

phus

hal

leri

Hal

ler's

rou

nd r

ayS

eale

d ba

g an

d bo

x24

- 3

6F

ree-

swim

min

g36

Uro

batis

jam

aice

nsis

Yel

low

stin

gray

Sea

led

bag

and

box

24 -

48

Fre

e-sw

imm

ing

1 -

36U

rolo

phus

suf

flavu

sY

ello

wba

ck s

tinga

ree

Res

trai

ned

26

Ref

eren

ce

Mar

shal

lH

owar

dM

arsh

all

Jans

eM

cEw

anH

enni

n gse

n; M

cEw

an; V

iole

ttaB

arth

elem

y; M

arsh

all

Hiru

da e

t al.,

199

7; M

arsh

all

Far

quar

; Sab

alon

esM

arsh

all

Car

rier;

Tho

mas

; Mar

shal

lH

owar

d; J

ames

; Tho

mas

En g

elbr

echt

Kin

nune

n; M

arsh

all

Mar

shal

lH

iruda

et a

l., 1

997

Tho

mas

; You

n gT

hom

asT

hom

as; V

iole

tta; Y

oung

; Mar

shal

lC

hris

tie; T

hom

asH

iruda

et a

l., 1

997

122


Tab

le 8

.5 (c

on

tin

ued

). S

ucce

ssfu

lly tr

ansp

orte

d el

asm

obra

nchs

, sho

win

g te

chni

que

and

dura

tion

of tr

ansp

ort;

(j) r

efer

s to

juve

nile

and

(t)

ref

ers

to a

tow

ed s

ea-c

age.

Ifm

ore

than

one

refe

renc

e is

ava

ilabl

e, d

urat

ions

are

giv

en a

s a

rang

e sh

owin

g m

inim

ums

and

max

imum

s. A

ll re

fere

nces

wer

e pe

rson

al c

omm

unic

atio

ns u

nles

s ot

herw

ise

indi

cate

d by

a d

ate

of p

ublic

atio

n.

123


treatment system. Throughout any transportcritical water parameters to monitor and controlinclude: (1) oxygen (described above); (2)temperature; (3) particulates and organics; (4) pH;and (5) nitrogenous wastes.

Temperature

When elasmobranchs go from a warmer to coolerenvironment they suffer a short-term thermal shockthat can result in respiratory depression. Conversely,an increased temperature can promote andexacerbate hyperactivity (Stoskopf, 1993, Ross andRoss, 1999). Reducing temperature differentials atthe source, in transit, and at the final destination,will increase the chances of a successful transport(Andrews and Jones, 1990; Stoskopf, 1993).Transport tanks should be well-insulated, and asmuch as possible, temperature-controlled environ-ments should be used (e.g., air conditioned vehicles,covered airport hangars, etc.). In extreme caseswater exchanges, bagged ice, bagged hot water, andheat beads may be used to minimize temperaturechanges depending on prevailing trends.

Particulates and organics

Particulate and dissolved organo-carboncompounds, or organics, are excreted byelasmobranchs during transport. In particular skatesand rays produce copious amounts of aproteinaceous slimes when subjected to stress.Particulates, or suspended solids, will irritate thegills, reduce water clarity, and cause distress tospecimens being transported (Ross and Ross,1999). Dissolved organics will tend to reduce pH,increase ammonia (NH

3) concentration, and

consume O2. The concentration of both particulates

and organics should therefore be minimized duringtransport. Dilution of particulates and organics canbe achieved by water exchanges, mechanicalfiltration, adsorption or chemical filtration, and foamfractionation (Gruber and Keyes, 1981; Stoskopf,1993; Dehart, pers. com.).

Mechanical filtration usually takes the form of acanister filter containing appropriate media (e.g.,pleated paper, filter wool, etc.). Filtration may beenhanced by the addition of an adsorption orchemical filtration medium such as activatedcarbon (e.g., Professional Grade ActivatedCarbon, Aquarium Pharmaceuticals Inc, USA) orother chemical filter (e.g., Eco-lyte™, MescoAquatic Products, USA) (Marshall, 1999). Eco-lyte™ is particularly effective (i.e., ~100 times as

effective as activated carbon) at removingdissolved organics (Gruber and Keyes, 1981). AsEco-lyte™ is an adsorption medium it will be moreeffective if preceded by a mechanical filter. Whenusing Eco-lyte™ it should be borne in mind that itwill remove medications from the water (e.g., anti-stress agents, anesthetics, etc.). Always pre-washa medium before packing a filter. For long transportsit is beneficial to completely replace the medium, intransit, once it has become heavily contaminated.

pH

Continued excretion of dissolved CO2 and H+ will

drive pH in a transport tank down (i.e., the waterwill become more acidic). Efforts should be madeto resist this trend and pH should be maintainedat a level of 7.8-8.2 (Murru, 1990). One importantway to counter pH decline is the continuousremoval of CO

2 from transport water by de-

gassing. Degassing is achieved by spraying re-circulated water into the tank and agitating thesurface, or alternatively, bubbling the watersurface with a diffuser. Air ventilation is criticalduring this process as it will carry away liberatedCO

2 gas (Young et al., 2002).

Both sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) and sodium

carbonate (Na2CO

3) have been added to transport

water to successfully resist decreasing pH (Cliff andThurman, 1984; Murru, 1990; Smith, 1992). A moreefficient buffer is tris-hydroxymethyl aminomethane(e.g., Tris-amino®, Angus Chemical, USA). Thiscompound is more effective within the expected pHrange (i.e. 7.5-8.5) and is able to increase the acid-absorbing capacity of seawater by up to 50 times(McFarlane and Norris, 1958; Murru, 1990). It isimportant to remember that increased pH results inan increased proportion of the toxic form of ammoniaaccording to the reaction given in Equation 8.2. Anycorrective therapy applied to the pH of the watermust therefore be coupled with the removal ofexcess ammonia (Ross and Ross, 1999).

Nitrogenous wastes (NH3 / NH4+)

Ammonia constitutes approximately 70% of thenitrogenous wastes excreted by aquaticorganisms (Ross and Ross, 1999). Some delicate

Equation 8.2

NH4+ + OH- NH3 + H20

Ammonium Hydroxide Ammonia Waterion ion

→←

elasmobranchs are particularly nutrient-sensitiveand ammonia concentrations should never beallowed to exceed 1.0 mg l-1. The removal ofammonia from a transport tank should thereforebe one of the principal objectives of any watertreatment system. Ammonia can be removedsuccessfully using periodic 50% water exchangesand the application of adsorption media (seeabove). Pre-matured biological filters may beemployed if ammonia production levels duringtransport can be calculated and simulatedbeforehand (e.g., with ammonium chloride)(Dehart, pers. com.). Another option is to use anammonia sponge such as sodium hydroxy-methanesulfonate (e.g., AmQuel®, Novalek Inc.,USA) (Visser, 1996; Young et al., 2002). AmQuel®

inactivates ammonia according to the reactiongiven in Equation 8.3. The substance formed isstable and non-toxic, and wil l not releaseammonia back into the water. It should be notedthat this reaction will lower pH so the addition ofAmQuel® should be accompanied by the carefulapplication of a buffer as discussed above.Following the application of AmQuel®, onlysalicylate-based ammonia tests will yield accurateresults.

Zeol i te (e.g., Ammo-Rocks®, AquariumPharmaceuticals Ltd., USA), an ion-exchangeresin used for the removal of nitrogenous wastesin freshwater systems, does not work well inseawater because the ammonia molecule issimilar in size to the sodium ion. At a salinity of36 ppt there is a 95% reduction in zeolite’s abilityto remove ammonia from the water—although itsability to remove organic dyes remains unchanged(Noga, 1996).

ANESTHESIA

The mechanics of anesthesia, appropriate sedativesfor elasmobranchs, and corresponding dosage rateswill be covered in Chapter 21 of this manual. We willtherefore focus only on specific examples as theyrelate to elasmobranch transport.

Anesthesia may be valuable during specifictransports as it can minimize handling times,reduce physical injury, slow metabolic rate andO

2 consumption, and reduce the production of

metabolic wastes (Ross and Ross, 1999). Ifanesthesia is used, respiratory and cardiovasculardepression becomes a risk and must be avoided(Tyler and Hawkins 1981; Dunn and Koester,1990; Smith, 1992). Reduction of a specimen’smetabolism by chemical immobilization willconstitute a poor trade-off if circulation becomesso weakened that O

2 uptake and metabolite

effusion at the gill surface are impaired (Smith,1992). Additionally, the wide inter-specific diversityof elasmobranchs can make it difficult to predictdosage rates and possible sensitivity reactionsto immobilizing agents (Vogelnest et al., 1994).Consequently anesthesia may be warranted inspecific cases but is not advocated for generaluse during elasmobranch transports.

If anesthesia is used it will be more valuable iftransport does not begin until the drug has takenits full effect and specimen stability has beenassured (Smith, 1992). If defense reactions arenot fully moderated the animal could respond toexternal stimuli and physically injure itself orpersonnel. Aggressive emergence reactionsshould be avoided for the same reasons so visual,auditory, and pressure st imul i should beminimized during recovery (Smith, 1992). Somemeans to adequately monitor depth of anesthesiamust be employed throughout the transport sothat corrective measures can be undertakenshould system deterioration be observed (Dunnand Koester, 1990).

Inhalation anesthesia

A popular method of inducing anesthesia in smallsharks is by immersing them in water containingan anesthetic agent. The thin gill membranes actas the site of adsorption and the anestheticpasses directly into arterial blood (Oswald, 1977;Stoskopf, 1986). It is possible to control the depthof anesthesia by adjusting the concentration ofdrug in the water. Immersion, or inhalation,anesthesia is often impractical for large sharksso a modification of the technique, irrigationanesthesia, may be used as an alternative.Irrigation anesthesia is achieved by spraying aconcentrated solution of the anesthetic over thegills using a plastic laboratory wash bottle orpressurized mister. This system yields a rapid

124


Equation 8.3

NH3 + HOCH2SO3- H2NCH2SO3

- + H20

Ammonia AmQuel Aminomethanesulfonate Water

→←

125


induction but there is a risk of overdose and it canresult in delayed recovery (Tyler and Hawkins, 1981).

Some filtration media (e.g., ion-exchange resinsand activated carbon) may remove drugs usedfor inhalation anesthesia. Inhalation anesthesiacannot be employed in aquariums wherecontamination of the water is a consideration(Stoskopf, 1986).

A popular inhalation anesthetic for elasmobranchsis tricaine methanesulfonate or MS-222 (Finquel®,Argent Laboratories, USA) (Gilbert and Wood,1957; Clark, 1963; Gilbert and Douglas, 1963;Gruber, 1980; Gruber and Keyes, 1981; Tyler andHawkins, 1981; Stoskopf, 1986; Dunn andKoester, 1990). Unfortunately dosage rates fortransport purposes are not well documented.Stoskopf (1993) has suggested an immersioninduction dose of 100 mg l-1 MS-222 for the long-term anesthesia of small sharks; with an expectedinduction time of 15 minutes. For the transport offishes in general, Ross and Ross (1999) advocatea lower immersion induction dose of 50 mg l-1

followed by a maintenance dosage of 10 mg l-1.Brittsan (pers. com.) successfully restrained andtransported two blacktip reef sharks (Carcharhinusmelanopterus) for 24 hours using an induction doseof 48 mg l-1 MS-222. Initial induction time wasapproximately two minutes and both animals weretransferred to the transport tanks within eightminutes. A maintenance dose was consideredunnecessary and was not applied.

Injection anesthesia

Inject ion anesthesia may be administeredintravenously (IV), intraperitonealy (IP), andintramuscularly (IM). IV injections result in a quickonset of anesthesia but can only be administeredto restrained animals, allowing accurate locationof appropriate blood vessels. IP administeredsedatives must pass through the intestinal wallor associated membranes so induction time isoften delayed. IM injections can be administeredto slow-swimming sharks without previousrestraint and induction time is usually quite fast.It is possible to administer IM injections to activeelasmobranchs with pole syringes or similarremote-injection devices. A convenient site for IMinjection is an area of musculature surroundingthe first dorsal fin, referred to as the dorsal saddle(Stoskopf, 1993).

The tough nature of shark skin and denticlesrequires the use of a heavy-gauge needle to

penetrate through to a blood vessel, body cavityor musculature (Stoskopf, 1986). The use ofheavy-gauge needles may present problems asshark skin is not very elastic and drugs may leakfrom the inject ion site. I f possible, gentlymassaging the injection site can reduce leakage.When using any form of injection anesthetic it maybe difficult to control depth of anesthesia becauseonce the drug has been introduced into systemiccirculation it is not easily reversed. In addition,recovery from a heavy dose of an injectedanesthetic may be prolonged if the drug is slowlyreleased from non-nervous tissue.

Sedation is defined as a preliminary level ofanesthesia where response to stimulation isreduced and some analgesia is evident (Ross andRoss, 1999). Sedation may be useful i f aspecimen is likely to struggle excessively duringthe initial stages of capture and preparation fortransport. The sooner a specimen becomesquiescent the better the chances of its long-termsurvival (Dunn and Koester, 1990). One of theauthors (Smith) has used Diazepam (Valium®, F.Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd, Switzerland)successful ly at 0.1 mg kg-1 IM to mit igatehyperactivity in sand tiger sharks for short periods.Visser (1996) applied 5.0 mg of Diazepam to a1.8 m sand tiger shark prior to transferring theanimal from the site of capture to a staging facility.Within minutes of application the shark wassedated and could be handled safely for a periodof approximately one hour.

A combinat ion of ketamine hydrochlor ide(Ketalar®, Parke-Davis, USA) and xylazinehydrochloride (Rompun®, Bayer AG, Germany)has been used successfully to deeply anesthetizelarge elasmobranchs, for long periods, whenadministered IM (Oswald, 1977; Stoskopf, 1986;Andrews and Jones, 1990; Jones and Andrews,1990; Smith, 1992). Stoskopf (1993) suggests theuse of 12.0 mg kg-1 ketamine hydrochloride and 6.0mg kg-1 xylazine hydrochloride for anesthetizinglarge sharks. Stoskopf (1986) further recommendsusing higher doses for more active sharks, suchas the sandbar shark (Carcharhinus plumbeus)(i.e., 16.5 mg kg-1 and 7.5 mg kg-1, respectively),and lower dosage rates for less active sharks likethe sand tiger (i.e., 8.25 mg kg-1 and 4.1 mg kg-1,respectively). The expected induction time atthese dosage rates is ~8-10 minutes. Andrewsand Jones (1990) successfully used 16.5 mg kg-1

ketamine hydrochloride and 7.5 mg kg-1 xylazinehydrochloride IM to anesthetize sandbar sharksfor transport purposes. Similarly the sand tigershark, bull shark, zebra shark (Stegostoma

126


fasciatum), and bowmouth guitarfish (Rhinaancylostoma) have been anesthetized andtransported using a combination of 15.0 mg kg-1

ketamine hydrochloride and 6.0 mg kg-1 xylazinehydrochloride IM, in conjunction with 0.125 mgkg-1 IM of the antagonist yohimbine hydrochloride(Antagonil®, Wildlife Pharmaceuticals Inc, USA)at the conclusion of the operation (Smith, 1992).Visser (1996) has anesthetized two 1.8 m sandtiger sharks, for transport purposes, using 900 mgketamine hydrochloride and 360 mg xylazinehydrochloride IM.

CORRECTIVE THERAPY

If a transport is extensive in duration, or precededby specimen hyperactivity, an elasmobranch willconsume a lot of its stored energy reserves. Byadminister ing glucose direct ly into thebloodstream it is possible to compensate for adrop in blood-glucose concentrat ions anddecrease the need to mobilize valuable glycogenstores from the liver. Reduced mobilization ofglycogen is particularly important if hyperactivityhas proceeded to such an extent thatglucocorticoids are depleted or blood-glucosereserves are nearing exhaustion (Smith, 1992).

Although elasmobranchs have a limited ability tobuffer their blood, it has been observed that theyare able to absorb bicarbonate (HCO

3-) directly from

the surrounding environment to help counteractacidosis (Murdaugh and Robin, 1967; Holeton andHeisler, 1978). This ability suggests an avenue fortherapy directed at alleviating acid-base disruptionin an acidotic elasmobranch: specifically, directadministration of HCO

3- into the bloodstream (Cliff

and Thurman, 1984). Acetate has been suggestedas an effective alternative to bicarbonate (Hewitt,1984), although there is some concern that acetatedegradation may be more noxious than bicarbonatedissociation (Young, pers. com.). Nevertheless, anacetate-bicarbonate combination has been usedsuccessfully to revive a prostrated blacktip reefshark by injecting the mix directly into thebloodstream (Hewitt, pers. com.).

In practice, a corrective therapy for hypoglycemiaand acidosis can be prepared by adding HCO

3-

or CO3

2- (carbonate) to an IV drip-bag of glucoseor dextrose (e.g., 100 ml of 8.4% NaHCO

3 mixed

in a 1.0 l IV drip-bag of 5% glucose in saline).The resulting mixture is introduced into thespecimen via an IV drip line and heavy-gaugecatheter. The preferred si te for therapy

administration is the large dorsal blood sinus justunder the skin and posterior to the first dorsal fin.This site allows the position of the catheter to bemonitored closely (Murru 1990). If this bloodvessel resists penetration, it is possible to use acaudal blood vessel just posterior to the anal finor even to introduce the catheter IP. IV will bemore effective than IP in the case of bradycardia(cardiac depression). Approximately 500 ml of thecorrective therapy should be administered to a100 kg shark every hour (i.e., 5 ml kg-1 h-1). Thisdosage may be increased if the decline in bloodpH is known to be profound (Smith, 1992).

Many workers have produced variations on thistherapeutic recipe to make it less physiologicallychallenging to target elasmobranchs (Table 8.6).In some cases, urea has been added to equilibratethe osmotic pressure of the mixture with that of sharkplasma (Murru, 1990; Andrews and Jones, 1990).This area of corrective therapy would benefit greatlyfrom some structured research.

MONITORING

When transporting delicate species, or using anelaborate transport regime, it is important tofrequently check specimen and equipment status(Cliff and Thurman, 1984; Smith, 1992; Ross andRoss, 1999). Many important factors should beverified and have been summarized in Table 8.7.If a problem is observed, corrective measuresshould be undertaken immediately. Tanks shouldbe packed so that windows, access hatches, andcritical equipment (e.g., valves, gauges, tools,etc.) are all easily accessible. Testing equipmentto measure critical water parameters should becarried and used.

It is important to monitor venti lat ion rate.Ventilation and cardiac rates are functionallylinked in many fishes and may be neurologicallysynchronized (Ross and Ross, 1999). Gilbert andWood (1957) observed that heartbeat wassynchronous with ventilation rate in anesthetizedlemon sharks. Skin color should be monitored asit may be used to loosely assess biochemicalimpact on a specimen; increasing loss of skincolor equating to an increased biochemicalchange (Cliff and Thurman, 1984; Smith, 1992).Stoskopf (1993) observed that hypo-oxygenationcould cause sharks to turn blotchy and increasetheir respiration rate, while hyper-oxygenationcaused them to become pale and occasionallycease ventilation altogether (Stoskopf, 1993).

127


Tab

le 8

.6.

Cor

rect

ive

ther

apie

s ap

plie

d to

hyp

ogly

cem

ic a

nd a

cido

tic e

lasm

obra

nchs

dur

ing

tran

spor

tatio

n sh

owin

g fo

rmul

atio

ns,

dosa

ge r

ates

for

adul

t sp

ecim

ens,

mod

e of

adm

inis

trat

ion,

and

spe

cies

tre

ated

.

Hew

itt,

198

4B

alla

rd, 1

989

Mu

rru

, 199

0A

nd

rew

s an

d J

on

es, 1

990

Sm

ith

, 199

2V

isse

r, 1

996

Dex

tros

e25

.0 g

l-1 (

2.5%

)D

extr

ose

? aD

extr

ose

20.0

g l-1

(2.

0%)

Glu

cose

1.00

g l-1

Glu

cose

50.0

g l-1

(5.

0%)

Glu

cose

50.0

g l-1

(5.

0%)

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ACCLIMATIZATION AND RECOVERY

At the termination of a transport specimens shouldbe acclimatized to local water parameters byslowly replacing the water in the transport tankwith water from the quarantine facility (referChapter 11 for more information about specimenacclimatization). If the elasmobranch appears tobe healthy, prophylactic treatments (e.g., anti-helminthic baths, antibiotic injections, etc.) maybe appl ied (Mohan, pers. com.). Seriousabrasions, punctures, or lacerations should beevaluated and may require the application of anantibacterial agent or possibly sutures (Murru,1990). Handling should be kept to a minimum andexcess external stimuli avoided.

Reversal of immobil iz ing drugs should becoincident with specimen release. Once aspecimen starts to swim normally, muscle tissuewill be flushed with fresh, oxygenated blood. Thisprocess wi l l cause metabol ic by-productssequestered in the tissues and extra-cellularspaces to move into circulat ion. Highconcentrations of toxins may enter delicate organsand possibly compromise recovery (Cliff andThurman, 1984). In addition, immobilizing drugsmay be flushed into the bloodstream and renewtheir paralyzing effects. During this period theanimal may be disorientated and exhibit defenseresponses to external stimuli (Gruber and Keyes1981; Smith, 1992).

When released, some pelagic and demersalelasmobranchs will lie on the bottom of theaquarium. Walking while holding the shark in thewater column, flexing its caudal peduncle, and

stroking i ts dorsal surface have al l beenrecommended as techniques to increaseventilation, assist venous return, and facilitaterecovery (Clark, 1963; Gruber and Keyes, 1981).These techniques require excess handling anddo not simulate normal swimming behavior. Inaddit ion, these techniques may actual lycompound the effects of hyperactivity andprematurely flush systemic circulation with highconcentrations of toxic metabolites. As long asan elasmobranch is venti lating voluntari ly,allowing it to lie in a current of oxygen-richseawater avoids these complications (Hewitt,1984; Smith, 1992; Stoskopf, 1993).

It is preferable to allow specimens to recover inan isolated and unobstructed tank. Once arecovering elasmobranch is swimming freely it isimportant that a program of post-transportobservation be implemented. Feeding the animalwithin 24 hours of transport is not recommended(Smith, 1992). If a suitable isolation facility isavailable, a comprehensive quarantine regimeshould be seriously considered before thespecimen is introduced into the destination exhibit(Andrews, pers. com.).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The following individuals made valuablesuggestions to improve the contents of this chapter:Jackson Andrews, Geremy Cliff, Heidi Dewar, JohnHewitt, Frank McHugh, Pete Mohan, Dave Powell,Juan Sabalones, Dennis Thoney, Marty Wisner, andForrest Young. I would like to thank the staff of theOceanário de Lisboa, and International Design for

128


1.1 Ataxia (uncoordinated movements) or disorientation.1.2 Partial or total loss of equilibrium.1.3 Tachy-ventilation or brady-ventilation (i.e. increased or decreased gill ventilation rates).1.4 Changes in muscle tone.1.5 Changes in shade and homogeneity of skin color.1.6 Possible physical injury.

2.1 Bubbles emerging from oxygen diffuser.2.2 Uninterrupted power supply and power supply not overheating.2.3 Pump operating correctly and not overheating.2.4 Water flow constant and correctly orientated.2.5 Water level stable with no appreciable leakages.2.6 Water clear and uncontaminated.2.7 Water quality parameters within acceptable limits.

Table 8.7. Important factors to monitor throughout an elasmobranch transport. Should any of these factorsrepresent a progressive problem corrective measures should be undertaken immediately.

Equipment

Specimens

the Environment and Associates, all of whomallowed me valuable time to work on theelasmobranch husbandry manual project.

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Marshall, A. 1999. Transportation of pelagic fishes. Memoiresde l’Institut Océanographique Paul Ricard, 1999: 115-121.

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Young, F. A., D. C. Powell, and R. Lerner. 2001. Thetransportation of l ive si lky sharks (Carcharhinusfalciformis) on standard palletized aircraft cargo positionsfor long distance and time period transports. Drum andCroaker 32: 5-7.

PERSONAL COMMUNICATIONS

Andrews, J. 2002. Tennessee Aquarium, Chattanooga, TN37402, USA.

Barthelemy, D. 2001. Océanopolis, Brest, F-29275, France.Brittsan, M. 2002. Columbus Zoo and Aquarium, Powell, OH

43065, USA.Carrier, J. 2001. Albion College, Albion, MI 49224 -5011, USA.Choromanski, J. 2001. Ripley Aquariums, Inc., Orlando, FL

32819, USA.Christie, N. 2001. Atlantis Resort, Ft. Lauderdale, FL 33304, USA.Dehart, A. 2001. National Aquarium in Baltimore, Baltimore,

MD 21202, USA.Ezcurra, M. 2001. Monterey Bay Aquarium, Monterey, CA

93940, USA.Farquar, M. 2001. Two Oceans Aquarium, Waterfront, Cape

Town, 8002, South Africa.Henningsen, A. 2001. National Aquarium in Baltimore,

Baltimore, MD 21202, USA.Hewitt, J. 2000. Aquarium of the Americas, New Orleans, LA

70130, USA.Howard, M. 2001. Aquarium of the Bay, San Francisco, CA

94133, USA.James, R. 2001. Sea Life Centres, Dorset, DT4 7SX, UK.Janse, M. 2001. Burger ’s Ocean, Arnhem, 6816 SH,

Netherlands.

130



Kinnunen, N. 2001. Sydney Aquarium, Darling Harbor, Sydney,2001, Australia.

Marín-Osorno, R. 2001. Acuario de Veracruz, Veracruz, CP91170, Mexico.

Martel Bourbon, H. 2001. New England Aquarium, Boston,MA 02110, USA.

McEwan, T. 2001. The Scientific Centre, Salmiya, 22036,Kuwait.

McHugh, F. 2001. The Tower Group, Boston, MA 02150, USA.Mohan, P. 2001. Six Flags Worlds of Adventure, Aurora, OH

44202, USA.O’Sullivan, J. 2001. Monterey Bay Aquarium, Monterey, CA

93940, USA.Powell, D. 2001. Monterey Bay Aquarium, Monterey, CA

93940, USA.Romero, J. 2001. National Marine Aquarium, Plymouth, PL4

0LF, UK.Sabalones, J. 2001. Newport Aquarium, Newport, KY 41071,

USA.Steslow, F. 2001. New Jersey State Aquarium, Camden, NJ

08103, USA.Thomas, L. 2001. Oregon Coast Aquarium, Newport, OR

97365, USA.Thoney, D. 2003. Humboldt State University, Trinidad, CA

95570, USA.Young, F. 2001. Dynasty Marine Associates Inc., Marathon,

FL 33050, USA.

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