Chapter 7 States of Consciousness Table of Contents Exit.

Chapter 7

States of Consciousness

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Some Early Definitions

Consciousness: All the sensations, perceptions, memories, and feelings you are aware of at any instantWaking Consciousness: Normal, clear,

organized, alert awareness

Altered State of Consciousness (ASC): Changes that occur in quality and pattern of mental activity


Sleep

Definition: Innate, biological rhythmMicrosleep: Brief shift in brain activity to pattern normally recorded during sleepSleep Deprivation: Sleep loss; being deprived of needed amounts of sleepSleep-Deprivation Psychosis: Confusion, disorientation, delusions, and hallucinations that occur because of sleep loss Sleep Patterns: Daily rhythms of sleep and waking


CNN - Sleep


Fig. 7.1 Not all animals sleep, but like humans, those that do have powerful sleep needs. For example, dolphins must voluntarily breathe air, which means they face the choice of staying awake or drowning. The dolphin solves this problem by sleeping on just one side of its brain at a time! The other half of the brain, which remains awake, controls breathing (Jouvet, 1999).


Measuring Sleep Changes

Electroencephalograph (EEG): Brain-wave machine; amplifies and records electrical activity in the brain

Beta Waves: Small fast waves associated with alertness and awakeness

Alpha Waves: Large, slow waves associated with relaxation and falling asleep


CNN – Sleep Studies


Fig. 7.5 Changes in brain-wave patterns associated with various stages of sleep. Actually, most wave types are present at all times, but they occur more or less frequently in various sleep stages.


Stages of SleepStage 1: Small, irregular waves produced in light sleep (people may or may not say they were asleep) Hypnic Jerk: Reflex muscle contraction

Stage 2: Deeper sleep; sleep spindles (short bursts of distinctive brain-wave activity) appearStage 3: Deeper sleep; Delta waves appear; very large and slowStage 4: Deepest level of normal sleep; almost purely Delta waves


Fig. 7.2 Sleep rhythms. Bars show periods of sleep during the fourth, fifth, and sixth weeks of an experiment with a human subject. During unscheduled periods, the subject was allowed to select times of sleep and lighting. In his case, the result was a 25-hour sleep rhythm. Notice how his free-running rhythm began to advance around the clock. When periods of darkness were scheduled (colored area), the rhythm quickly resynchronized with 24-hour days. (Adapted from Czeisler, 1981.)


Fig. 7.3 Development of sleep patterns. Short cycles of sleep and waking gradually become the night-day cycle of an adult. While most adults don’t take naps, midafternoon sleepiness is a natural part of the sleep cycles. (After Williams et al., 1964.)


Fig. 7.4 These Siamese twins share the same blood supply, yet one sleeps while the other is awake. (Photo by Yale Joel, Life Magazine. © Time, Inc.)


States of Sleep

Rapid Eye Movements (REM): Associated with dreaming; sleep is very light Body is very still during REM sleep Lack of muscle paralysis during REM sleep is

called REM Behavioral Disorder

Non-REM (NREM) Sleep: Occurs during stages 1, 2, 3, and 4; no rapid eye movement occurs

Seems to help us recover from daily fatigue


Fig. 7.6 (a) Average proportion of time adults spend daily in REM sleep and NREM sleep. REM periods add up to about 20 percent of total sleep time. (b) Typical changes in stages of sleep during the night. Notice that dreams mostly coincide with REM periods.


Sleep Disturbances

Insomnia: Difficulty in getting to sleep, frequent nighttime awakenings, or waking too earlySleeping pills exacerbate insomnia; cause

decrease in REM and Stage 4 sleep and may cause dependency

Drug-Dependency Insomnia: Sleeplessness that follows withdrawal from sleeping pills


Types and Causes of Insomnia

Temporary Insomnia: Brief period of sleeplessness caused by worry, stress, and excitement Avoid fighting it and read a book, for example, until

you’re struggling to stay awake

Chronic Insomnia: Exists if sleeping troubles last for more than three weeks Adopt regular schedule; go to bed at the same

time each night, for example

Tryptophan: Amino acid (chemical) that increases serotonin levels and therefore leads to sleepiness


Sleep Disturbances

Sleepwalking (Somnambulism): Occurs in NREM sleep during Stages 3 and 4

Sleeptalking: Speaking while asleep; occurs in NREM sleep


Some Other Sleep Disturbances

Nightmares: Bad dreamsOccur during REM sleep May occur once or twice a month; brief and

easily (unfortunately) remembered

Imagery Rehearsal: Mentally rehearse the changed dream before you go to sleep again; may help to eliminate nightmares


Night Terrors

Night Terrors: Total panic occurs; hallucinations may occurOccurs during Stage 4 sleepMost common in childhood; may occur in

adultsNot remembered


CNN – Sleep Deprivation


Physiological Sleep Problems

Narcolepsy: Sudden irresistible sleep attacks May suffer from catalepsy: Sudden, temporary

muscle paralysis leading to complete body collapse

Sleep Apnea: Interrupted breathing during sleep; cause of very loud snoring Apnea can be treated by

Surgery Weight loss Breathing mask


Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS; Crib Death)

Sudden, unexplained death of healthy infant (infants should sleep on back or on side to try to prevent)Remember “Back to sleep”


Fig. 7.7 Infants at risk for SIDS are often attached to devices that monitor breathing and heart rate during sleep. An alarm sounds to alert parents if either pulse or respiration falters. SIDS rarely occurs after an infant is 1 year old. Babies at risk for SIDS should be placed on their sides or on their backs. (Photo courtesy of Healthdyne, Inc.)


Dreams

Psychodynamic (Freudian) Theory: Emphasizes internal conflicts, motives, and unconscious forces

Wish Fulfillment: Freudian belief that many dreams are expressions of unconscious desires Much evidence to refute this

Dream Symbols: Images that have a deeper symbolic meaning

Activation-Synthesis Hypothesis: Dream content may be affected by motor commands in the brain that are not carried out


CNN - Dreams

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CNN – Wake-up Call


Hypnosis

Altered state of consciousness characterized by intensely narrowed attention and increased openness to suggestionMesmer: Believed he could cure diseases

by passing magnets over body; true “animal magnetism” (“mesmerize” means to hypnotize)

Must cooperate to become hypnotized


Fig. 7.9 Arrange three chairs as shown. Have someone recline as shown. Ask him to lift slightly while you remove the middle chair. Accept the applause gracefully! (Concerning hypnosis and similar phenomena, the moral, of course, is “Suspend judgment until you have something solid to stand on.”)

© Dan Francis/Mardan Photography

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Hypnosis (cont.)

Hypnotic Susceptibility: How easily a person can be hypnotized

Basic Suggestion Effect: Tendency of hypnotized people to carry out suggested actions as though they were involuntary


Hypnosis Can’s and Cannot’s

Hypnosis CAN Help people relax Reduce pain Get people to make better progress in therapy

Hypnosis CANNOT Produce acts of superhuman strength Produce age regression Force you to do things against your will


Stage Hypnosis

Simulation of hypnotic effectsTricks of the Trade: Waking Suggestibility: People on stage do not

want to spoil the act, so they will follow any instruction

Selection of Responsive Subjects: Any “volunteer” who does not get hypnotized in the group on stage and does not follow instructions is “thrown off”

The Hypnosis Label Disinhibits: On stage, once you are “in a hypnotic trance,” your responsibility for actions is removed; you can do whatever you want!


More Stage Hypnosis “Tricks of the Trade”

Hypnotists as Director: Once they are in a trance, the “volunteers” are suddenly the show’s stars, and they will act like it. The hypnotists only need to direct them

Stage Hypnotists Use Tricks: Stage hypnosis is 50% deception and 50% taking advantage of the situation

Conclusion: Stage hypnotists entertain; they rarely hypnotize


Sensory Deprivation (SD)

Any major reduction in amount or variety of sensory stimulationBenefitsSensory enhancementRelaxationChanging habits

Benefits called REST: Restricted Environmental Stimulation Therapy


Fig. 7.10 A sensory isolation chamber. Small floatation tanks like the one pictured have been used by psychologists to study the effects of mild sensory deprivation. Subjects float in darkness and silence. The shallow body-temperature water contains hundreds of pounds of Epson salts so that the subjects float near the surface. Mild sensory deprivation produces deep relaxation.


Drugs and Altered States of Consciousness

Psychoactive Drug: Substance capable of altering attention, judgment, memory, time sense, self-control, emotion, or perceptionStimulant: Substance that increases activity in body and nervous systemDepressant: Substance that decreases activity in body and nervous system


Fig. 7.11 Spectrum and continuum of drug action. Many drugs can de rated on a stimulation-depression scale according to their effects on the central nervous system. Although LSD, mescaline, and marijuana are listed here, the stimulation-depression scale is less relevant to these drugs. The principal characteristic os such hallucinogens is the mind altering quality.


CNN – Addicted Brain


Physical Dependence

Addiction based on drug tolerance and withdrawal symptomsDrug Tolerance: Reduction in body’s

response to a drugWithdrawal Symptoms: Physical illness

following withdrawal of a drug


Psychological Dependence

Drug dependence based on psychological or emotional needsDrug is necessary to maintain comfort and

well-beingCrave drug and its rewarding qualities


Stimulants

Amphetamine: Synthetic stimulants that excite nervous systemDexedrine and Methamphetamine are two

types of stimulants

Amphetamine Psychosis: Loss of contact with reality because of amphetamine use; user tends to have paranoid delusions


Cocaine

Central Nervous System stimulant derived from leaves of coca plant; also used as local anestheticFrom 1886-1906, Coca-Cola did indeed

have cocaine in it!Highly addictive drugAnhedonia (Inability to Feel Pleasure):

Common after cocaine withdrawal


Designer Drugs

Chemically engineered version of an existing drug; made to skirt drug laws

MDMA (Ecstasy): Chemically similar to amphetamine; created by small variations in the drug’s structure Risks of using MDMA are unclear May cause severe liver damage and fatal heat

exhaustion Repeated use damages serotonergic brain cells


Caffeine

Most frequently used psychoactive drug in North America; present in colas, chocolate, coffee, teaCauses tremors, sweating, talkativeness, tinnitus, suppresses fatigue or sleepiness, increases alertness May be hazardous to pregnant women if used

excessively; may cause birth defects Caffeinism: Physiological dependence on caffeine Symptoms: Insomnia, irritability, loss of appetite,

chills, racing heart, elevated body temperature


Nicotine

Natural stimulant found mainly in tobacco

In large doses may cause stomach pain, vomiting, diarrhea, confusion, tremors

Addictive

Smoking responsible for 97% of lung cancer deaths in men, 74% in women

Sum: DON’T SMOKE; SMOKING KILLS (SO DOES CHEWING TOBACCO)


CNN – Smoking and Drinking


SedativesBarbiturates: Sedative drugs that depress brain activity Seconal and Amytal are two types

GHB (Gamma-Hydroxybutyrate): Central Nervous System (CNS) depressant that relaxes and sedates; combination of degreasing solvent and drain cleaner Sedative effects may result in nausea, loss of muscle

control, and either sleep or a loss of consciousness Inhibits gag reflex, so some choke to death on their

own vomit Addictive and deadly


CNN – Heroin Addiction


Tranquilizers

Tranquilizers: Lower anxiety and reduce tension Valium, Xanax, Halcion, and Librium are four

types Rohypnol: Related to Valium; lowers inhibitions

and produces relaxation or intoxication. Larger doses can induce short-term amnesia and sleep

Date rape drug because it’s odorless and tasteless (“Roofies”)

Drug Interaction: One drug significantly enhances the effect of another


Alcohol

Ethyl Alcohol: Intoxicating element in fermented and distilled liquors NOT a stimulant but DOES lower inhibitions Depressant

Binge Drinking: Consuming five or more drinks in a short time, or four or more for women Serious sign of alcohol abuse May lead up to 10 percent loss of brain power,

especially memory


Fig. 7.12 The behavioral effects of alcohol are related to blood alcohol content and the resulting suppression of higher mental function. Arrows indicate the typical threshold for legal intoxication in the United States. (From Jozef Cohen, Eyewitness Series in Psychology, p. 44. Copyright © by Rand McNally and Company. Reprinted by permission.)


How a Drinking Problem May Develop (Jellinek, 1960)

Initial Phase: Social drinker turns to alcohol to relieve tension or feel good

Crucial Phase: Person begins to lose control over drinking

Chronic Phase: Person is now alcohol dependent


Treatment for Alcohol Abuse and Dependence

Detoxification: Withdrawal of the person from alcohol; occurs in a medical setting and is tightly controlled; oftentimes necessary before long-term treatment begins


Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) and Alternatives

Alcoholics Anonymous (AA): Worldwide self-help organization composed of recovering alcoholics; emphasizes admitting powerlessness over alcohol usage and wanting to recover Spiritual component Free; around for over 70 years!

Rational Recovery, and Secular Organizations for Sobriety (SOS): Non-spiritual AA Alternatives


Some Hallucinogens

Hallucinogen: Substance that alters or distorts sensory perceptionsLysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD): Hallucinogen that can produce hallucinations and other psychotic symptomsMescaline (Peyote) and Psilocybin (Magic Mushrooms)PCP (Angel Dust): Initially can have hallucinogenic effects; also an anesthetic and has stimulant and depressant effects


Marijuana (Pot)

Cannabis Sativa (Marijuana; Pot): Leaves and flowers of the hemp plant Active Chemical: THC Effects: Relaxation, time distortion, perceptual

distortions Psychologically, NOT physiologically, addictive

Hashish: Resinous material scraped from leaves of the hemp plant; higher concentration of THC


Fig. 7.13 This thin slice of a rat’s brain has been washed with a radioactive THC-like drug. Yellowish areas show where the brain is rich in THC receptors. In addition to the cortex, or outer layer of the brain, THC receptors are found in abundance in areas involved in the control of coordinated movement. Naturally occurring chemicals similar to THC may help the brain cope with pain and stress. However, when THC is used as a drug, high dosages can cause paranoia, hallucinations, and dizziness (Julien, 1998).


Some Health Risks of Using Marijuana

May cause precancerous changes in lung cellsMay suppress immune system, perhaps increasing risk of diseaseTHC may cause a higher rate of miscarriagesActivity levels in the cerebellum are lower than normal in pot usersPot may damage some of the brain’s memory centers


Dream Interpretation

Freud: Four dream processes (mental filters) that hide true purposes of dreams Condensation: Combining several people, objects,

or events into a single dream image Displacement: Directing emotions or actions

toward safe or unimportant dream images Symbolization: Expressing feelings or ideas

symbolically in dreams; not literal expression Secondary Elaboration: Making a dream more

logical and adding details while remembering it


Dream Interpretation: A Different View

Perls: Most dreams are a special message about what is missing in our lives, what we avoid doing when awake, or feelings that we need to re-own


Lucid Dreaming

Person feels fully awake within the dream and feels capable of normal thought and action


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