Chapter 7 Ppp
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Transcript of Chapter 7 Ppp
![Page 1: Chapter 7 Ppp](https://reader031.fdocuments.net/reader031/viewer/2022012922/548276795806b5e8048b46c5/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Thinking, Language and Intelligence
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Thought
• Cognition—mental activities involved in acquiring, retaining, and using knowledge
• Thinking—manipulation of mental representations to draw inferences and conclusions
• Mental image—representation of objects or events that are not present
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Concepts
• Concept—mental category of objects or ideas based on shared properties
• Formal concept—mental category formed by learning rules
• Natural concept—mental category formed by everyday experience
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Examples of Concepts
• Formal concept—follows rigid rules, not usually intuitive (A polygon is….)
• Natural concept—results from everyday experience (Some mammals are….)
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Problem Solving Strategies
Trial and error
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Problem Solving Strategies
y + z = r2
Algorithm
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Problem Solving Strategies
Heuristic—strategy that involves following a general rule of thumb to reduce the number of possible solutions
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Insight and Intuition
• Insight—sudden realization about how a problem can be solved
• Intuition—coming to a conclusion without conscious awareness of thought processes involved
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Functional Fixedness
• type of mental set
• inability to see an object as having a function other than its usual one
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Nine dots problem
• Without lifting your pencil or re-tracing any line, draw four straight lines that connect all nine dots
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Nine dots mental set
• Most people will not draw lines that extend from the square formed by the nine dots
• To solve the problem, you have to break your mental set
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Mounting candle problem
• Using only the objects present on the right, attach the candle to the bulletin board in such a way that the candle can be lit and will burn properly
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Answer to candle problem
• Most people do not think of using the box for anything other than its normal use (to hold the tacks)
• To solve the problem, you have to overcome functional fixedness
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Metal Set
• Q: Why couldn’t you solve the previous problems?
• A: Mental set—a well-established habit of perception or thought
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Decision Making
• Single feature model—make a decision by focusing on only one feature
• Additive model—systematically evaluate the important features of each alternative
• Elimination-by-aspects—rate choices based on features. Eliminate those that do not meet the desired criteria, despite other desirable characteristics.
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Availability Heuristic• Judge probability of an event by how easily you
can recall previous occurrences of that event
• Most will overestimate deaths from natural disasters because disasters are frequently on TV
• Most will underestimate deaths from asthma because they don’t make the local news
![Page 17: Chapter 7 Ppp](https://reader031.fdocuments.net/reader031/viewer/2022012922/548276795806b5e8048b46c5/html5/thumbnails/17.jpg)
Representative Heuristic
• Judge probability of an event based on how it matches a prototype
• Can be good
• But can also lead to errors
• Most will overuse this strategy
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Bias Effects
• Confirmation bias—only search for information confirming one’s hypothesis
• Belief bias—accept only information that conforms to beliefs
• Fallacy of positive instances—remember uncommon events that confirm our beliefs
• Overestimation—tendency to overestimate rarity of events
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1. Break mental sets
2. Find useful analogy
3. Represent information efficiently
4. Find shortcuts
5. Establish sub-goals
6. Turn ill-defined problems into well-defined problems
Strategies for solving problems
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Language
• Language and thinking
• Language and social perception
• Language and gender bias
• Animal communication
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Language and Thinking
• Language is a system for combining arbitrary symbols to produce an infinite number of meaningful statements
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Characteristics of Language
• Connection between word and symbol usually arbitrary
• Meaning of symbols is shared among speakers of the language
• Has syntax--set of specific structural rules• Is generative--can create infinite number of
phrases• Displacement--can communicate
meaningfully about things that are not present
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Animal Communication
• Animals clearly communicate with each other, but is that language?
• Some primates that have been trained demonstrate the same level of language comprehension as that of an average 2 1/2-year-old child
• Non-primates can also acquire some language abilities, i.e., dolphins, parrots
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Animal cognition—Do animals “think”? Do they have “self-awareness”?
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Intelligence
Global capacity to think rationally, act purposefully, and deal effectively with
the environment
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Measuring Intelligence
• Alfred Binet
• Mental age• Chronological age
• IQ—comparison of people in similar age groups
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Alfred Binet (1857–1911)– Intelligence—collection of higher-order
mental abilities loosely related to one another
– Did not rank “normal” students according to the scores
– Intelligence is nurtured– Binet-Simon Test developed in France,
1905
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Modern Intelligence Tests
The Stanford-Binet Scale– modification of the original Binet-Simon,
bu Lewis Terman at Stanford university
– intelligence quotient (IQ)—child’s mental age divided by child’s chronological age
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Group Intelligence Testing
• Began during WWI when the army had to screen millions of army recruits
• Army Alpha--given to people who could read
• Army Beta--given to people who could not read
• Adapted for civilian use, but widely misused
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Wechsler Intelligence Tests
• Used more widely now than Stanford-Binet
• Modeled after Binet’s, adult test called WAIS
• Consisted of several subtests
• Reflected belief that intelligence involves different strengths and weaknesses
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WAIS Scales
• Test measured several abilities
• Performance scales--nonverbal abilities
• Verbal scales--vocabulary, comprehension, and other verbal tasks
• Sub-scales gave the WAIS practical and clinical value
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Types of Tests
• Achievement test—designed to measure level of knowledge, skill, or accomplishment in a particular area
• Aptitude test—designed to measure capability to benefit from education or training
• Interest test—measures self-reported vocational interests and skills
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Qualities of Good Tests
• Standardized—administered to large groups of people under uniform conditions to establish norms
• Reliable—ability to produce consistent results when administered on repeated occasions under similar conditions
• Valid—ability to measure what the test is intended to measure
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Standardized Scoring of Wechsler Tests
• All raw scores converted to standardized scores
• Normal distribution
• Mean of 100
• Standard deviation of 15
50 70 85 100 115 130 145
2.14%13.59%34.13%34.13%13.59%2.14%
0.13% 0.13%95.44%
68.26%
Wechsler IQ score
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How valid are IQ tests?• Validity—test measures what it’s intended to measure• Does test correlate with other measures of same
construct?• School achievement
– IQ tests (i.e., S-B and the Wechsler) correlate highly
– but they were designed to test what you learn in school
• Prestigious positions• On-the-job performance & other work-related variables
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What do IQ tests measure about your mind?
• Mental speed and span of working memory– typically use a digit span test to measure this– more recent studies find significant correlations
between reaction times and IQ scores
• Why is this important?– mental quickness may expand capacity of
working memory
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Theories of Intelligence
• Charles Spearman—“g” factor
• Louis Thurstone—intelligence as a person’s “pattern” of mental abilities
• Howard Gardner—multiple intelligences
• Sternberg–triarchic theory
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Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
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Robert Sternberg
• Analytic intelligence—mental processes used in learning how to solve problems
• Creative intelligence—ability to deal with novel situations by drawing on existing skills and knowledge
• Practical intelligence—ability to adapt to the environment (street smarts)
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Nature vs. Nurture in IQ
• Are differences between people due to environmental or genetic differences?
• Misunderstanding the question– “Is a person’s intelligence due more to genes
or to environment?”– both genes & intelligence crucial for any trait
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Heredity and Environment
• Heritability– degree to which variation in trait stems from
genetic, rather than environmental, differences among individuals
• Environment– degree to which variation is due to environmental
rather than genetic differences
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Twin Studies & Family Influence
• If trait genetic:– closely related more similar than less closely related
• Many close relatives share environments too
• Types of studies to separate effects– monozygotic twins reared together
– monozygotic twins reared apart
– siblings/dizygotic reared together
– siblings/dizygotic reared apart
– adoptive siblings reared together
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Racial Difference in IQ
• Racial difference in average IQ among different racial groups can be measured
• More variation in IQ scores within a particular group than between groups
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Within and Between Group Differences
• Each corn field planted from same package of genetically diverse seeds
• One field is quite fertile, the other is not
• Within each field, differences due to genetics
• Between each field, differences due to environment (fertility)
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Other Influences on IQ Scores
• Cross cultural studies show that average IQ of groups subject to social discrimination are often lower than socially dominant group even if there is no racial difference
• Tests reflect the culture in which they are developed; cultural factors also influence test taking behavior (culture bias)
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CreativityTo enhance your creativity
– Creativity as a goal– Reinforce creative behavior– Engage in problem finding– Acquire relevant knowledge– Try different approaches– Exert effort and expect setbacks