88 Radabaugh, Powell, and Moyer, editors

Chapter 7 Collier County

Jill Schmid, Rookery Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve

Roy R. (Robin) Lewis III, Coastal Resources Group Inc

E.J. Neafsey, Florida Gulf Coast University Everglades Wetlands Research Park

Kathy Worley, Conservancy of Southwest Florida

Craig van der Heiden, The Institute for Regional Conservation

Kara R. Radabaugh, Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission

The extensive network of small islands along the coastline results in a high edge-to-area ratio in these island mangrove habitats. Rhizophora mangle (red mangrove) is commonly found along the fringe of coastal islands and tidal creeks. Avicennia germinans (black mangrove) and Laguncularia racemosa (white mangrove) tend to prefer higher elevation or disturbed areas usually found on the interior and landward side, although mixed-species man-grove forests are also found in the area (USFWS 2000). Conocarpus erectus (buttonwood) is common in areas of slightly higher elevation, such as on ridges along levees or on beach strands. Powerful hurricanes in 1918 and Hurricane Donna in 1960 caused massive deforestation in the region; consequently, most of the mangroves are second-growth forests (USFWS 2000, FDEP 2012). Hur-ricane Andrew in 1992 and Hurricane Wilma in 2005 also caused extensive damage to the mangroves (Smith et al. 1994, FDEP 2012). Andrew caused slightly more tree loss in island mangroves, while Wilma caused significantly more damage in basin forests and set back recovery of the forests after Andrew (Smith et al. 2009).

Mangroves dominate the coast, while salt marshes dom-inated by Spartina spp. (cordgrasses), Juncus roe merianus (black needlerush), and Distichlis spicata (salt grass) occur further inland (Figure 7.1). Most of the salt marshes lack a direct tidal connection in most places but flood at high tides and during storms. Coastal ponds containing saline, brackish, or freshwater are also found in close association with the salt marshes. Upland habitat is not common along the coast due to the low elevation (USFWS 2000).

Description of the regionCollier County includes the large coastal develop-

ments of Naples and Marco Island but also contains a network of protected lands with large uninterrupted areas of coastal habitat (Figure 7.1). These coastal public lands include Rookery Bay Aquatic Preserve, Rookery Bay Na-tional Estuarine Research Reserve (NERR), Cape Roma-no–Ten Thousand Islands Aquatic Preserve, Ten Thou-sand Islands National Wildlife Refuge, Collier-Seminole State Park, and Everglades National Park. Coastal estua-rine waters are generally shallow; Ten Thousand Islands National Wildlife Refuge has a mean depth of 10 ft (3 m) (USFWS 2000). Salinity varies widely with freshwater in-flow, generally staying above 34 in the dry season and fluc-tuating between 20 and 32 in the wet season (Soderqvist and Patino 2010). The substrate is Miami limestone from the Miocene, which is overlaid by a poorly drained as-sortment of late Pleistocene sands, organic material, and mangrove peat (USFWS 2000). The coastal islands also contain quartz sand and shell hash (FDEP 2012). Coastal elevation is very low, although shell mounds from Native American populations and some small sandy dunes pro-vide some local variability (USFWS 2000).

The undeveloped coastline and many small islands in Collier County are vegetated by extensive mangrove for-ests (Figure 7.1). According to version 3.0 of Cooperative Land Cover data, there are approximately 86,300 acres (43,900 ha) of mangroves and 25,800 acres (10,400 ha) of salt marsh in the county (FWC and FNAI 2014).

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Mangroves have expanded inland as a result of al-tered hydrology due to drainage canals diverting fresh-water flow, U.S. 41 impeding surface water flow to salt and brackish marshes, and sea-level rise. Mangrove ex-tent in Ten Thousand Islands National Wildlife Refuge increased 35%, or 4,640 acres (1,878 ha), from 1927 to 2005 (Krauss et al. 2011). Constructed waterways, such as the Faka Union Canal (Figure 7.1), facilitate mangrove expansion by increasing the upstream reaches of tidal in-fluence, enhancing the dispersal of mangrove propagules inland (Krauss et al. 2011).

Human development and hydrologic alterationsRapid development and a lack of environmental regu-

lation before 1970 resulted in extensive loss and alteration of wetlands in Collier County (USFWS 2000). This loss was followed by a period of rapid population growth; from 1980 to 1998, the population of the county increased by 144% (FDEP 2012). With an estimated population

of 357,305 in 2015, the population of Collier County is lower than that of other urban centers in South Florida. However it grew at an estimated rate of 11.1% from 2010 to 2015, outpacing the state growth average of 7.8% (U.S. Census 2015). Tourism, commercial fishing, and sport-fishing are central components of the economy.

The once extensive mangrove shoreline along Na-ples and Marco Island has been irreversibly transformed by development and hydrologic alterations (Turner and Lewis 1997). Mangrove fringe adjacent to urban areas was removed to pave the way for residential developments and commercial ventures. Naples Bay lost more than 70% of its fringing mangrove shoreline in the 1950s and 1960s, when extensive dredge-and-fill operations and shoreline modifications made way for residential communities including Port Royal, Royal Harbor, Aqualane Shores, Windstar, and Moorings Bay (FDEP 1981, Schmid et al. 2006). Mangroves were extensively removed on Marco Is-land in the 1960s and 1970s to make way for the current framework of dredged canal-front homes.

Figure 7.1. Mangrove and salt marsh habitats in Collier County, Florida according to SFWMD 2011–2013 land use/land cover data following FLUCCS classifications (FDOT 1999, SFWMD 2009a).

90 Radabaugh, Powell, and Moyer, editors

Although human development has been extensive in many parts of the county, large tracts of protected land and mangrove expansion have enabled mangroves to re-tain 70% of their original acreage in the Rookery Bay wa-tershed and to exceed their historical acreage in the Ten Thousand Islands watershed (CSF 2011). In the northern part of the watershed, however, extensive human devel-opment has caused water quality problems along the coast, including low dissolved oxygen, high nutrients, and increased levels of other pollutants (CSF 2011). A series of canals were dug by the Gulf American Corporation during 1963–1971 to drain extensive areas for the planned South Golden Gate Estates development. These canals connect to the Faka Union Canal and discharge at Port of the Islands, resulting in increased freshwater flow and water turbidity, along with decreased fish populations and seagrass growth in Ten Thousand Islands Nation-al Wildlife Refuge (USFWS 2000, Shrestha et al. 2011). Much of the planned South Golden Gate Estates were not developed, and the State of Florida purchased most of the private lots between 1998 and 2001 to implement the hydrologic restoration plan of the region, now known as Picayune Strand State Forest (SFWMD and USDA 2003). The restoration plan aims to restore hydrology by block-ing canals, pumping out water, and removing roads to restore more natural sheet flow (USFWS 2000, SFWMD and USDA 2003). The first of three pump stations for the restoration effort was opened in 2014 (Staats 2014). Addi-tional efforts to improve sheet flow in the Ten Thousand Island region include the installation of 62 culverts along 48 miles (77 km) of Tamiami Trail (U.S. 41) in Collier County from 2004 to 2006 (Abtew and Ciuca 2011).

Threats to coastal wetlandsCoastal wetlands are threatened by anthropogenic

and natural phenomena. Finn et al. (1997) classified 15 different causes of mangrove die-offs in the area includ-ing lightning strikes, hurricanes, frost, and human im-pacts. In southwest Florida, A. germinans die-offs often occur as a result of an extended period of surface-water retention due to impoundment, increased surface-water runoff, blocked tidal exchange, or stagnant tidal circula-tion leading to prolonged submersion and stress on pneu-matophores. This can eventually kill the mangrove, and the subsequent decay of biomass belowground can cause peat subsidence, decreasing elevation and resulting in fur-ther inundation (Worley 2005).

•Coastal development and altered hydrology: Urban construction has been linked to many instances of mangrove die-off in Collier County. For instance, urban

and road construction along Clam Bay led to altered hydrology and widespread death of A. germinans in the 1990s (Worley and Schmid 2010). While much of Collier County is now conservation land, population growth and development continue, particularly along State Road 951 and south of U.S. 41. This development continues to impact coastal wetlands via habitat de-struction, impaired water quality, and altered hydrolo-gy, such as roads blocking tidal exchange (Zysko 2011).

• Storm events: Hurricanes and tropical storms shape the structure of mangrove forests by causing wide-spread defoliation and mortality and by altering tree sizes and species abundance (Smith et al. 2009). Pow-erful hurricanes between 1918 and 1960 killed many of the mangroves in the region (USFWS 2000, FDEP 2012) and coastal wetlands were heavily damaged by Hurricane Andrew in 1992 (Smith et al. 1994). Peat collapse is also suspected of causing mortality after storms and is thought to have been responsible for the A. germinans die-offs following the 1935 Labor Day hurricane and Hurricane Donna in 1960 (Wanless et al. 1995).

•Climate change and sea-level rise: C. erectus and L. racemosa have already overtaken significant expanses of salt marsh and brackish marsh as they expand in-land, primarily as a response to rising sea levels (Krauss et al. 2011, Barry et al. 2013). Rising sea levels may also enable mangrove expansion into salt barrens. The tidal flushing provided by a small increase in sea level can decrease hypersaline conditions of the salt barren, cre-ating favorable conditions for mangroves to colonize there. Despite current trends in mangrove expansion, mangroves are still at risk if the rate of sea-level rise exceeds the rate of substrate accumulation or inland migration. Development along some regions of coastal Collier County also block mangroves and salt marsh from migrating inland, pinching out coastal wetland habitat.

•Disease and other biotic factors: Disease is usually not the root cause of mortality in coastal wetland forests; rather, diseases tend to occur in areas that are stressed by other influences (Jimenez et al. 1985). Cytospora rhi-zophorae, a fungus found in mangrove forests in Collier County, is a classic example. This fungus tends to at-tack stressed R. mangle trees and has a mortality rate as high as 32% (Wier et al. 2000). Similarly, after the cold snap in the winter of 2008, some parts of mangrove for-ests became infested with wood-boring beetles. Under healthy conditions these boring beetles tend to attack living twigs or branches, but the tree usually recovers.

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But in stressed conditions severe infestations are more likely to develop, possibly to the extent that the trees become girdled and die. Given that current and future stressors to coastal wetlands are likely to increase due to anthropogenic and natural causes, disease and in-festations could have a greater influence on mortality rates.

• Invasive vegetation: Invasive vegetation, mainly Schi-nus terebinthifolius (Brazilian pepper) but also Casua-rina spp. (Australian pines), Melaleuca quinquenervia (melaleuca), and Colubrina asiatica (latherleaf) tend to dominate along the fringe of marsh and mangrove habitats (USFWS 2000). Removal efforts are ongoing as funding is available, but maintaining control is a con-stant challenge.

Mapping and monitoring efforts

Institute for Regional Conservation mappingThe southwest coast of Collier County has been

mapped according to the Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP) by the Institute for Regional Conservation (IRC). Due to funding constraints, efforts have been limited to Rookery Bay NERR (Barry et al. 2013, Barry and van der Heiden 2015), Ten Thousand Island National Wildlife Refuge (Barry 2009), and Pic-ayune Strand State Forest. Results of this mapping are shown in Figure 7.2. Each agency with land-manage-ment responsibilities has been responsible for finding the funding to contract with IRC to conduct the map-ping efforts. Having IRC conduct the mapping for all the agencies has provided a contiguous map with consistent methodology.

The vegetation maps were created based on extensive field work, multiple years of aerial photography inter-pretation, and LiDAR. The field data collection included photo points and GPS track logs with observed vegetation, including the presence of rare and nonnative vegetation. To produce a historical vegetation map, IRC integrated field observations, interviews with long-time residents, and 1940 aerial photography. The habitat mapping ef-forts in Rookery Bay NERR have documented wide-spread mangrove die-off areas within the reserve (Barry et al. 2013). The die-offs, many in areas dominated by A. germinans, are most likely due to a combination of an-thropogenic causes (namely altered hydrology) and natu-ral factors (hurricanes). Overall, vegetation analysis from 1940 through 2010 reveals that salt marshes have changed the most, overwhelmingly toward mangrove-dominated communities (Barry and van der Heiden 2015). These

dramatic changes are probably caused by rising sea level and hydrologic alterations.

Vegetation classifications in the IRC maps follow the categories used by CERP (Rutchey et al. 2006), Flori-da Natural Areas Inventory communities (FNAI 2010), and Florida Land Use and Cover Classification System (FLUCCS; FDOT 1999). Figure 7.2 illustrates the level of detail inherent in the classification, which is necessary for detecting subtle changes in vegetation that might be associated with anthropogenic influences and effects of sea-level rise. These fine-scale maps are especially import-ant as they have established baseline data on the extent and cover of specific vegetative communities and can be used in the future to document changes.

Mapping mangrove stress in Rookery Bay and Ten Thousand Islands

Neafsey (2014) mapped mangrove stress through a combination of imagery interpretation (Esri Basemap) and field surveys, using the South Florida Water Management District’s (SFWMD) definition of mangrove forests. Prelim-inary results are shown in Figure 7.3. An index was created to map the status of mangrove forests on a scale of 1 to 5:

1. functional mangrove, no exotics, and no im-poundments (66,370 acres/26,859 ha)

2. mosquito ditching (373 acres/151 ha) 3. impoundments (704 acres/285 ha)4. impoundments and mosquito ditching

(84 acres/34 ha) 5. circular zones of high mangrove mortality

(232 acres/94 ha)Ongoing data collection includes detailed vegetation

mapping and inventory in stress zones, collecting man-grove tissue samples for assessing the possible influence of hydrologic changes on tree physiology (i.e., Na:K and other biochemical indicators of plant health), and moni-toring key soil properties (salinity, pH, and total sulfides). These results indicated that 1,394 acres (564 ha) of the total 67,763 acres (27,423 ha) examined were stressed or dead, amounting to 2.06% of the surveyed mangroves.

Focusing on an area of high mangrove mortality, the Conservancy of Southwest Florida (CSF) and Coast-al Resources Group Inc., found that more than half of the 1,000 acres (404 ha) of mangroves surveyed near Goodland were stressed or dead (see Fruit Farm Creek restoration explanation below). Further research and field verification are needed to complete accurate maps of the healthy, stressed, and dead mangroves in Rookery Bay NERR and to prepare restoration plans for future efforts.

92 Radabaugh, Powell, and Moyer, editors

Figure 7.2. Salt marsh and mangrove habitats mapped in the Rookery Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve (Barry et al. 2013) and Ten Thousand Islands National Wildlife Refuge (Barry 2009) according to the CERP classifications (Rutchey et al. 2006).

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Water management district mapping

SFWMD conducts fairly regular land use/land cover (LULC) surveys within the district. Figure 7.1 shows the 2008–2009 LULC map; classifications are based upon a SFWMD modified FLUCCS classification system (FDOT 1999, SFWMD 2009b). Minimum mapping units were 5 acres (2 ha) for uplands and 2 acres (0.8 ha) for wetlands. The 2008–2009 maps were made by interpreting aerial photography and updating 2004–2005 vector data (SFW-MD 2009a).

Marco Island mappingPatterson (1986) mapped mangrove habitats in the

Marco Island area using aerial photography from 1984, 1973, 1962, and 1952 and examined the change in area of mangrove communities among aerial photographs. He performed an accuracy assessment on the maps with ground truthing and helicopter surveys. Patterson (1986)

calculated that the total mangrove acreage in the Marco Island area declined from 11,285 acres (4,566 ha) to 8,574 acres (3,470 ha) from 1952 to 1984. The decline was pri-marily due to the residential development of Marco Is-land, but hurricanes during the 1960s also contributed.

Monitoring restoration projectsThere have been numerous mangrove and hydrologic

restoration projects in Collier County during the past 20 years; selected examples are listed below. Monitoring ef-forts are still under way in a few of these projects and have provided valuable information to guide management and restoration decisions for stressed and dead mangroves.

• Fruit Farm Creek: This phased mangrove restoration effort was initiated in 2000. Preliminary studies by CSF investigated the factors that contributed to the nearly 600 acres (242 ha) of dead and stressed mangroves near Goodland. A multiagency organizational group led by the Coastal Resources Group was formed in 2005 and

Figure 7.3. Mangrove stress mapped in Rookery Bay and Ten Thousand Islands on a scale of 1–5 (modified from Neafsey 2014). See text for description of classification system.

94 Radabaugh, Powell, and Moyer, editors

created restoration plans for a two-phase program to-taling 225 acres (103 ha).

Tidal exchange to a 4-acre (1.6 ha) test site in the die-off area was restored in 2012 with funding from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Coastal Program and was monitored by CSF and the Coastal Resources Group. This hydrologic restoration program (Turn-er and Lewis 1997) followed the basic principles of ecological mangrove restoration outlined by Lewis (2005) and Lewis and Brown (2014), under which no mangroves were planted. Volunteer mangroves are now colonizing the site. An additional 221 acres (89 ha) of stressed and dead mangroves are planned for restoration as part of Phase 2, pending funding (Zys-ko 2011). Monitoring reports and plan descriptions are available at www.marcomangroves.com.

• Picayune Strand restoration project: In 1996 SFWMD developed a conceptual plan for the hydrologic resto-ration of Picayune Strand State Forest. Additionally, the forest was identified as essential habitat and incorpo-rated in the effort to restore the western Everglades as part of CERP in 1998. The restoration efforts included the installation of pump stations, spreader channels, 83 mi (133 km) of canal plugs, and 227 mi (365 km) of road removal (www.evergladesrestoration.gov/). The Picayune Strand restoration project will improve sheet flow, wetland habitats, and the ecological connectivity between adjacent state and federal conservation lands. The project should be completed by 2020. A number of monitoring projects have been associated with the res-toration, including vegetative, hydrologic, and wildlife assessments conducted by a variety of agencies (SFW-MD, U.S. Army Corp of Engineers, U.S. Fish and Wild-life Service, Rookery Bay NERR, CSF, Florida Gulf Coast University, and Audubon). See Chuirazzi and Duever (2008) for a summary and baseline data from the restoration project.

•Clam Bay Natural Resource Protection Area: In 1999, Collier County initiated a 10-year, multiagency restoration project in Clam Bay estuary. Tidal flow was improved by dredging the main tidal creeks, clearing small tributaries, and installing hand-dug channels to drain excess surface water. Restoration and monitoring of permanent plots and transects was initiated by Lewis Environmental Services Inc. and is continued by CSF and Turrell, Hall, and Associates.

Monitoring data have indicated that restoration has successfully increased tidal flushing and removed a substantial amount of standing freshwater from the die-off areas, consequently leading to natural revege-tation (Worley and Schmid 2010). Long-term viability

remains uncertain, given the various stressors affect-ing this system and the need for annual maintenance of some of the tidal channels. Monitoring should be continued for evaluation of the long-term success of the restoration.

•Windstar Country Club: In 1982, restoration com-menced on 15 acres (6 ha) of mangrove forest as miti-gation for impacted wetlands (Lewis 1990, Peters 2001). Postmitigation monitoring was conducted from 1989 through 2000 to compare colonization, growth, and succession in the restored site with that in a natural mangrove forest (Proffitt and Devlin 2005). By 2000, species richness and vegetation cover in the created mangrove forest were similar to those of the natural forest, although the trees were smaller with higher stem density and differed in species composition.

•Henderson Creek Mangrove Restoration: Three hectares of mangrove forest, leveled and filled in 1973, were restored in 1991. One year of post-restoration monitoring found differing species composition of fish and macroinvertebrates in the restored site compared to those at an adjacent natural mangrove forest (Shir-ley 1992). In a longer-term monitoring study of Hen-derson Creek and the Windstar Country Club sites, McKee and Faulkner (2000) found that the ecosystem and biogeochemical functions of the restored sites var-ied widely depending on hydrology, salinity, and soil characteristics.

Recommendations for protection, management, and monitoring• Prevent rapid stormwater runoff in the watershed. Ex-

tensive drainage canals and urban stormwater systems rapidly transport and concentrate stormwater rather than release it as a steady, continuous flow. While hy-drology cannot be fully restored due to human devel-opment, unnecessary drainage canals can be filled to diffuse surface water, rehydrate dried wetlands, and reduce salinity in coastal wetlands (CSF 2011). Addi-tionally, sustainable agricultural practices, enhanced wastewater treatment, and stormwater management are needed to reduce nutrient input and subsequent eu-trophication of coastal estuaries.

•Cooperation between federal, state, and local govern-ments and institutions is critical to prevent habitat fragmentation in regions vulnerable to development (FDEP 2012).

•A regional effort to map and characterize conditions, prioritize restoration areas, and define monitoring and

Coastal Habitat Integrated Mapping and Monitoring Program Report: Florida 95

management objectives for restoration would improve understanding and enhance management of coastal wetlands. Because of the range of participating orga-nizations, an interagency team could provide the best approach for developing and implementing a plan over the long term.

•Monitoring vegetation and water quality will help identify locations of stress and changes over time (FDEP 2012). Unfortunately, most monitoring has been limited to specific hurricanes or individual projects due to limited funding. Long-term monitoring is critical to evaluating the success of restoration projects and developing management models to identify areas of stress, and predicting recovery as a result of restoration actions. Interagency cooperation in the restoration of mangrove forests along Florida’s southwest coast may also lead to valuable insights that can be shared with other regions and countries in the global effort to main-tain and regain coastal mangrove forests.

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Wier AM, Tattar TA, Klekowski EJ Jr. 2000. Disease of red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle) in southwest Puerto Rico caused by Cytospora rhizophorae. Bioptropica 32:299–306.

Worley K. 2005. Mangroves as an indicator of estuarine condition in restoration areas. Pp. 247–260 in Bortone SA (ed.) Estuarine Indicators. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida.

Worley K, Schimid JR. 2010. Clam Bay natural resource protection area (NRPA) benthic habitat assessment. Conservancy of Southwest Florida, Environmental Sciences Division. Naples. www.conservancy.org/document.doc?id=442, accessed July 2015.

Zysko D. 2011. Fruit Farm Creek mangrove restoration project. Joint SFWMD/ERP/USACE dredge and fill permit environmental supplement. The Ecology Group and Coastal Resources Group Inc., Venice, Florida.

General references and additional regional informationConservancy of Southwest Florida: www.conservancy.org

Mangrove restoration references: www.mangroverestoration.com/html/downloads.html

Gulf Coastal Plains and Ozarks Landscape Conservation Cooperative compilation of Gulf of Mexico Surface Elevation Tables (SETS): gcpolcc.databasin.org/maps/new#datasets=6a71b8fb60224720b903c770b8a93929

Regional contactsJill Schmid, Rookery Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve, jill.schmid@dep.state.fl.us

Roy R. (Robin) Lewis III, Lewis Environmental Services Inc. and Coastal Resources Group Inc., LESrrl3@gmail.com

E.J. Neafsey, Florida Gulf Coast University Everglades Wetlands Research Park, ejneafsey@gmail.com

Kathy Worley, Conservancy of Southwest Florida, kathyw@conservancy.org