Chapter 6: The Scientific Revolution...• salons – informal social gatherings at which writers,...

Chapter 5:

The Enlightenment and

the American Revolution

Unit 2: Enlightenment and Revolution

(1700-1850)

Section 1:

Philosophy in the Age of

Reason

Chapter 5: The Enlightenment and the

American Revolution

Section 1: Terms and People

• natural law – rules discoverable by reason

• Thomas Hobbes – seventeenth-century thinker who wrote Leviathan

• John Locke – seventeenth-century thinker who wrote Two Treatises of Government

• social contract – Hobbes’ proposal for an organized society in which people enter

into an agreement accepting a powerful government in exchange for their freedom

• natural rights – Locke’s view of the rights belonging to all people at birth, including

the

right to life, liberty, and property

• philosophes – French thinkers who believed that the use of reason could lead to

reforms of government, law, and society

• Montesquieu – philosophe who believed in protecting liberty by dividing the various

functions and powers of government among three branches; proposed a system of

checks and balances

• Voltaire – philosophe who used his writings to fight ignorance, superstition, and

intolerance

• Diderot – philosophe who edited and published the Encyclopedia

• Rousseau – philosophe who wrote The Social Contract

• laissez faire – an economic system allowing business to operate with little or no

government interference

• Adam Smith – author of The Wealth of Nations; proponent of the free-market system

The Roots of Modern Science

• The Medieval View

– Most knowledge in Middle Ages comes from Bible, Greek/Roman sources

– Supports geocentric theory—moon, sun, planets revolve around earth

• A New Way of Thinking

– Renaissance prompts new ways of thinking (1300–1600)

– Scientific Revolution—new way of viewing natural world

• Natural Law—rules discovered by reason based on observation and inquiry

– New discoveries, overseas exploration open up thinking

– Scholars make new developments in astronomy, mathematics

The Enlightenment in Europe

• New Ways of Thinking

– Scientific Revolution spurs reassessment of many prevailing ideas

– Europeans seek insights into society during 1600s,1700s

– Leads to the Enlightenment—a movement stressing reason and thought

• Advances in science led philosophers to believe that natural laws govern the universe and reflects on political, economic, and social relationships

– Occurred during the late 1600’s into the 1700’s

– A time period of new thoughts and ideas that applied human logic and reason to the world

– Many important philosophers during this time period influenced political thought in the 18th century

– Philosophers challenged the norm by rejecting the idea of authority as the Divine Right of Kings

Hobbes and Locke Have Conflicting

Views on Government

• Hobbes Believes in Powerful Government

– Thomas Hobbes distrusts humans

(believes they are naturally cruel-

greedy-selfish), favors strong

government to keep order

– Promotes social contract—gaining

order by giving up freedoms by giving

power to government for an organized

society.

– Outlined his ideas in his work called

Leviathan (1651) • Without governments to keep order, there would be

―war . . . Of every man against every man, and life

would be solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.‖

The Leviathan

Hobbes and Locke Have Conflicting

Views on Government

• Locke Advocates Natural Rights – Philosopher John Locke believed

people were good—reasonable and moral.

– He believed all people have natural rights—rights that belong to all humans from birth (right to life, liberty, and property)

– In his Two Treatises of Government, Lock argued that government is formed out of obligation to protect people’s natural rights and not take advantage of their position in power.

– Stresses that people have a right to overthrow an unjust government

Beliefs of the Philosophes

• The philosophes were enlightenment thinkers from France during the mid-1700s that believed that the use of reason could lead to reforms of government, law, and society.

• Value reason, nature, happiness, progress, liberty

– Reason: truth through reason

– Nature: what is natural is good

– Happiness: seek well being on earth

– Progress: improvement are destined

– Liberty: born with rights

The Philosophes Advocate Reason


• Montesquieu Advances the Idea of Separation of Powers

– Montesquieu—French writer who had sharp criticism of absolute monarchy and admired Britain’s government system (protected themselves against tyranny by dividing the government into three branches)

– The Spirit of the Laws—was a study of governments and outlined his belief in the separation of powers to keep one body from running government

• Believed government should be split up into legislative, executive, and judicial branches to check each other to stop one branch from gaining too much power


• Voltaire Defends Freedom of Thought

– Voltaire—most famous of the philosophe, pen name of François Marie Arouet

– Publishes many works arguing for tolerance, reason—believed in the freedom of religions and speech

– He spoke out against the French government and Catholic Church— makes powerful enemies and is imprisoned twice for his views


• Diderot Edits the Encyclopedia

– Philosophe Denis Diderot begins publishing Encyclopedia in 1751 (28-valume set of books to which Enlightenment thinkers contribute essays)

– The books denounced slavery, praised freedom of expression, and urged education to all—as well as attacking divine-right theory and traditional religion.

– Encyclopedia articles anger French government and Catholic Church

– Encyclopedia helps spread Enlightenment ideas across Europe


• Rousseau Promotes The Social Contract – Jean-Jacques Rousseau—philosophe

believed that people in their natural state were basically good thus favors individual freedom and direct democracy

• Believed in the common good of the community—common good was liberty and freedom.

– Social Contract: outlined his believes and he viewed a social contract as agreement by free people to form government

• Rousseau’s social contract consisted of government receiving power as long as they protected people’s natural rights—a faith in the ―general will‖ or the best conscience of people.

• Cesare Bonesana Beccaria

– an Italian philosopher and

politician who believed that laws

existed to preserve social order

not to avenge crimes.

– Best know for his treatise On

Crimes and Punishments (1764),

which condemned torture, the

death penalty, and other

common abuses of justice.

– greatly influenced criminal law

reformers in Europe and

America.


• Women Challenge the Philosophes – Many Enlightenment thinkers take traditional

views of women’s role—believe women had natural rights but those rights were limited to home and family

– Germaine de Staël in France and Catharine Macaulay and Mary Wollstonecraft of Britain argued that women were being excluded unfairly from the social contract itself.

– Prominent writer Mary Wollstonecraft urges greater rights for women:

• In A Vindication of the Rights of Woman she argued women need quality education to be virtuous and useful

• urges women to go into traditionally male professions like politics

– Some wealthy women use their status to spread Enlightenment ideas


• Physiocrats—French thinkers that focused on economic reforms

• Laissez Faire Replaces Mercantilism

– Physiocrats rejected mercantilism and favored laissez faire; also supported free trade and opposed tariffs.

– Mercantilism: required government regulation of economy to achieved favorable balance of trade (export more than you imported in order to build wealth)

– Laissez faire: policy allowing business to operate with little or no government interference

• Smith Argues for a Free Market

– Adam Smith’s The Wealth of Nations argues that a free market should be allowed to regulate business activity.

• Manufacturing, trade, wages, profits, and economic growth are all linked to Supply and Demand.

New Economic Thinking

• What convinced educated Europeans to accept the power of reason?

• How did Hobbes and Locke differ in their views on the role of government?

• What topics were addressed by the philosophes in their Encyclopedia articles?

• Why did Smith support laissez faire?

CHECKPOINTS

• What convinced educated Europeans to accept the power of reason? – Scientific Successes

• How did Hobbes and Locke differ in their views on the role of government? – Hobbes believed that the government needed to impose order

and compel obedience. Locke thought governments should have limited power and be sanctioned by all citizens.

• What topics were addressed by the philosophes in their Encyclopedia articles? – Answers will vary but should include topics such as slavery,

freedom of expression, and education.

• Why did Smith support laissez faire? – Smith believed the market would be more productive without

government regulation.

ANSWERS TO CHECKPOINTS

• I feel that all men are

born with the natural

rights of life, liberty, and

property.

•Who am I?

John Locke

–I believe that freedom and liberty is

essential for the common good of

the community. People will gain

freedom and liberty through a

social contract with government—a

government they FREELY FORM!

• Who am I?

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

• I believe powers in

government should be split

between legislative,

executive, and judicial

branches.

• Who am I?

Baron de Montesquieu

• I spoke out heavily

against the Catholic

Church and value

freedom of speech.

•Who am I?

Voltaire

• I believe in equal education

for both men and women so

that both sexes can

contribute to society.

• Who am I?

Mary Wollstonecraft

• I Borrowed Enlightenment

ideas and incorporated

them into the Declaration of

Independence.

• Who am I?

Thomas Jefferson

• I Believe people should enter a

social contract with government.

People should give up their rights

to the monarch in order for safety

and protection.

• Who am I?

Thomas Hobbes

Legacy of the Enlightenment

• Role of the Philosophes – The philosophes are not activists, but inspire major revolutions

• Belief in Progress – Scientific breakthroughs show human capacity to improve society

• A More Secular Outlook – New knowledge of the world leads people to question religious

ideas

– Voltaire and others criticize beliefs and practices of Christianity

• Importance of the Individual – People place more emphasis on individual rights, abilities

– Reason becomes a central concept for philosophers, rulers

Section 2:

Enlightenment Ideas Spread


American Revolution


• censorship – restrictions on access to ideas or information

• salons – informal social gatherings at which writers, artists, philosophes,

and others exchanged ideas

• baroque – ornate style of art and architecture popular in the 1600s and

1700s

• rococo – personal, elegant style of art and architecture made popular

during the mid-1700s

• enlightened despot – an absolute ruler who uses power to bring about

political and social change

• Frederick the Great – king of Prussia from 1740 to 1786, an enlightened

despot

• Catherine the Great – became empress of Russia in 1762; believed in

the Enlightenment ideas of equality and liberty

• Joseph II – the most radical of the enlightened despots; ruled Austria

and worked for religious equality and an end to censorship

• Writers Face Censorship – The government and church authorities felt they had a sacred duty to

defend the old order—that God had se up the old order.

– They turned to censorship—controlling what was produced and/or limiting access to the ideas and information.

– Many books were banned or burned and writers were imprisoned

– To avoid persecution, many authors created pen names.

– To avoid censorship, many authors hid their ideas in works of fiction.

• Montesquieu wrote Persian Letters about two fictional Persian travelers that mocked the French society.

• Voltaire wrote Candide to expose the corruption and hypocrisy of European Society

• Ideas Spread in Salons – Paris becomes center of the Enlightenment during 1700s

– City is home to salons—informal gatherings where thinkers (such as writers, philosophes, etc.) discuss ideas

• Madam Geoffrin ran on e of the most respected also at her home—Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart played for her guests and Diderot was a regular.

New Ideas Challenge Society

• The Enlightenment Inspires Composers – Classical music emerges; lighter, more elegant than

earlier style

• Movement led by composers such as Johann Sebastian Bach, Franze Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig van Beethoven

Arts and Literature Reflect New Ideas

• From Grandeur to Charm

– Pre-Enlightenment art style is baroque—grand, ornate design

– Enlightenment style is either • Neoclassical Style: based on Greek/Roman themes

• Rococo Style: moved away from religion and was lighter, elegant, and charming.

• The Novel Takes Shape

– Novel emerges: works of fiction with detailed plots and characters

• Samuel Richardson’s Pamela considered first true English novel (about a servant girl)

• Daniel Defoe writes Robinson Crusoe, an exciting tale about a sailor shipwreck on a tropical island.

Arts and Literature Reflect New Ideas

• Some absolute monarchs accepted Enlightenment ideas and used their power to bring about social & political change and thus strengthen their own rule—they became known as enlightened despots.

• Frederick II Attempts Reform – Frederick the Great (King of Prussia) saw

himself as the ―first servant of the state‖

• He reform education, justice system, religion (allowing people to choose their own religion).

• He did however, fail to end serfdom

Enlightened Despots Embrace New Ideas

• Catherine the Great Studies Philosophes’ Works – Catherine II (Empress of Russia) believed in the

Enlightenment ideas of equality and liberty while not losing any of her power.

– Sought to abolish capital punishment and torture

– Mainly remembered for expanding Russian Empire

• Joseph II Continues Reform – Joseph II (Austrian Hapsburg Emperor) traveled in

disguise to learn of people’s problems

– Allows freedoms of worship and the press (ending censorship)

– Chose talented middle-class people to run departments

– Abolished serfdom (but the practice is reinstated after his death)

Enlightened Despots Embrace New Ideas

• Lives of the Majority Change Slowly

– Peasants in the West were more prosperous

than those in the East

– In Russia and Eastern Europe, peasants were

Serfs and considered property

Lives of the Majority Change Slowly

• What did those opposed to Enlightenment ideas do to stop the spread of information?

• How did the arts and literature change as Enlightenment ideas spread?

• Why were the philosophes interested in sharing their beliefs with European rulers?

• During this time, why did change occur slowly for most Europeans?

CHECKPOINTS

• What did those opposed to Enlightenment ideas do to stop the spread of information?

– They engaged in censorship, burning books, and imprisoning writers--to restrict access to information.

• How did the arts and literature change as Enlightenment ideas spread?

– Art became more elegant and charming; music also became more elegant, with performances more affordable for the middle class; there was an outpouring of novels.

• Why were the philosophes interested in sharing their beliefs with European rulers?

– Because they wanted reform, they tried to persuade European rulers to accept their ideas. These rulers had the power to effect change.

• During this time, why did change occur slowly for most Europeans?

– Most Europeans were peasants living in small rural villages during this time and were not part of courtly or middle-class culture, where the changes were occurring.


Section 3:

Birth of the American

Republic


American Revolution


• George III – king of England during the American Revolution

• Stamp Act – a tax imposed by England on the colonies on items such as

newspapers and pamphlets

• George Washington – Virginia planter and soldier who became the head of the

Continental Army

• Thomas Jefferson – principal author of the Declaration of Independence

• popular sovereignty – John Locke’s idea that all government power comes from

the people

• Yorktown, Virginia – site where George Washington forced the surrender of the

British army in 1781, after which the British war effort crumbled

• Treaty of Paris – document ending the war, in which Britain recognized the

independence of the United States of America

• James Madison – one of the authors of the Constitution

• Benjamin Franklin – philosopher, scientist, publisher, legislator, diplomat, and a

framer of the Constitution

• federal republic – a government in which the power is divided between the

federal government and the states

Britain Becomes a Global Power

• Britain’s rose to world power, in part, due to its: – island location

– colonial possessions

– favorable business climate

– powerful navy

• Controlling the Island: – Britain merged with Scotland reducing internal tension

– Britain took over and oppressed the Irish

• British Government – Britain developed three new political institutions: political parties, the

cabinet, and the office of prime minister.

– Britain had developed a constitutional government—government whose

power is defined and limited by law

– Despite the growing influence of Parliament and the cabinet, most political

and economic power in Britain was held by a ruling class of landowning

aristocrats.

• In 1760, George III began his 60-year reign and he wanted to reestablish the power of the monarch

– He dissolved the cabinet and in 1775

– He made colonist in North America pay for their own defense

– His failure to handle the American situation would eventually give most authority back to the Parliament

• The American Colonies Grow

– The British controlled 13 colonies

along the Atlantic coast of North

America

– Colonists had control over much of

their own affairs

– American colonies grow large and populous during 1600s, 1700s

– Colonies thrive economically through trade with Europe

• Britain’s Navigation Act restricts that trade (1651) and other trade laws add restrictions, taxes

– Colonists identify less and less as British subjects: many began to believe that the U.S. should break away from Britain

The Colonies in the Mid-1700s

• The Seven Years War and the French and

Indian War (British vs. French) drained

the British treasury and king believed

that colonist should help pay for the debt

• Parliament passed the Sugar Act (import

tax) in 1764 and the Stamp Act (tax on

items such as newspapers and

pamphlets) in 1765

• Settlers in the 13 English colonies

protested British taxes and trade

restrictions as an attack on their rights as

British citizens

• The saying ―no taxation without

representation‖ became the popular

saying

Colonists Express Discontent

• Colonists Rebel Against Britain

– Boston Massacre: In 1770, British soldiers opened fire on protesters

who had been pelting them with snowballs

– Boston Tea Party: In 1773, colonist destroyed tea to protest British

taxes

– Continental Congress: Colonial leaders (John Adams, George

Washington, etc.) continued to meet to discuss what actions needed to

be taken.

• Colonist Declare Independence

– Lexington-Concord: Militia guarding weapons depot clash with British

Soldiers—unordered ―shot heard around the world‖ started the American

Revolution.

– Declaration of Independence: Thomas Jefferson wrote (inspired by

John Locke’s ideas) and reflect the principle of popular sovereignty: it

was adopted on July 4, 1776.

Colonists Express Discontent

• Britain Advantages:

– Britain had professional soldiers, more

money, and a superior navy

– One third of the colonists were loyal to the

King

• Colonists Advantages:

– They were fighting at home, good leadership,

and fighting for survival (freedom)

The American Revolution Continues

• France Provides Support

– In 1777 the French joined on the side of the Americans

– The Netherlands and Spain also joined the Americans

• Treaty of Paris Ends the War

– In 1781, General Washington forced the surrender of the British at

Yorktown

– Two years later, the Treaty of Paris ended the war which recognized U.S.

independence

• The Articles of Confederation: America was governed by the Articles of Confederation for several years, but they were too weak

• Northwest Ordinance of 1787 – created procedures for dividing up the Northwest Territory and requirements for admission of

new states

• A Weak National Government – Articles of Confederation set government plan for new republic

– Articles create legislature only, no executive or judicial branches

– Result is weak national government fails to provide unity and order

• Federalist Papers – Federalist favored the new constitution (strong central government).

– A series of 85 essays—written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay—written to convince people that a stronger central government was needed.

– Antifederalist (favored strong state rights and weak central government) worried about a lack of formal citizen's rights and freedoms—thus a Bill of Rights was included in the new constitution.

• A New Constitution – Leaders call Constitutional Convention in 1787 to revise articles

– Group instead creates a new government under U.S. Constitution

– Constitution contains many political ideas of the Enlightenment

Articles of Confederation

Articles of Confederation Constitution of the United States

Major powers held by individual states

Powers shared between states and strong central

government

National government had no power to tax,

no power to enforce laws National government had power to tax and regulate trade

At the national level-one house legislature,

no executive, no court system

Three branches at the national leve-exectutive

(president), bi-cameral legislature (congress), and judicial

• Enlightenment Ideas Have Great Impact

– During the summer of 1787, a new constitution was created and the new

document established a government run by the people, for the people

– Although there were numerous representatives working on the

constitution, James Madison is credited with being the ―Father of the

Constitution‖

– The Constitution created a federal republic, with power divided between

the federal, or national, government and the states

– Created three branches of government legislative, executive, and judicial

(from Montesquieu)

– The Bill of Rights (the first amendments to the Constitution) recognized

the ideas that people had basic rights that the govt. must protect, such

as: freedom of religion, freedom of speech, freedom of the press, etc.

A New Constitution

IDEA THINKER IMPACT Natural rights-life, liberty, property Locke Fundamental to U.S. Declaration of Independence

Separation of powers Montesquieu U.S. separation of powers in constitution

Freedom of thought and expression Voltaire Guaranteed in U.S. Bill of Rights

Religious freedom Voltaire Guaranteed in U.S. Bill of Rights

Abolishment of torture Beccaria Guaranteed in U.S. Bill of Rights

• Symbol of Freedom – The United States Constitution would serve as a model for other

democratic nations

A New Constitution

• What led to Britain’s rise to global prominence in the mid-1700s?

• In what ways were the colonies already developing independence form Britain?

• What Enlightenment ideas are reflected in the Declaration of Independence?

• What advantages did the colonists have in battling Britain for their independence?

• Explain the influence of Enlightenment ideas on the United States Constitution and Bill of Rights.

CHECKPOINTS

• What led to Britain’s rise to global prominence in the mid-1700s? – island location, colonial possessions, favorable business climate, powerful navy

– Each victory in war brought Britain more lands. In addition, Britain was in a position to control trade.

• In what ways were the colonies already developing independence form Britain?

– Answers may include colonial prosperity, colonial assemblies having some control over local affairs, and the lack of enforcement of its laws by Britain.

• What Enlightenment ideas are reflected in the Declaration of Independence?

– Individual freedom, government by the people, the right to ―life, liberty, and property‖

• What advantages did the colonists have in battling Britain for their independence?

– Familiarity with the terrain, strong leadership, and determination to achieve their ideals

• Explain the influence of Enlightenment ideas on the United States Constitution and Bill of Rights.

– Answers should cite separation of powers, checks and balances, individual freedom, and government by the people


Chapter 6: The Scientific Revolution...• salons – informal social gatherings at which writers,...

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