CHAPTER 6CHAPTER 6

THE PRESIDENT: FROM CHIEF CLERK TO CHIEF EXECUTIVE

THE CONSTITUTIONAL BASIS THE CONSTITUTIONAL BASIS OF THE PRESIDENCYOF THE PRESIDENCY

• ARTICLE II = AMBIGUOUS

• EXECUTIVE POWER IS NOT DEFINED EXCEPT INDIRECTLY

• THE PRESIDENT “SHALL TAKE CARE THAT THE LAWS BE FAITHFULLY EXECUTED”

INHERENT POWERSINHERENT POWERS

• POWERS INFERRED FROM THE CONSTITUTION AND LAWS NOT FROM SOME INDEPENDENT OR ABSOLUTE IDEA OF EXECUTIVE POWER.

SELECTION OF THE SELECTION OF THE PRESIDENTPRESIDENT

• SELECTION BY THE ELECTORAL COLLEGE• THE FRAMERS HOPED TO ACHIEVE A

STRONG PRESIDENT RESPONSIBLE TO STATE AND NATIONAL LEGISLATORS RATHER THAN DIRECTLY TO THE ELECTORATE, AS WOULD HAVE BEEN THE CASE WITH THE DIRECT ELECTION OF THE PRESIDENT BY THE PEOPLE.

TWO DIMENSIONS TO THE TWO DIMENSIONS TO THE PRESIDENCYPRESIDENCY

• HEAD OF STATE

• HEAD OF GOVERNMENT

THE PRESIDENT AS HEAD OF THE PRESIDENT AS HEAD OF STATE: EXPRESSED POWERSSTATE: EXPRESSED POWERS

• MILITARY• “COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF OF THE ARMY AND NAVY AND OF SEVERAL STATE

MILITIAS WHEN CALLED INTO ACTUAL SERVICE”• PRESIDENTS HAVE HISTORICALLY ATTEMPTED TO EVADE PARTICULAR

MILITARY AND FOREIGN POLICY POWERS GIVEN TO THE CONGRESS• LYNDON JOHNSON, GEORGE H.W. BUSH

• JUDICIAL• AMNESTY AND PARDONS EXCEPT IN CASES OF IMPEACHMENT

• ANDREW JOHNSON, GERALD FORD, JIMMY CARTER• DIPLOMATIC

• “POWER TO MAKE TREATIES WITH THE ADVICE AND CONSENT OF THE SENATE”• WASHINGTON’S RECEIVING “CITIZEN” GENET, EXPANDS THE PRESIDENTS’S

POWER TO RECOGNIZE OTHER COUNTRIES• CARTER AND NICARAGUA• BUSH AND FORMER SOVIET AND YUGOSLAV REPUBLICS

EXPRESSED POWERS (CON.)EXPRESSED POWERS (CON.)

• EXECUTIVE

• ALL LAWS ARE FAITHFULLY EXECUTED

• POWER TO APPOINT, REMOVE AND SUPERVISE ALL EXECUTIVE OFFICERS AND APPOINT ALL FEDERAL JUDGES

THE IMPERIAL PRESIDENCYTHE IMPERIAL PRESIDENCY

• THREE CASES HAVE DISPLAYED THE SUPREME COURT’S SUPPORT IN EXPANDING THE POWER OF THE PRESIDENCY• IN RE NEAGLE (1890)

• THE PRESIDENT COULD BE BOLD AND EXPANSIVE IN THE INFERENCES HE DREW AS TO THE “RIGHT, DUTIES AND OBLIGATIONS”, BUT THESE HAD TO BE INFERRED FROM THE CONSTITUTION AND LAWS.

• CURTISS-WRIGHT (1936)• THE CONGRESS MAY DELEGATE A DEGREE OF

DISCRETION TO THE PRESIDENT IN FOREIGN AFFAIRS NOT GIVEN IN THE AREA OF DOMESTIC AFFAIRS.

• U.S. v PINK• THE USE OF EXECUTIVE AGREEMENTS TO CONDUCT

FOREIGN POLICY

PRESIDENTIAL ATTEMPTS TO PRESIDENTIAL ATTEMPTS TO GO BEYOND EXECUTIVE GO BEYOND EXECUTIVE

AGREEMENTSAGREEMENTS• LYNDON JOHNSON

• GULF OF TONKIN RESOLUTION• RICHARD NIXON

• WAR POWERS RESOLUTION-1973• PASSED OVER NIXON’S VETO

• RONALD REAGAN• 4 TIMES IGNORED WAR POWERS RESOLUTION

• GEORGE H.W. BUSH• PANAMA-1989• KUWAIT=SUBMITTED ISSUE TO CONGRESS

• GEORGE W. BUSH• AFGHANISTAN

PRESIDENTIAL DOMESTIC PRESIDENTIAL DOMESTIC MILITARY P0WERMILITARY P0WER

• PRESIDENTS ARE NOT OBLIGATED TO DEPLOY NATIONAL TROOPS MERELY BECAUSE OF STATE LEGISLATURE OR GOVERNOR REQUESTS

• MORE IMPORTANTLY, THE PRESIDENT MAY DEPLOY TROOPS IN A STATE WITHOUT A SPECIFIC ORDER, IF HE CONSIDERS IT NECESSARY IN ORDER TO MAINTAIN AN ESSENTIAL NATIONAL SERVICE, IN ORDER TO ENFORCE A FEDERAL JUDICIAL ORDER OR IN ORDER TO PROTECT FEDERALLY GUARANTEED CIVIL RIGHTS.

LEGISLATIVE POWERLEGISLATIVE POWER

• STATE OF THE UNION ADDRESS

• VETO POWER

• LINE ITEM VETO

THE GAME PRESIDENTS THE GAME PRESIDENTS PLAY: THE VETOPLAY: THE VETO

• PRESIDENTS GENERALLY HAVE USED THE VETO POWER TO UPSET THE POWER WITH CONGRESS

• VETOES ARE USUALLY PART OF A BARGAINING PROCESS BETWEEN THE PRESIDENT AND CONGRESS

• “THE SECOND FACE OF POWER”• CONGRESS WILL ALTER THE CONTENT OF A BILL TO MAKE IT

MORE TO A PRESIDENT’S LIKING IN ORDER TO PREEMPT A VETO

• PRESIDENT’S OFTEN ATTEMPT TO CONVINCE CONGRESS THAT THEIR VIEWS ARE MORE EXTREME THAN THEY REALLY ARE, IN ORDER TO PROVOKE A COMPROMISE MORE IN LINE WITH THE ACTUAL VIEWS OF THE PRESIDENT.

• THE PRESIDENT MUST FREQUENTLY WEIGH THE VALUE OF USING THE VETO AGAINST THE POTENTIAL HIT HE MAY TAKE IN OPINION POLLS.

THE RISE OF PRESIDENTIAL THE RISE OF PRESIDENTIAL GOVERNMENTGOVERNMENT

• “THE POPULAR BASE OF THE PRESIDENCY IS IMPORTANT LESS BECAUSE IT GIVES THE PRESIDENT POWER THAN BECAUSE IT GIVES HIM CONSENT TO USE ALL THE POWERS ALREADY VESTED BY THE CONSTITUTION IN THE OFFICE.”

LEGISLATIVE INITIATIVELEGISLATIVE INITIATIVE

• THE PRESIDENT HAS A GREAT DEAL OF POWER IN HIS ABILITY TO INITIATE LEGISLATION.

• THE POWER IN BEING ABLE TO SET THE TERMS OF DISCOURSE IN THE MAKING OF PUBLIC POLICY.

• “EXECUTIVE ORDERS”• THE POWER TO PROMULGATE RULES THAT HAVE THE

EFFECT AND THE FORMAL STATUS OF LEGISLATION

• LEGISLATIVE OR POLICY LEADERSHIP ROLE OF THE PRESIDENT IS AN INSTITUTIONALIZED FEATURE OF THE OFFICE THAT EXISTS INDEPENDENT OF THE PRESIDENCY.

DELEGATED POWERSDELEGATED POWERS

• OFTEN THE RESULT OF GOVERNMENTAL EXPANSION SINCE THE NEW DEAL

• FREQUENTLY THE CONGRESS MUST TURN TO THE EXECUTIVE BRANCH AGENCIES TO ADMINISTER PROGRAMS IT CREATES OR ELSE TO CREATE NEW AGENCIES• EPA AND DEPARTMENT OF HOMELAND

SECURITY

WHY ARE SOME PRESIDENT’S WHY ARE SOME PRESIDENT’S GREAT SUCCESSES AND GREAT SUCCESSES AND

OTHERS COLOSSAL OTHERS COLOSSAL FAILURES?FAILURES?

• IS IT A REFLECTION OF THE ATTRIBUTES OF THE PERSON?

• IS IT A REFLECTION OF THE POLITICAL SITUATIONS THAT THE PERSON ENCOUNTERS?

• IS IT THE REFLECTION OF THE STRATEGIC INTERACTIONS A PRESIDENT HAS WITH OTHER POLITICAL ACTORS, I.E. THE VETO?

THE LEGISLATIVE EPOCH, THE LEGISLATIVE EPOCH, 1800-19331800-1933

• DURING THE 19TH CENTURY, WITH THE EXCEPTION OF JACKSON AND LINCOLN, PRESIDENTS PLAYED THE ROLE OF CLERKS, SUBSERVIENT TO THE CONGRESS. WHEN JACKSON AND LINCOLN LEFT OFFICE, THE PRESIDENCY WENT BACK TO A SUBORDINATE ROLE IT HAD ORIGINALLY PLAYED.

(CON.)(CON.)

• THE BEGINNING OF THE NATIONAL CONVENTION STRENGTHENED THE PRESIDENCY AND BEGINS TO GIVE THE PRESIDENCY A BASE OF POWER INDEPENDENT OF THE CONGRESS.

• EVENTUALLY THE ADOPTION OF PRIMARY ELECTIONS WILL FURTHER DEMOCRATIZE THE PRESIDENCY.

• THE INTERSTATE COMMERCE ACT AND SHERMAN ANTITRUST ACT, SOUGHT TO KEEP POWER OUT OF THE HANDS OF THE PRESIDENT AND GIVE IT TO COMMISSIONS THAT WERE RESPONSIBLE TO CONGRESS.

THE NEW DEAL AND THE THE NEW DEAL AND THE PRESIDENCYPRESIDENCY

• CIRCUMSTANCES THAT PLACED A PREMIUM ON COOPERATION OF THE WHITE HOUSE AND CONGRESS

• PERSONALITY

• UNIFIED GOVERNMENT

NEW PROGRAMS EXPAND NEW PROGRAMS EXPAND THE ROLE OF NATIONAL THE ROLE OF NATIONAL

GOVERNMENTGOVERNMENT

• THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT DISCOVERED IT HAD “POLICE POWER” AND COULD DIRECTLY REGULATE INDIVIDUALS AS WELL AS PROVIDE ROADS AND OTHER SERVICES.

• THE SUPREME COURT RULE SOME OF THE NEW DEAL LEGISLATION AS UNCONTITUTIONAL BECAUSE IT REACHED BEYOND “INTERSTATE” INTO “INTRASTATE” MATTERS.

• NATIONAL LABOR RELATIONS BOARD v. JONES & LAUGHLIN STEEL CORPORATION

DELEGATION OF POWERDELEGATION OF POWER

• THE ENHANCEMENT OF PRESIDENTIAL POWER WITH THE ESTABLISHMENT OF NEW AGENCIES AND PROGRAMS UNDER PRESIDENTIAL AUTHORITY• THE DELEGATION OF LEGISLATIVE

POWER TO THE EXECUTIVE BRANCH=A PRESIDENT CENTERED GOVERNMENT

PRESIDENTIAL GOVERNMENTPRESIDENTIAL GOVERNMENT

• RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CONGRESS AND THE PRESIDENT=PRINCIPAL-AGENT

• DELEGATION IS NOT ABDICATION• CONGRESS RETAINED MANY STRINGS BY WHICH

TO OVERSEE AND REGULATE THE EXECUTIVE’S USE OF DELEGATED AUTHORITY

• CONGRESS’ HAND WAS FORCED BY CIRCUMSTANCES:• INDUSTRIALIZATION, URBANIZATION,

EXPANSION INTO THE WORLD ECONOMY

DELEGATION OF POWER TO DELEGATION OF POWER TO PRESIDENT PRESIDENT

• STRINGS ATTATCHED:

• OVERSIGHT

• REGULATION

• AMENDMENT

• BUDGETARY CONTROLS, ETC…

FORMAL SOURCES OF FORMAL SOURCES OF PRESIDENTIAL POWERPRESIDENTIAL POWER

• PATRONAGE AS A TOOL OF MANAGEMENT• REASONS FOR APPOINTMENTS

• THOSE WHO WILL ATTEMPT TO CARRY OUT PRESIDENT’S AGENDA

• BUILDING LINKS TO CONSTITUENCIES: STATES, PARTY ORGANIZATIONS, BUSINESS, COMMUNITY, ORGANIZED LABOR, AGRICULTURE, RELIGIOUS GROUPS

• FAVORS TO SENATORS• MUST BE CONFIRMED BY THE SENATE

THE CABINETTHE CABINET

• THE TRADITIONAL BUT INFORMAL DESIGNATION FOR THE HEADS OF ALL THE MAJOR FEDERAL GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS.

• HELP BUILD PARTY AND POPULAR SUPPORT, BUT IS NOT A PARTY ORGAN.

• MADE UP OF DIRECTORS, BUT IS NOT A BOARD OF DIRECTORS

• UNLIKELY TO FORM EFFECTIVE GOVERNING GROUP OF THIS COLLECTION OF APPOINTMENTS.

• SOME PRESIDENTS HAVE RELIED MORE ON AN “INNER CABINET”=NATIONAL SECURITY COUNCIL(NSA)

• *PRESIDENTS HAVE INCREASINGLY PREFERRED THE WHITE HOUSE STAFF INSTEAD OF THE CABINET AS THEIR MEANS OF MANAGING THE EXECUTIVE BRANCH

THE WHITE HOUSE STAFFTHE WHITE HOUSE STAFF

• COMPOSED MAINLY OF ANALYSTS AND ADVISORS• ADVICE THEY GIVE IS A GOOD DEAL BROADER AND MORE

GENERALLY POLITICAL THAN WHAT COMES FROM THE CABINET DEPARTMENTS

• WHILE THE SIZE OF THE WHITE HOUSE STAFF HAS FLUCTUATED, THE MAJOR DIFFERENCE HAS BEEN IN ITS ORGANIZATION.• REAGAN=DELEGATING IMPORTANT MANAGEMENT POWERS

TO HIS CHIEF OF STAFF• BUSH=CENTRALIZED HIS STAFF UNDER CHIEF OF STAFF JOHN

SUNUNU AND DEALT WITH CABINET HEADS• CLINTON=PREFERENCE FOR COMPETITION AMONG EQUALS

IN HIS CABINET AND WHITE HOUSE OFFICIALS (SIMILAR TO FDR)

• WAS NOT ABLE TO DEVELOP COHERENT POLICIES

THE EXECUTIVE OFFICE OF THE EXECUTIVE OFFICE OF THE PRESIDENTTHE PRESIDENT

• EOP=“INSTITUTIONAL PRESIDENCY”; THE PERMANENT AGENCIES THAT PERFORM DEFINED MANAGEMENT TASKS FOR THE PRESIDENT• OFFICE OF MANAGEMENT AND BUDGET (OMB)• COUNCIL OF ECONOMIC ADVISORS (CEA)• COUNCIL ON ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY• NATIONAL SECURITY COUNCIL (NSC)

• THE IMPORTANCE OF EACH AGENCY IN THE EOP IS CONTINGENT ON THE PRESIDENT

THE VICE PRESIDENCYTHE VICE PRESIDENCY

• EXISTS FOR TWO PURPOSES• TO SUCCEED THE PRESIDENT• TO PRESIDE OVER THE SENATE

• VALUE OF THE VICE PRESIDENCY• ELECTORAL RESOURCE, BUT THIS HAS

CHANGED OVER THE LAST TWO ADMINISTRATIONS

• WHY ARE PRESIDENTS RELUCTANT GIVE VICE PRESIDENTS MORE RESPONSIBILITY?

• GORE AND CHENEY AND THE GROWING PROMINENCE OF THE VICE PRESIDENCY

INFORMAL REOURCES OF INFORMAL REOURCES OF PRESIDENTIAL POWERPRESIDENTIAL POWER

• ELECTIONS

• INITIATIVE

• USE OF THE MEDIA

• PARTY

• GROUPS

• PUBLIC OPINION AND MASS POPULARITY

ELECTIONS AS A RESOURCEELECTIONS AS A RESOURCE

• THE SIZE OF AN ELECTORAL VICTORY MAY CREATE A MANDATE FOR THE PRESIDENCY THEREBY AT LEAST ALLOWING A “HONEYMOON” PERIOD FOR THE PRESIDENT.

• NATIONAL CONVENTIONS ALSO CREATE A SOURCE POPULAR LOYALTY FOR THE PRESIDENT THAT WAS SEPARATE FROM LOYALTY TO ANYONE IN CONGRESS• PRIMARIES HAVE MADE RUNNING FOR THE

PRESIDENCY VERY EXPENSIVE, BUT ALSO GIVEN THE VICTOR A FAR WIDER PUBLIC BASE.

INITIATIVE AS A INITIATIVE AS A PRESIDENTIAL RESOURCEPRESIDENTIAL RESOURCE

• THE PRESIDENT IS EITHER A BARGAINER-IN-CHIEF OR A COORDINATOR-IN-CHIEF, DEPENDENT ON WHETHER OR NOT HIS PARTY IS IN CONTROL OF THE CONGRESS OR NOT.

• OFFICE OF THE MANAGEMENT OF THE BUDGET HAS ENHANCED THE PRESIDENT’S POWER TO SEIZE THE INITIATIVE

• LEGISLATIVE CLEARANCE• ALL REQUESTS FOR NEW LEGISLATION ALONG WITH ESTIMATE

OF THEIR BUDGETARY NEEDS MUST FIRST GO TO THE PRESIDENT.• IT HAS BECOME THE STARTING POINT FOR ALL PRESIDENTIAL

PROGRAMS.• MANAGEMENT CONTROL FROM THE TOP-DOWN• REAGAN, BUSH AND CLINTON WHILE APPARANTLY

PHILOSOPHICALLY AT ODDS, ARE ALIKE IN THEIR COMMITMENT TO CENTRAL MANAGEMENT CONTROL AND PROGRAM PLANNING.

• ALL THREE OF THESE PRESIDENTS HAVE GIVEN THE BUDGET DIRECTOR CABINET STATUS.

PRESIDENTIAL USE OF THE PRESIDENTIAL USE OF THE MEDIAMEDIA

• WHILE BOTH THE PRESIDENT AND MEMBERS OF CONGRESS ARE KEY SOURCES OF THE NEWS, THE PRESIDENT HAS MORE CONTROL OVER WHAT IS RELEASED AND WHEN IT IS RELEASED.• PRESIDENTIAL PRESS CONFERENCES: IMPORTANCE

HAS BEEN AS VARIED AS THE MEN IN THE WHITE HOUSE

• TELEVISION ADDRESSES• TOWN MEETINGS• RADIO BROADCASTS• *SUBSTANCE COUNTS AND PUBLIC FIGURES GO TO

GREAT LENGTHS TO PREPARE WELL IN ADVANCE IN ORDER TO APPEAR SPONTANEOUS

• SEE-THROUGH LECTERN

PARTY AS A PRESIDENTIAL PARTY AS A PRESIDENTIAL RESOURCERESOURCE

• THE PRESIDENTIAL “BATTING AVERAGE” IS CONTINGENT ON WHETHER OR NOT HIS PARTY CONTROLS CONGRESS.

• FREQUENTLY THE PRESIDENT MUST PLAY THE “BIPARTISAN” CARD. HOWEVER HE MUST USE THIS WITH DISCRETION SINCE HE IS STILL CONSIDERED THE LEADER OF HIS PARTY

• THE THREAT OF A FILIBUSTER CAN ALSO LEAD TO COMPROMISES• PARTICULARLY THE CASE IN THE MATTER OF

APPOINTMENTS

GROUPS AS A PRESIDENTIAL GROUPS AS A PRESIDENTIAL RESOURCERESOURCE

• NEW DEAL GROUPS=PATRONAGE IN POLICIES• SOUTHERN WHITES• RESIDENTS OF LARGE CITIES IN THE INDUSTRIAL NORTHEAST AND

MIDWEST• BLACKS• ORGANIZED LABOR • AGRICULTURE

• REPUBLICAN GROUPS• LABOR INTENSIVE INDUSTRIES THAT DEAL WITH UNIONS• UPPER-INCOME INTERESTS• REPUBLICAN ORGANIZATIONS WHOSE MEMBERS HAIL FROM

EASTERN EUROPEAN COUNTRIES• WHITE SOUTH• SUN BELT • CHRISTIAN RIGHT

• CHRISTIAN COALITION• FOCUS ON THE FAMILY

PUBLIC OPINION AND MASS PUBLIC OPINION AND MASS POPULARITY: RESOURCE OR POPULARITY: RESOURCE OR

LIABILITY?LIABILITY?• WITH POWER THERE GOES VULNERABILITY• PRESIDENTS TEND TO FOLLOW PUBLIC OPINION,

NOT LEAD IT• CLINTON AND BUSH AND THE PERMANENT

CAMPAIGN • THE PUBLIC TENDS NOT TO REACT TO SPEECHES

BUT TO ACTION• “THE RALLYING EFFECT”: SUPPORT FOR

PRESIDENTIAL FOREIGN POLICY INITIATIVES• THE USE OF THE “BULLY PULPIT”

IS A PARLIAMENTARY IS A PARLIAMENTARY SYSTEM BETTER?SYSTEM BETTER?

• FUSION OF POWER• BASED ON THE PRINCIPLE THAT EMPHASIZES

THE COORDINATION AND CONCENTRATION OF POWER.

• THIS DIFFERS FROM OUR SYSTEM WHICH IS BASED ON THE PRINCIPLE OF THE SEPARATION OF POWERS

• THE KEY ELEMENT IN THE PARLIAMENTARY SYSTEM IS THE SUPREMACY OF PARLIAMENT AND THE ACCOUNTABILITY OF THE POLITICAL EXECUTIVE TO IT.

GOVERNMENTAL GOVERNMENTAL ARRANGEMENTSARRANGEMENTS

• THERE IS A DIVISION AND SPECIALIZATION OF LABOR• PARLIAMENT “ELECTS” A GOVERNMENT TO SERVE AS THE

EXECUTIVE ARM OF THE REGIME.• EACH CABINET MINISTER THEN HAS JURISDICTION OVER

SPECIFIED DIMENSIONS OF PUBLIC POLICY CALLED MINISTERIAL PORTFOLIO

• PARLIAMENT =AGENT• EXECUTIVE AUTHORITY IS DELEGATED TO A N

AGENT=CABINET MINISTERS

• CONTROL MECHANISMS• PRIME MINISTER=POLICEMAN AND MAESTRO• IF PARLIAMENT IS UNHAPPY WITH A CABINET’S

PERFORMANCE THEY MAY VOTE IT OUT OF OFFICE AND REPLACE IT WITH AN ALTERNATIVE.

THE GOVERNMENT THE GOVERNMENT FORMATION PROCESSFORMATION PROCESS

• TYPES• MINORITY

• SINGLE PARTY MINORITY(SINGLE PARTY)• ONE PARTY RECEIVES ALL CABINET PORTFOLIOS,

BUT THAT PARTY HAS LESS THAN A MAJORITY OF PARLIAMENTARY SEATS.

• MULTIPARTY MINORITY(COALITION)• MAJORITY

• UNIFIED (SINGLE PARTY)• THE MAJORITY PARTY VOTES ITSELF ALL THE

CABINET PORTFOLIOS• MULTIPARTY MAJORITY(COALITION)

• A CABINET COMPOSED OF SEVERAL PARTIES THAT CONTROL A PARLIAMENTARY MAJORITY

• RANK-AND-FILE MUST BE CONTROLED

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE PRESIDENTIAL DECISION PRESIDENTIAL DECISION

MAKINGMAKING• TIME AVAILABLE

• HOW MUCH TIME DOES THE PRESIDENT HAVE? IF SEVERE TIME CONSTRAINTS ARE INVOLVED, THE SITUATION IS A CRISIS.

• AMOUNT OF PRIOR STUDY AND PREPARATION• READINESS

• IMPORTANCE OF THE ISSUE• HOW IMPORTANT IS THE ISSUE REALLY?

• PERSONAL BELIEFS• PRIOR EXPERIENCE• STYLE OF DECISION MAKING

• HOW THE PRESIDENT MAKES DECISIONS, WITH ADVICE OF AN INNER CIRCLE OR SMALL GROUP, OR WITH ADVICE OF A LARGE GROUP?

PRESIDENTIAL DECISION PRESIDENTIAL DECISION MAKING (CON.)MAKING (CON.)

• FORMAL RULES• INFORMAL RULES• AVAILABLE RESOURCES

• TANGIBLE THINGS THAT THE PRESIDENT HAS AT HIS DISPOSAL.

• STATUS RELATIONSHIPS• PEOPLE WHO HAVE FACE-TO-FACE CONTACT WITH THE

PRESIDENT AND INFLUENCE HIS DECISION.• EXTERNAL DECISION MAKERS

• PEOPLE WHO INFLUENCE THE PRESIDENT BUT NEVER ACTUALLY COMMUNICATE WITH HIM.

• PUBLIC OPINION