Chapter 6 A Tour of the Cell
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Transcript of Chapter 6 A Tour of the Cell
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Chapter 6A Tour of the Cell
AP BiologySmiley
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Basic Structure of every Organism
• Based on 1 of 2 types of cells– Prokaryotic– Eukaryotic
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Basic Structure of every Organism
• Based on 1 of 2 types of cells– Prokaryotic• ‘pro’ =before• ‘karyon’ = kernel
– Eukaryotic• ‘eu’ = true• ‘karyon’ = kernel
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Basic Structure of every Organism
• Based on 1 of 2 types of cells– Prokaryotic• Only exist in domains of Bacteria or Archaea
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Basic Structure of every Organism
• Based on 1 of 2 types of cells– Prokaryotic• Only exist in domains of Bacteria or Archaea
– Eukaryotic• Protists, fungi, animals, and plants
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Eukaryotic Cell (plant)
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Eukaryotic Cell (animal)
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Prokaryotic Cell (Bacteria)
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Basic Common Feature of Both
• Bound by selective barrier (plasma membrane)
• Have cytosol (jellylike substance)– Where organelles and other components are
found• Contain chromosomes– Carry genes in the form of DNA
• Have ribosomes
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Different Features of Both
• Location of DNA– Eukaryotes• Most DNA is in nucleus• Nucleus is bound by double membrane
– “true kernel”
– Prokaryotes• DNA is concentrated in region not membrane-enclosed
– Nucleoid
• Cytoplasm
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Different Features of Both
• Cytoplasm– Eukaryotes• Region between the nucleus and plasma membrane• Contains a variety of organelles of specialized form and
function– Prokaryotes• Interior of prokaryotic cell
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Different Features of Both
• Organelles– Eukaryotes• Membrane- bound organelles are Present• Specialized form and function
– Prokaryotes• Absence of organelles
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Different Features of Both• Size– Eukaryotes• Generally Larger than prokaryotes• Size relates to function• Logistics of carrying out cellular metabolism limits cell
size• 10 – 100um in diameter• Metabolic requirements limit size practicality of cells
– Prokaryotes• Smallest cells known• 1 – 5 um in diameter
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Plasma Membrane
• Acts as a selective barrier• Allows sufficient passage of oxygen, nutrients,
and wastes to service entire cell• Example:– For 1 um2 of membrane, only a limited amount of
particular substance can cross per second• SA to V ratio is critical
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Plasma Membrane
• As a cell increases in size, its volume grows proportionately more than surface area– Area is proportional to linear dimension square– Volume is proportional to linear dimension cubed– THEREFORE, smaller object has greater ratio of SA
to V
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How does this relate to the size of cells?
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How does this relate to the size of cells?
• Specialized cells– Some longer, shorter, thinner depending on
function– Sometimes there are more of one type instead of
an increase in size
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Surface Area vs. Volume
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When would you need a higher SA:V?
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When would you need a higher SA:V?
• Cells that exchange a lot of material with surroundings
• May have projections from surface (microvilli)– This increases SA without increasing volume
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Surface Area of the lungs (alveoli)
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Digestive Tract Small Intestine averages 23 feet.
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Villi and Microvilli on the interior of the small
intestine Key
Nutrientabsorption
Microvilli(brush border)
Epithelial cellsLacteal
Lymphvessel
Villi
Largecircularfolds
Epithelialcells
Bloodcapillaries
Vein carrying bloodto hepatic portalvessel
Muscle layers
Villi
Intestinal wall
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Excretory Structures
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Nitrogenous Waste filtering
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Eukaryotic Cells
• Focus of this chapter
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Parts of the Cell
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Nucleus
• Contains: Nuclear envelope, nucleolus, and chromatin.
• Nuclear envelope: double membrane enclosing the nucleus; perforated by pores; continuous with ER
• Nucleolus: structure involved in production of ribosomes; a nucleus has one or more nucleoli.
• Chromatin: material consisting of DNA and proteins; visible as individual chromosomes in a dividing cell.
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Close-up of nuclearenvelope
Nucleus
NucleolusChromatin
Nuclear envelope:Inner membraneOuter membrane
Nuclear pore
Porecomplex
Ribosome
Pore complexes (TEM) Nuclear lamina (TEM)
1 µm
Rough ER
Nucleus1 µm
0.25 µm
Surface of nuclear envelope
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Nucleus
• contains most of the genes in the eukaryotic cell• Chromatin: material consisting of DNA and
proteins; visible as individual chromosomes in a dividing cell.
• DNA is organized into discrete units called chromosomes
• Each chromosome is made up of chromatin• typical human cell has 46 chromosomes in its
nucleus
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Chromatin vs. Chromosomes appearance within the cell.
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Nucleolus
• rRNA is synthesized from instructions in the DNA is here
• proteins imported from cytoplasm are assembled with rRNA into ribosomal subunits here
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Ribosomes and RNA
• Ribosomes translate messenger RNA (mRNA) into a protein.– A ribosome binds to the 5’ end of the mRNA.– Transfer RNA attached to an amino acid carries a codon (3
nucleotide sequences) to bind to the mRNA.– This process continues with more tRNA and amino acids
forming peptide bonds.– The process stops when a codon reaches a stop codon.– By then a protein is formed, releases itself from the
ribosome and curls up into a secondary or tertiary structure.
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Free and Bound Ribosomes
• Both free and bound ribosomes are structurally the same (both make proteins)
• Bound Ribosomes (attached to the ER)– Make proteins that are to be inserted into
membranes, secreted or packaged• Free Ribosomes (free in the cytosol)– Make proteins and release them into the cytosol
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Ribosomes
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Endomembrane System
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Endomembrane System
• Encompasses the variety of different membranes
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What is it responsible for?
• Synthesis of proteins• Transport of proteins into membranes and
organelles or out of cell• Metabolism and movement of lipids• Detoxification of poisons
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Endomembrane System
• Related through direct contact or through transfer of vesicles
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What is a vesicle?
• Sac made up of membrane
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Endomembrane System
• Pieces are not identical– Vary in structure and function
• Vary in chemical reactions carried out in the given membrane
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Endomembrane System
• Includes:– the Nuclear envelope– Golgi Apparatus– Lysosomes– Vacuoles– Plasma Membrane
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Endoplasmic Reticulum
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Function
• The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a network of flattened sacs and branching tubules that extends throughout the cytoplasm in plant and animal cells.
• The endoplasmic reticulum manufactures, processes, and transports a wide variety of biochemical compounds for use inside and outside of the cell.
• Accounts for more than half the total membranes in many eukaryotic cells
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Smooth ER
• The smooth ER functions in diverse metabolic processes, which vary with cell type
• Lacks ribosomes• (Barbiturates, alcohol, and many other drugs
induce the proliferation of smooth ER and its associated detoxification enzymes thus increasing the rate of detoxification)-increase tolerance to other helpful drugs
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Function of Smooth ER
• Process includes synthesis of Lipids, metabolism or carbohydrates, and detoxification of drugs and poisons (in Liver cells)
• In animal cells the steroids produced are the sex hormones of vertebrates and the various steroid hormones secreted by the adrenal glands
• Detoxification usually involves adding Hydroxyl groups to drug molecules making them more soluble and easier to flush from the body
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Function of Smooth ER
• Stores Calcium– Important to muscle cells– When stimulated, calcium ions rush back across
the ER membrane into the cytosol and trigger contraction of the muscle cell
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Rough ER
• • A complex membrane bound organelle that is composed of a greatly convoluted but flattish sealed sac that is continuous with the nuclear membrane.
• • Called a ROUGH Endoplasmic Reticulum because it is studded on the outside with ribosomes.
• • Found in eukaryotic cells - the cells of plants, animals, and humans.
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Function of Rough ER• • The RER is involved in transport of proteins made by
ribosomes on its surface.
• • The Rough ER changes with the needs of the cells. When the cell is actively making proteins, the rough ER can enlarge and become more complex.
• • Ribosomes on the rough endoplasmic reticulum are called 'membrane bound' and are responsible for the assembly of many proteins. This process is called translation.
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Golgi Apparatus
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• After leaving the ER, transport vesicles go to the golgi apparatus
• FedEx– Manufacturing– Warehousing– Sorting – Shipping
• Here, products of the ER (such as proteins) are modified and stored and then sent to other destinations
• In a lot of cells used for secretion
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Structure• Flattened membranous sacs called cisternae• Looks like a stack of pita bread• Distinct structural polarity– Membranes of cisternae on opposite sides of the
stack differ in thickness and molecular composition• Cis face and trans face
– Cis: receiving; trans: shipping• Cis face—located near the ER
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Movement • Transport vesicles move material from the ER to
the Golgi apparatus• A vesicle that buds from the ER can add its
membrane and the contents of its lumen to the cis face by fusing with a Golgi membrane
• The trans face gives rise to vesicles, which pinch off of the golgi body and travel to other sites.
• Products of the ER are usually modified during their transit from the cis region to the trans region of the Golgi
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Non-protein Golgi Products
• In addition, the Golgi apparatus manufactures certain macromolecules by itself.
• Many polysaccharides secreted by cells are Golgi products– Including pectins and certain other noncellulose
polysaccharides• Non-protein Golgi products that will be
secreted depart from the trans face inside transport vesicles
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Cis to Trans
• The Golgi manufactures and refines its products in stages, with different cisternae containing unique teams of enzymes
• The cisternae of the Golgi actually progress forward from the cis to the trans face of the Golgi, carrying and modifying their cargo as they move– Good example in book on page 106, Figure 6.13
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Before exiting…• Before a Golgi stack dispatches its products by budding
vesicles from the trans face, it sorts these products and targets them for various parts of the cell
• Molecular identification tags, such as phosphate groups added to the Golgi products, aid in sorting– act like ZIP codes on mailing labels
• Transport vesicles budded from the Golgi may have external molecules on their membranes that recognize “docking sites” on the surface of specific organelles or on the plasma membrane, thus targeting the vesicles appropriately
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Lysosomes: the cell’s garbage disposal
• Break down old organelles• Destroy invaders– Viruses– bacteria
• Break down macromolecules– Proteins– Carbohydrates– Nucleic acids– lipids
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Lysosomal Acid Hydrolysis
• Contain about 50 degradative enzymes– Hydrolyze proteins, DNA, RNA, lipids
• Lysosomes maintain an acidic pH (5)– Controlled by a hydrogen ion pump– Uses ATP hydrolysis
• Double protection– Enzymes only active in acidic pH
• Enzymatic genetic diseases– “lysosomal storage diseases”– Gaucher’s affects breakdown of glycolipids
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Lysosome formation• Cell membrane buds• Becomes an early endosome• Introduction of hydrolases and
enzymes– Created by the ER then transferred to
the Golgi bodies• Becomes a late endosome– Lowering of pH
• New lysosomes are formed with acquisition of adequate hydrolases
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Phagocytosis and Autophagy• Phagocytes fuse with
lysosomes– Becomes phagolysosome– Digests extracellular
substances – Ex: bacteria, viruses, food
substances• Autophagosomes fuse with
lysosomes– Endoplasmic reticulum
encloses old organelles– Vesicle fuses with lysosome
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Phagocytosis: lysosome digesting food
1 µm
Plasmamembrane
Food vacuole
Lysosome
Nucleus
Digestiveenzymes
Digestion
Lysosome
Lysosome containsactive hydrolyticenzymes
Food vacuolefuses withlysosome
Hydrolyticenzymes digestfood particles
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Vacuoles
• Two types:– Food• Formed by phagocytosis
– Contractile• Pumps excess water out of the cell• Helps maintain a suitable concentration of ions
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Vacuoles
• Different in Plants and Animals• Animal– General description
• Plant– Versatile– Take the job of lysosomes
• Carry out hydrolysis– Disposal site for metabolic by-products– Contain pigments– Contain unpalatable compounds– Aid in growth
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Central Vacuole of a plant
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Phagocytosis & Pinocytosis
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Contractile Vacuole
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Removes excess water in aquatic single celled organisms
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Mitochondria
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Mitochondrion
Intermembrane space
Outer membrane
Inner membrane
Cristae
Matrix
100 nmMitochondrialDNA
Freeribosomes in themitochondrialmatrix
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Mitochondria
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Mitochondria: An Organelle
● Mitochondria are important to the cell because they are the “powerhouse” of the cell.
● Mitochondria are the sites of cellular respiration; cellular respiration is the metabolic process by which ATP is produced.
● Mitochondria are enclosed by membranes, however, they are not considered part of the endomembrane system.
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Mitochondria: An Organelle
● Mitochondria are unique in the sense that they have two membranes in order to function correctly.
● Found only in Eukaryotic cells.● Mitochondria are typically 0.5 to 1.0
micrometer in length.● Amount of mitochondria in the cell varies
depending on the type of tissue the cell is found in and on the organism that the cell is found in.
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Diagram
OUTER MEMBRANE
MITOCHONDRIAL DNA
INNER MEMBRANEMATRIX
CRISTAERIBOSOME
GRANULE
ATP SYNTHASE
INTERMEMBRANE SPACE
PORINS
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Energy Processing❖ “Powerhouse of the cell”❖ site of cellular respiration❖ converts energy from sugar to forms that cell can use❖ involved in other cell processes
❖ semiautonomous
❖Cellular Respiration❖ Glycolysis❖ Citric acid cycle
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Prokaryotic Cell (Bacteria)
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Chloroplast
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What are Chloroplasts?
• Specialized member of a family of closely related plant organelles called plastids
• Lens shaped organelles, 2-5 micrometers • Found in leaves, green organs of plants, and algae• Contain:– The green pigment chlorophyll– Enzymes– Molecules that function in the photosynthetic
production of sugar
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The Structure
• Enclosed by two membranes separated by a intermembrane space– Outer compartment
• Second, inner compartment holding the fluid or stroma– surrounds the thylakoid space
• Membranous system in the form of connected, flattened disks called thylakoids– Stacked like poker chips which is called granum
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Origin• Chloroplasts are one of the many different types of
organelles in the plant cell. • Considered to have originated from cyanobacteria through
endosymbiosis—when a eukaryotic cell engulfed a photosynthesizing cyanobacterium which remained and became a permanent resident in the cell.
• Mitochondria are thought to have come from a similar event, where a aerobic prokaryote was engulfed.
• This origin of chloroplasts was first suggested by Konstantin Mereschkowski in 1905 after Andreas Schimper observed that chloroplasts closely resemble cyanobacteria in 1883.
• Chloroplasts are similar to mitochondria in that they both originate from an endosymbiotic event, but chloroplasts are found only in plants and some protists.
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Chloroplasts
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Prokaryotic Cell (Bacteria)
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Lynn Margulis
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Endosymbiotic Hypothesis
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Modern Day Eukaryotic Cells
Animal Plants
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Cytoskeleton
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Cytoskeleton
• A network of fibers• Gives mechanical support• Stabilized by a system of opposing forces• Aids in cell motility• Interact with motor proteins
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Cytoskeleton
• Three main types of fibers– Microtubules– Microfilaments– Intermediate filaments
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Cytoskeleton
• Three main types of fibers– Microtubules• Hollow rods• Globular protein called tubulin• Grow out from centrosome
– Within there are a pair of centrioles• Examples:
– Cilia– flagella
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Centrioles
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Cellular Movement
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Cytoskeleton
• Three main types of fibers– Microtubules– Microfilaments• Built from Molecules of actin• Double chain of actin subunits
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Microfilaments in muscle tissue
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Muscle Tissue under the Microscope
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Cytoskeleton
• Three main types of fibers– Microtubules– Microfilaments– Intermediate Filaments• Larger than microfilaments• Smaller than microtubules
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A cell is the sum of it’s parts.
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Protective Cell Wall in Plants
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Cell walls composed of Chitin sugar.
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Extra Cellular Matrix(ECM)
EXTRACELLULAR FLUID ProteoglycancomplexCollagen
fiber
Fibronectin
Integrin Micro-filaments
CYTOPLASM
Plasmamembrane