CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA,...

70
229 CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, ANDHRAPRADESH AND TAMIL NADU “Rituals are special forms of action that are intended to create higher states of consciousness through the ceremonial use of images, statues, or other symbolic representations of deities and other elevated spiritual beings, including teachers.” 1 Ritual can be understood as a religion, since it is nothing other than the manifestation of myth. Myth is the narration of the process of creation. Therefore the object of worship would invariably be the creator; [the supernatural power that we term as god] and his aides and perhaps the narration and the enactment of the corresponding instances and story. It is but true that every culture experiences the act of the creator and hence redeems the creator / god through his actions in the form of the ritual. This leads to the fact that ritual is also regarded as an action theoretically. Ritual is an action that can be defined as a routine, a habit that has developed into an obsession or a mimetic action, which is just the translation of the mind that is already constructed through the years. Thus a ritual can be understood to be a component that is constantly related to beliefs and myths for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but the vice-versa is not possible. “Ritual is always a matter of ‘the performance of gestures and manipulation of objects’. Therefore ritual should be interpretted only by applying empiricism.” 2 This empirical aspect is perhaps the very basis of 1 Georg Feuerstein, Subhash Kak & David Frawley; In search of the cradle of civilization Motilal Banarasidass ; Delhi; 1995, 2001, 2005 2008, ch. The spiritual heritage of ancient India, p;176-177.

Transcript of CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA,...

Page 1: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

229

CHAPTER 5

THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA,

ANDHRAPRADESH AND TAMIL NADU

“Rituals are special forms of action that are intended to create higher

states of consciousness through the ceremonial use of images, statues, or

other symbolic representations of deities and other elevated spiritual beings,

including teachers.”1 Ritual can be understood as a religion, since it is

nothing other than the manifestation of myth. Myth is the narration of the

process of creation. Therefore the object of worship would invariably be the

creator; [the supernatural power that we term as god] and his aides and

perhaps the narration and the enactment of the corresponding instances and

story. It is but true that every culture experiences the act of the creator and

hence redeems the creator / god through his actions in the form of the ritual.

This leads to the fact that ritual is also regarded as an action theoretically.

Ritual is an action that can be defined as a routine, a habit that has developed

into an obsession or a mimetic action, which is just the translation of the

mind that is already constructed through the years. Thus a ritual can be

understood to be a component that is constantly related to beliefs and myths

for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but the vice-versa is not

possible. “Ritual is always a matter of ‘the performance of gestures and

manipulation of objects’. Therefore ritual should be interpretted only by

applying empiricism.”2 This empirical aspect is perhaps the very basis of

1 Georg Feuerstein, Subhash Kak & David Frawley; In search of the cradle of civilization Motilal Banarasidass ; Delhi; 1995, 2001, 2005 2008, ch. The spiritual heritage of ancient India, p;176-177.

Page 2: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

230

the ritualistic dance forms that we notice even to this day. Rituals are

endowed with symbolic significances, highly systematic, well framed and

are performed at certain places at the given time of the day / month / year.

They have been in our society for so long that the culture of the community

also influences the rituals. They have been handed over to the generations

that followed as a major part of their traditional activity.

It is at this juncture that we can note that every ritual amongst the tribe

and in the rural precincts has been observed with all austerities and chastity

to appease the supernatural. Consequently the necessary actions to conduct a

ritual became and are even today the prerogative of a particular family and

are not to be observed by any or everyone in the community. This is evident

in the observance of the various ritual dances that are conducted in honour of

the village goddesses, where the festivities are conducted annually,

sometimes seasonally and otherwise. Indian societies have rituals and

behaviour associated with the ways of living. The variations in the

communities and sections in societies are rooted in their religious beliefs,

which are in turn channelised by the limitations, rules and regulations, and

suppositions of the religion.

The genesis of the pooja as a ritual is definitely a mystery for; the

Vedas speak of the Yagnas and the Natya Shastra mentions the Poorvaranga

vidhi. However many scholars adhere to the hypothesis of the Vedic origin

of the Pooja or the rite.3 This has also been explained further to be of the

2 Ramakrishna Reddy.B. Dravidian folk and tribal lore, 2001, A.K. Nambiar ch 27. Ritual and performing tradition in Kerala; P.296. 3 Natalia Lidova, Drama and Ritual of Early Hinduism, Motilal Banarasidass; Delhi, 1994, 1996, p95-96.

Page 3: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

231

Dravidian origin with the etymology of the word offering the description

that it is the sacrificial offering of the flowers.4As a result of the various

approaches of the scholars, pooja is concluded to be the adoration of a

divine image as a major constituent of the rites in a temple. The Natya

Shastra however describes that “Without a precious offering of the pooja, we

shall not arrange either the stage or the performance.”5 Further it can be

noticed that the Natya Shastra mentions about the installation of the deities

on stage as a major part of the poorvaranga. This gradually gave rise to

sophisticated ceremonial rites in accordance with the Natya Shastra and the

Agamas. These developments lead to the technique of communicating with

the supra personal world. Consequently they found their way to the rites

connected with the drama presentations and later into the Agamic forms of

the pooja. Characteristically, self-identification with a divine being

through conventional poses and gestures not merely became an Agamic

sacred practice but survived to this day in the many forms of Hindu

ritualism.6

“The Yagnas of the Vedic period have been transformed into the

temples of today and the fact is that the Yagnas were performed at different

places and generally were not repeated in the same place. Further, Dance

became a major part of the offerings or the Shodasha Upacharas to the

deities and hence the classical dance traditions became a complementary

4 Ibid; 97. 5 Manmohan Ghosh, The Natya Shastra, Origin of Drama, Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office Varanasi 1967-2002; P; 6 Natalia Lidova, Drama and Ritual of Early Hinduism, Motilal Banarasidass; Delhi,1994,1996; ch,the ritual drama in early Hindu culture, P.107

Page 4: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

232

aspect to rituals that were conducted in the temples. The origins of the

Yakshagana, the operatic traditional theatre of Karnataka can be traced to

the Vijayanagara Dynasty.7

“The traditional dance dramas or the Yakshagana were absolutely

patronized by the Temple and are continuing to be so at least partially. Even

to this day, the headgear worn by these artists is considered to be chaste and

is revered as a symbol of the deity. One of the traditional actors in the event

of uneasiness in his health during the course of a performance breathed his

last only after having removed the headgear and paid his obeissance to the

same.”8

In order to instigate discipline, values, develop positive nature and

attitude of mind besides rich culture, purification and refinement in the life

as well as the mind of every individual, yet another set of rites and rituals

associated with the Samskaras were incorporated by the rishis or men of

great learning. These were made mandatory for the benefit of educating the

masses and providing them with the necessary education to elevate the

society from animal behaviour to refined and cultured human behaviour.

Basically these have been structured on scientific values, incorporating deep

psychological relationships with the innerself. “A body and mind devoid of

the samskaras is like a dead skeleton with skin, flesh and organs. It lacks the

7 As quoted by Dr. Choodamani Nandagopal, Danseuse, Art Historian, Dean, Jain University, Bangalore, in a interview relating to the origins of the dance traditions in the temples as part of the rituals of the same. 8 As quoted by Dr. Maya Rao, veteran danseuse, art curator, Director of studies, College Of Kathak and Choreography in her interview relating to the query is traditional theatre a part of temple rituals.

Page 5: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

233

flow of life that makes a man human and different from animals and

beasts.”9 These rites and rituals are performed based on the concept that a

healthy body is a requisite for a healthy mind.

There are sixteen Samskaras that are in vogue. Dance is seen to be a

major part of the Vivah Samskara as mentioned in the chapters that are

included. From the times of the Rig Veda as mentioned earlier, dance is

found to be part of the funeral or death ceremonies identified as the

Antyeshti Samskara. This is seen during the funeral processions that are held

even to this day prevalent amongst particular communities.

Our country is very well known for its rich cultural heritage and these

have bee handed down to the present by the past few generations, since we

have a cultural legacy, which has been extant since at least a thousand years.

“In all the performance traditions there is a convergence or synthesis of

music, dance and drama. As in other traditional forms of Asian performance,

the arts are a composite skills practiced by a team of artists who, through the

creation of verbal, vocal, aural, spatial, and visual patterns, create a total

performance.”10 Eventually every actor or performer possesses a thorough

knowledge of all the allied forms of the art of dancing; that is the knowledge

of the rhythmic patterns of music to which one is supposed to dance to, the

knowledge and meaning of the text of the song to which one is to dance to

and the like. The accompanying musicians are to be adepts in the art of

9 Prof. Shrikant Prasoon, 16 Hindu Samskars, Pustak Mahal, New Delhi, 2010, section 1 P,25. 10 Farley.p.Richmond; Darius.L. Swann, Phillip.B.Zarrilli, Indian Theatre Traditions of Performance, Motilal Banarasidass Publishers Private Limited, Dehi,1990,1993,2007, Introduction, P; 5.

Page 6: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

234

singing and are also expected to be aware of the patterns of movement of the

actors, the stage conventions that are followed, besides the methods of

characterization of the various characters on stage by the actors. The

presentation is thus an effort of the entire ensemble working for the success

of the same. The dance performance traditions are of a great variety

incorporating dance in its three important basic aspects namely; nritta, nritya

and natya in varying combinations besides the inclusion of the Tandava and

Lasya aspects of dance as described in the other chapters. Hence these have

eventually led to the categories in which the scripted dramas of folk origin

and themes are enacted which are often associated with dance to highlight

the climax of the plot, to enhance the portrayal of a specific character or

sentiment to be portrayed in the drama. There are also those presentations

which have the narrative type of interpretation of any plot generally choosen

from Indian mythology involving episodes from the Mahabharata,

Ramayana or the Puranas either scripted or sometimes unscripted directly

relating the close association of Indian mythology with traditional dance

dramas. These episodes have been an integral part of the presentations

passed on to the present generation of performers by means of oral tradition.

These presentations have been the prerogative of a certain family or class of

people and hence have been presented by these sections in the village

community as part of the ceremonies that are held annually or otherwise in

honour of the festivities of the Village Deity or carnivals. Interesting to note

is the fact that the aesthetics of the theatre is very closely bound to the Hindu

religion and philosophy. Theatre also preaches the three important paths to

Moksha or liberation: righteous ways of Action, Knowledge and Devotion

which is the very basis of Hindu religion and Philosophy. Eventually action

was the first to be defined. The foremost civilization; the Aryan civilization,

Page 7: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

235

thus developed the ritual and the significance of sacrificial action in it. “The

subsequent literature and development of ritual practice in India are

evidence of the continuing centrality of the way of action in Hindu life and

worship.”11

The way of Knowledge, was well defined in the Later Vedic period

with the beginning of the Brahmanas and ending with the Upanishads. The

rasa is attributed to as one of the major components that associate the

aesthetic principle of rasa with the way of knowledge. Evidently therefore

one of the foremost means of arriving at the rasa was by theatrical

presentations which emphasised the outcome of rasa or Rasothpatti as one of

the prime aims of a presentation. The culmination of the whole presentation

however had to be the Shanta rasa or the attainment of peace.

The third path, the path of devotion or bhakti is manifest in the

devotion inspired and directed towards the incarnations of Lord Vishnu as

Lord Krishna and Lord Rama. Theatre allows a direct representation of this

way of Bhakthi, where in the actors (male) don the roles of the Lord and his

female consort and enact the devotion of the female character Radha towards

the Lord Krishna or as the case may be. “The way of devotion appeals to

the affective side of human experience; strong emotions and sometimes

ecstatic states are induced through communal singing and dancing.”

Therefore every traditional theatrical presentation whether classical,

popular-folk, ritual, or devotional, is observed to invariably start with

specific rituals that set off the performance. These are primarily observed

with the motive of sanctifying the performing area, for the successful

11 Ibid ; P, 7.

Page 8: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

236

presentation of the performance without any major hurdles, to offer praises

to the presiding deities and the gurus who have taught and passed on the art

form to the actors who are presenting the same. Interestingly they also

render either an elaborate prayer or a simple obeissance to the presiding

deity or the gods in general to mark the closing of the presentation. These

practices have been handed over to the traditional theatrical performers by

their ancestors as part of their presentations originating from the Sanskrit

theatre which were perhaps the foremost presentations to reckon with.

“Ritual practices are understood to establish a mediating bridge between the

daily world and the “unseen” and powerful world of the gods. The ritual

specialist establishes this bridge, mediating between the tangible daily world

and the intangible other world by means of his or her ritual practices.”12

Ritual performances occur more often in either the temple shrines or

the family homes; that is in the ancestral homes that houses these traditions.

The importance is to the shrine whose enshrined deity has a power that is

great although the physical dimensions of the same may or may not be huge.

Most often the ritual performances are associated with some type of a

spiritual power that could be the manifestation of any goddess, hero or any

person of great birth who appear in a great variety, varying in their physical

forms so much so that the form is sometimes serene, awesome or fearful.

“Whosoever knoweth the power of the dance , dwelleth in God,--- the

dance, inherited from savage ancestors as an ordered expression in motion of

the exhilaration of the soul, develops and broadens into the search for God,

12 Farley.p.Richmond; Darius.L. Swann, Phillip.B.Zarrilli, Indian Theatre Traditions of Performance, Motilal Banarasidass Publishers Private Limited, Dehi,1990,1993,2007,ch; 3 Part;2, p.122.

Page 9: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

237

into a conscious effort to become a part of those powers beyond the might of

man which control our destinies.”13

The word “Science” is derived from the Latin root ‘scire’ meaning ‘to

know’ and ‘to discern’- leading to the very fact that Science is basically

pursuit of knowledge.14 Hence it can be perceived that science has been a

quest for knowledge of how the external world works. Man always thought

of manipulating this world and the happenings in it to suit his necessities.

Consequently, the study of science by means of exploration and the

understanding of the same by introspection were limited to meet man’s

primary need. It can therefore be observed that the world over, the

knowledge base of the ancient cultures, that were dependant on the other

modes of knowledge are often declared to be mere Myths. It further leads to

the inference that knowledge sometimes is intellectual but not necessarily

rational. “Science, in one aspect, is ordered technique; in another, it is

rationalized mythology.”15 Science is seen an important aspect of the Indus

civilization. The fact that the Vedic philosophy and ritual triggered off the

birth of Science has been the suggestions of many a scientist. During the

Vedic religious practices the sky and the earth altars were correlated with the

male and female genders respectively. Eventually one finds that the

adhvaryu priest was identified as male while the neshtri priest who was

13 Curt Sachs, World History Of The Dance, Norton Library New York, 1963; P.4 14 Georg Feuerstein, Subhash Kak & David Frawley; In search of the cradle of civilization Motilal Banarasidass ; Delhi; 1995,2001,2005,2008, ch; The Birth of Science in Ritual, P;195. 15 Georg Feuerstein, Subhash Kak & David Frawley; In search of the cradle of civilization Motilal Banarasidass ; Delhi; 1995,2001,2005,2008, ch;The birth of Science in Ritual, P;195.

Page 10: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

238

associated with the female deities and the goddesses was identified as

female. Also there was the prevalence of the practice of the copulation of the

‘chants and the prose formulae where the former represented the feminine

and the latter the masculine genders. This could have been the embryonic

stage of the view that the cosmos is the product of the divine embrace of

Shiva and Shakthi. It is interesting to note that in the present day rituals there

is the representation of the male and female genders associated with the

ritual of the Naga or the serpent worship of the coastal regions of Karnataka

the details of which have been mentioned in the following paragraphs. There

is also the occurrence of the lavish use of the fire or the Agni god, which

was perhaps the principal deity of the Vedic rituals. The altars that were

erected for the purpose of conducting rituals during the Rig Vedic period are

found to be scientific in their construction for the observations of renowned

scholars like Jan Gonda, a Dutch, speak of the occurrences of references to

certain knowledge of anatomy, embryology and medical practice. Hence

there has been always a constant effort to understand the science underlying

the practice of most of the rituals ever since. Further, in ancient times, both

Astrology and Astronomy were considered to be complementary aspects of

cosmology. Hence the planets and stars were not mere heavenly bodies that

were moving in space but were physical bodies whose qualities contributed

to both cosmological and psychological processes of the human mind. Their

movement and corresponding relationships are thought of to have a

significant effect on the lives of both individuals and nations to such a great

extent that sometimes both the psyche and destiny of the individuals are

defined by the movement of these heavenly bodies through the various

constellations.

Page 11: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

239

The Taittiriya Upanishad speaks of the relationship between the

transcendental self and the psycho physiological structures of an individual

by expounding the theory of the ‘Kosha’ wherein the Atman or the Spirit is

encased by five layers. These are the Blissful sheath, Intellectual sheath,

Mental sheath, Energetic sheath and the Physical sheath.

The first three are however collectively considered as the mind.

The mind is an important media and significant aspect that contributes

to the rituals and is receptive of the same by means of faith. It is but the

mind that controls the actions of the body and hence eventually the ritual,

influences the mind in its conscious state in a logical manner.

Tribes can be perceived as cultures that largely belong to the forests,

to the regions that are wild, those that belong to the regions that contrast the

rural and urban cultures in their living conditions and occupations. Isolation

from the rural and urban cultures also served as a factor in preserving the

tribal cultures unaffected and unchanged through the ages. It can be seen that

the cultures have remained intact owing to their togetherness. Those who

strayed were generally banished. Some formed fresh clans having separated

from the parent tribes, thus giving rise to a great number of new groups with

varying stages of cultural development. Thus the family ties have been

fastened by age old customs consequently leading to their supreme faith in

an all powerful Providence.16 Therefore the faith of the tribe in this

Providence was seen to be manifested with great care and reverence in a

tree, a stone, an animal, a river, a hill, a forest or even an IDEA.

16 Rama Raju.B. Glimpses into Telugu Folklore, Janapada Vijnana Prachuranala, Hyderabad, 1991, P.

Page 12: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

240

Kadu Gollas : are a tribe of Karnataka that have the occupations of cattle

rearing and raising of sheep and are so named after the gods of their

worship. Their important deities are Junjappa, Yathappa, Paatappa,

Kyaatappa, Chitappa etc. These Gollas claim to be the followers of Lord

Krishna, but practically when examined carefully they are found to be the

ardent followers of Lord Shiva. It is justified in the sense that, their deity,

Junjappa, is the messenger of Veerabhadra, who is the son of the Lord. The

community has a great number of folk songs that have been passed on to

them from their forefathers. The songs have the weddings and the initiation

of young maidens for their themes. The Kolata of the tribe hailing from

Chitradurga is played by them for a good length of nights with at least thirty

to forty varieties incorporated in them. Songs eulogizing the Lord are sung

to mark the festivities of Deepavali and Sankranthi, in the temple precincts.

They enact plays that are night long presentations, with the themes chosen

from the Ramayana and the Mahabharatha, amongst which popular are the

episodes depicting Shabara Shankara Vilasa, Girija Kalyana, Bedara

Kanappa, Krishna Parijatha and also those with the social themes such as

Sangya Balya, Kari Bhanta.

Bedanayakas : is yet another tribe of Karnataka. The other equivalent

tribes that have similar traditional traits are the Talavaars, Nayakas, Beedas,

Myaasas, Boovis, Parivaradavaru, Pallyegaras etc extant in the regions of

Chitradurga district. They have occupations similar to the Kadu Gollas but

are good at hunting. They are credited with the privilege of having served

the royalty at times of war in the capacity of Chieftains and for their

exhibition of physical bravery. As they have been a hunting tribe,

predominantly, their folklore is not very well preserved and their folk

Page 13: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

241

literature is inspired by heroism and bravery. Although, they sing a great

number of songs with the themes relating to weddings and also enact

dramatic presentations with themes selected from the Epics.

Lambanis : they are a nomadic tribe that habitat the areas that border the

urban settlements. These are also known for their valour since they were the

tribes that assisted the Paalyegara Chieftains in their warfare. The tribe is

known to have inhabited the states of Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka

and Tamil Nadu. The night long dramatic presentation of the stories of

Seevaabhaai and Huunaasathi are quite popular among them in addition to

the legendary folk ballads that are sung by them.

Soligas : these are the tribes that inhabit the forests of Yalandur, Kollegala,

Chamarajanagar of Mysore, - belonging to the southern regions of

Karnataka. They are known for their worship of Biligiri Ranganatha. The

ballad describing the wedding of the Lord with Ranganayaki, is their most

famous presentation.

Hallaki Vokkaligas : the tribe inhabits the hilly regions, river banks and

sea shores and are spread over both the north and south canara coastal

districts of Karnataka. The Gondas, Siddhis, Atte Kunibhis and Hasalas also

form part of this group. The hallaki vokkaligas are agriculturists and their

important folklore includes Gumateya Paanga and the Hagarana. The actor

sings to the accompaniment of the Gumate that he plays and is followed by

the chorus who fall in a line. There are about six to eight performers who

don varied costumes and perform interesting roles as part of this

presentation. Snagya Balya is yet another favourite presentation of the tribe.

Page 14: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

242

Gondas : these are a tribe from the regions of Bhatkal and Shiraliin the

north canara district of Karnataka. However the tribe is seen to inhabit the

regions of Andhra Pradesh, which has been discussed. These folks believe

in the offering of sacrifices to appease the malignant spirits and by

offering worship to them.17 The occassions for them to sing their folk

songs are the weddings, planting if the saplings, pounding of Paddy and so

on.

Siddhis : a tribe migrated from Central Africa and settled along the west

coast of India. They are to be found in the regions of Gujarath, Ahmednagar,

Goa, Andhra Pradesh, Sirsi, Ankola and Yellapur regions of Karnataka. The

occasions for dance of the siddhis are the Moharram, by those that have

taken to the Islamic faith and during the Gauri, Ganesha Chaturti

celebrations and the harvesting season by the others.

Attekunabis : they are the natives of the areas bordering the regions of

Yellapura, Karwar and Ankola. They are found to have many characteristics

in common with the Halakki Vokkaligas. Heir folklore is chiefly seen in

their harvest dance which is danced to the accompaniment of the gumate and

the cymbals.

Hasalas : found to live in te regions of Bijjala, Baaligoodu, Bilgi,

Guddekana, Sagar, Hiremane. Their prime occupation is the weaving of the

baskets and mats by women and tree climbing and gardening by men. They

are worshippers of both Lord Shiva and Rama. The most significant

occassion is the celebration of the festival of Deepavali, during which

17 Encyclopaedia of the folk culture of Karnataka; Vol I, Institute of Asian Studies Thiruvanmiyur, Madras; 1991; ch Primitive Folk Religion.

Page 15: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

243

Bhinge songs are sung. Ganesha chaturthi and Navaratri are also celebrated

but animal sacrifices are offered to the Bhuta, Jatiga, Gama and goddess

Maremma.

Religious beliefs of some tribal communities have been greatly

influenced after their contact with men of other faiths. The instances of these

can be seen in the tribes hailing from the states of Himachal and Andhra

Pradesh who have been greatly influenced by either Buddhism or Hinduism

or both. But yet, they have retained a few tribal traits which distinguish them

from the rest of their neighbours.

Some of the important segments of folk customs are the rituals and

practices associated with festivals like Holi, Deepavali, Dasara and

Durgapooja. There are a large number of ritualistic practices being observed

by Indian folk for the sake of rains, agricultural prosperity, for warding off

contagious diseases, and natural calamities such as flood famines etc.18

The Gatha Sapta shathi of Hala traces the social life of the people of

the Andhra country. It speaks of the pleasant times, of events of heroic

deeds, martial feats, sacrifice of the self for a cause, the challenges faced to

uphold a word of honour, acts of generosity in the form of folk ballads and

songs. The work also incorporates songs sung during festivities, weddings,

lullabies, during worship and those that are rich in philosophies. Thus it

gives a very clear idea about the cultural scene that was prevalent besides

describing the vigourous and rich lives of the people who worshipped the

Nature for their Gods as seen in the Aryan cultures. The political divisions

18 Ramakrishna Reddy.B, Dravidian folk and tribal lore, Dravidian University, Kuppam, 2001, Ch. 25. Current forms of ritual traditions in Tulnadu, A.V.Navada, P.265.

Page 16: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

244

and the topography of the region make it convenient to study the tribes

inhabiting the state of Andhra as two distinct divisions.1) the regions or the

forest areas and the hilly areas and 2) the people belonging to the Doab that

is the region between the Krishna and Godavari deltas. They are hence

identified as the Chenchus of Srisailam and the Gadabas, Savaras and Koyas

of Bhadrachalam and Simhachalam. There are about thirty three importantnt

tribes spread over eight major districts of this state. Of these the Khonds,

Kolmis, Nayakpods, Koyas, Kondadoras, Valmikis, Bhagatas, Savaras,

Jatayus, Gadabas and the Chenchus worship Nature as their gods and strictly

adhere to their ancient customs and styles of dress and rituals. Their

language lacks a script for writing. The traditions are ardently followed by

these tribes. There are the tribes that are known for their ballads as their

prime occupation. They include the Piccukaguntlu, Balasanta, Saradakandu,

Viramushtivaru, Bavanilu, Biramalavaru, Gollasuddulu, Dasrulu, Jangamulu

and Kommavaru.19

The myths that guide these tribes are that the Sun is to be worshipped

for he is the giver of life and happiness. While the God of rains, Varuna, is

pleased by the singing of songs. The moon is thought of having a menacing

influence on the mind.

The arts of magic and incantation have played a significant role in the

lives of these folk communities since their inception in their lives as

primitive man. On a very keen observation, it can be noticed that religion

and magic are connected. This has led to the Magico-religious activities

which are achieved by means of strange activities like the ousting of the

19 Rama Raju.B. Glimpses into Telugu Folklore, Janapada Vijnana Prachuranala, Hyderabad,1991, p.38.

Page 17: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

245

devils or the curing of the ailments by the spirits. The incantations form a

major part of the practises like the worship of the Mother goddess, the Bhuta

and the Naga. Thus the two streams of folk rituals and folk arts have been

integrated to form the ritualistic folk arts in the cultural life of the primitive

man.20 The formal classical arts of dance trace their origin and development

to the folk arts to quite a great extent. The various elements of the religious

cults control folk life. Thus, the active practice of rites and rituals, the

arts that dramatize these religious beliefs and doctrines, and the

absorption of all these into themselves form the folk imagination and

enthusiasm. Further, it can be perceived that life itself is the inspiration to

folk art. Religion and rituals occupy the stream of life as a prominent

component. Hence it can be inferred that ritual gave birth to the arts,

which developed gradually into a full fledged art of the people. The less

stylized is thus the Lokadharmi style of art that is generally known to be folk

and the highly stylized and conventionalized style that is the one derived as

the Natyadharmi has come to be known as the classical art forms. Folk

culture is therefore one of the richest and perhaps the foremost sources for

the development of all the allied arts too. The rhythms that are played on a

variety of drums that accompany the dance, the melody of the songs, the

grandeur of the costumes and jewellery in addition to the enacting of the

story of the presentation, make the folk ritual performances a visual

spectacle that delights the devotees and also proclaims the success of the

performer. The grandeur of the folk presentations in both the audio and

visual aspects appeals to the minds and heart of the spectator with a new

20 Encyclopaedia of the folk culture of Karnataka; Vol I, Institute of Asian Studies Thiruvanmiyur, Madras; 1991; ch. Ritualistic Arts.

Page 18: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

246

energy and life that lasts a very long time. The examples incorporating these

aspects can be seen in the presentation of the traditional theatre such as the

Yakshagana, the ritual folk presentation of the Nagamandala, the Bhuta

worship and the like. It is a fact that these folk arts cannot be confined to any

definite rules and regulations. Their classification is equally a challenging

one. However, adepts in the field have classified these folk forms broadly

into two major categories.

1) Those that are of the religious type.

2) Those, which are of the secular type.

Folk arts blossomed in many diverse ways with the evolution of the

civilization and also by giving expression to their experiences in their folk

life, thus making it a very captivating presentation. It thus gained a dynamic

structure with resources for vast growth, providing contexts of live worship,

ritual prayer, praise, narration and team music. They moved towards high

levels of achievement with diverse costumes and ornaments, enchanting

dances and much more.

The regions their culture and traditions are found to be closely knit

with the arts of the respective regions thus creating a vast variety in these

dances with a special regional flavour. Consequently, regional evaluation of

these dance forms became a necessity while studying these folk forms in

detail. The deities of worship, their diverse performances were integrated

into these regional folk forms. Also the ritualistic forms assimilated into

them the relative cult, songs, narrations, myths, accompanying musical

instruments, dance motifs, offerings, animal sacrifices and the like. These

aspects contributed largely to the regional constituents of the dance forms.

Page 19: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

247

From the religious background have arisen the factors like the cults of

family deity, village deity, field deity or the deity of the territory, etc. The

celebrations associated with them are the very source of the ritualistic

arts. Instances of this variety of dances can be seen in the Bhuta worship of

South Canara, the Nagamandala, Karlooti, Panjurli and so on. “Among the

religious faiths observed among the inhabitants of South India, ascribed to

the Dravidian racial origins, the spirit-cult involving worship of the semi-

divine spirits appears to be the most primitive one. Though it is practised in

different parts of the Indian sub-continent including Sri-Lanka, it is the

erstwhile South Kanara district now divided into Udupi and Dakshina

Kannada districts, along with the coastal areas of North Kerala which has

well preserved this ancient form of worship in all its purity; we see this in

the music, dance and rituals as well as oracles and miracles associated in

this region with spirits as a medium of interaction between the realms of the

human and the divine.”21 There are situations where in the animals are

trained to perform during the celebrations of the religious festivals and

festivals of agricultural importance. Ritualistic art is prominently

characterised by the songs of praise and worship, bhajans and dances and the

ceremonies. “The intermingling of the rites and the songs of praise and

worship, bhajans and dances is characteristic of ritualistic art.”22 “The cult

ritual traditions are indigenous to castes or Tulu speaking agriculturists who

cultivate paddy, the toddy taper castes closely linked to them, oil pressers,

barbers, fishermen, weavers and harijan castes of impersonators of the local

21 Dr. U.P. Upadhyaya, Dr. Smt Susheela P Upadhyaya, Folk Rituals of the Tuluva region of Coastal Karnataka, Regional Resources Centre for Folk Performing Arts Karnataka, 2002, ch 1 Folk Worship,P.1 22 Encyclopaedia of the folk culture of Karnataka; Vol I, Institute of Asian Studies Thiruvanmiyur, Madras; 1991; ch; Folk Rites and Rituals.

Page 20: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

248

deities. Some of the Brahmin communities [i.e; Vaidyas] also take part in

certain rituals.”23 The fact that the group interaction is a prominent feature

of any folk ritualistic tradition, rather than any individual’s skills, is

highlighted in the execution of these ritualistic dances of Tulu culture. “Here

we find particular importance for the rites of passage of birth, initiation,

marriage, death and similar rites. These rites have an important role in

Indian society. Songs, dances, games and drawings are associated with these

rites and they are considered as essential part of it.”24 Native ritual tradition

and intense cultural development are very evident in the practice of the

rituals as seen in the Bhuta cult, the Nagamandala and the Kadyanata, King

Cobra Worship of Tulunadu or the South Canara region of Karnataka. There

is the preservation of the native modes of worship very ardently.

‘Bhotoge’ in Tulu language, means the same as ‘Bhootu’ or an unseen

man. In the Sanskrit language ‘Bhoota’ refers to the past. It is also

synonymous with that which emphasises, is disciplined, protective super

natural force. The interval of time when this force enters into one’s body, in

his state of trance, can be defined as perhaps the best time that is meant for

the arradhana of the bhoota. There are a great number of varieties of worship

of the spirit.

Kola : this is the worship of the spirit that is generally invoked in the body

of the impersonator, after he dresses himself into the attire and dons the

corresponding make-up. This is a ritualistic ceremony that is conducted with

23 Ramakrishna Reddy.B, Dravidian folk and tribal lore, Dravidian University, Kuppam, 2001, Ch. 25. Current forms of ritual traditions in Tulnadu, A.V.Navada, P.265 24 Ibid; P, 265.

Page 21: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

249

not many austerities. The ‘Kola’ is synonymous to the terms like Banna,

Roopa, Vinyasa, Jewellery, Mask, Vesha and Dance. Generally the act is

referred to as the Donning of the Kola or the Offering of the Kola.

Nema : this is same as the Kola. The names of the Bhoota or the name of

the place from which the spirit hails is suffixed to this term. For instance

“Kattida Nema” would refer to the worship that is performed under a

particular tree or “Kotyarayana Nema” referring to the worship that is held

within the enclosures meant for the cattle. These Nema are traditional in

their observation and are bound by a great number of austerities unlike the

Kola, in their execution. The rules and the regulations that define a Kola are

much simpler while those that are observed in the execution of the Nema are

a necessity. Once a Nema is observed it is mandatory to observe the same

every year while a Kola can be executed once in two years or could be

Page 22: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

250

stopped completely. Eventually the Nema has a set pattern of norms that

have been put across traditionally and are therefore necessarily ritualistic in

nature rather than artistic. Boggara Neme, Moggara Neme are few of the

Neme that are generally observed.

Bandi jatre : this is the third variety of celebrating the worship of the

spirits. This forms a major part of the Bhutaaradhane. The impersonator of

the spirit, the village Headman, important and prominent personalities of the

village community are seated on this wooden cart and are drawn in a

procession in the village. The name of the place where it is held is suffixed

to the name of this ritual and hence the carnival is identified with its place of

Page 23: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

251

celebration. Examples of this can be had in the Kapu Bandi, Mitra Nadka

Bandi and the like.

Maime : this kind of the Bhuta worship is associated with the miracles that

the spirit provides to the people in the event of its worship. The miracles are

executed in the carrying of either the carrying of a copper pot filled in with

burning cinders, burning himself by the impersonator with fire, hitting his

own self mercilessly by a sword, thus driving home the truth that there is the

presence of the spirit and that it is a powerful one is the prime idea of the

miracles that are performed by the impersonator. “The magic, the gymnastic,

and the imitative – all these entities are closely related. Here we have magic

elevated completely to worship, to devout celebration.”25

Mecchi : this means to please or appease the spirit. Hence one can associate

the actions that are incorporated in the execution of this particular worship.

There is the execution of the Urulu Seve or the offering of the rolling, all

around the shrine by the devotees as an obeissance or as a thanks giving to

the spirit, little children are also offered to the spirit in this context. This type

of worship is prevalent particularly in the regions of Bantwal, Anantaadi,

Mani, Balnaadu and Chendalike. The Ullalathi Bhoota worship is termed as

a Mechhe.

Jalata : Jaal in Tulu language refers to the open fields. Thus a worship of

the spirit that is held in the open fields is a Jalata. Some of the prominent

features of this worship are

25 Curt Sachs, World History Of The Dance, Norton Library New York, 1963; P.240.

Page 24: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

252

1) This is exclusively performed by the people belonging to the Nalike

community.

2) It is performed over a period of five days.

3) The technical aspects are of a greater importance than the traditional

aspect.

4) The decorations are necessarily to be done with the use of the tender

palm leaves and bark.

5) One can notice the use of the Shringara, Karuna and Hasya sentiments

besides the prevalence of the Veera, Bhayanaka and the Raudra

sentiments.

6) Also seen are the use of vulgar language, fights, noise and

commotion, sarcasm through songs and the like.

However, it is interesting to note that the Kola and the Jalata are

perhaps the only two forms that are complete in their worship. Amongst the

rest symbolic celebrations of the rites and rituals can be noticed.

Subsequently, all these varieties have been amalgamated to form the

present day worship of the spirits or the Bhutaaradhane. Inscriptions dating

back to as early as the Christian era 1379 in the temples of south canara

mention the worship of the spirits. The Nandalike inscription at Udyavara,

(1543), the inscription at Kapu (1499), in Udupi district, the one at Basrur

(1446), in Kundapur taluk, the famous Barkoor inscription (1566) mention

about the worship of the spirits and the spirit is identified as the ‘Daiva’,

which is seen to be replaced by the term Bhoota in the inscriptions belonging

to the period beyond the 14th century. The ‘Paadjana’ is an important aspect

of any worship that involves the spirit. Each spirit has his own specific pada

Page 25: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

253

dana or paadjanawhich is recited during his personification and propitiation.

These are special songs and their prominent features of this being:

1) The description of the birth of the corresponding Bhuta.

2) The tracing of the growth and development of the activities of the

corresponding spirit.

3) The description of the miracles and the incredible powers of the

corresponding spirit.

The bhootas are further classified based on their origin; their hierarchy

is decided by the status that is accorded to them. They are generally of five

major types. 1) Territory or Seeme bhutas exercise their powers over the

entire territory or the country and are therefore identified as the Rajan

Bhutas or the Arasu Bhutas. The types that are to follow are all subordinate

in their status to the above mentioned category.

Page 26: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

254

2) These are termed as the Maganeya bhutas.

3) This category is the Grama Bhutas. As the name suggests these are the

ones that empower the whole village with their miracles, protective nature

and the like. In short the Bhuta rules over the entire village it belongs to.

4) Boundary Bhutas; are those that are bound to exercise their power over a

particular boundary of any region.

5) The fifth and the ultimate category is that which is restricted to a

particular family wherein the spirit is concerned with the well being of the

family and the generations of the same. This category is termed as the

Kutumbha Bhuta.

These spirits have their respective status, place of worship or shrine,

and are housed in their respective shelters. Also interesting to note is the

Bhandara. The mask, sword, idol, and all the corresponding properties of

each of these spirits are collective termed as the Bhandara and are housed in

the shrines meant for them separately and meticulously on a swing and taken

out in a formal procession in the event of the worship of the spirit that is

observed according to the tradition. “Those communities who perform such

rituals believe that even when the ritual mask is not used it preserves some

of its mysterious powers. Therefore, it is usually kept in a ceremonial place

or it is destroyed immediately after the ritual is over.”26

26 Jiwan Pani, World Of Other Faces Indian Masks, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, New Delhi, August 1986, P.10.

Page 27: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

255

Bhutaaraadhana : The Bhoota worship of coastal Karnataka is well

known for the halo-like structure, well decorated with costumes which

provide a magnificent and awe-inspiring look.27 It is an obeissance to the

heavenly deities. These are spirits that are benevolent. They shower their

votaries with utmost compassion and love. These spirits are believed to

guard the upcoming generation of these families, and safeguard all their

interests granting them with freedom from fear, protection from any

calamity and also vouch safe their cattle and crops.

The performers belong to the Parava, Pambada, Koopaala, and the

Nalke Paanaara communities. Each shrine is the prerogative of any one of

these cults which has been handed over to them over the generations

traditionally. It is an interesting fact that all the other cults in the village are

assigned with particular duties with regard to the celebration of the ritual and

these have also been carried out by them from the past generations as a part

of the tradition. At times, the spirits are worshipped in a separate chamber

of the house that is set aside for this purpose. Subsequently having formally

sanctified of the place of worship, the place is decorated in accordance with

27 Dr. U.P. Upadhyaya, Dr. Smt Susheela P Upadhyaya, Folk Rituals of the Tuluva region of Coastal Karnataka, Regional Resources Centre for Folk Performing Arts Karnataka, 2002, ch 1 Folk Worship, P.22.

Page 28: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

256

the tradition. The foremost ritual that is observed on the day of the

celebration is the procession of the Bhandara. The Bhandara consists of the

idol, its mask, jewels, shield, sword and the seat that are preserved in a

separate structure through out the year. The ‘swinging cot’ as mentioned

earlier serves as the abode of the spirits. The special masks, weapons and all

the other objects associated with the worship are placed here. The Bhandara

is picked up ceremoniously and taken out in a procession to which the

devotees offer their prayers at specific points.

The festivities are either held on an altar in the open, under a tree or in an

open verandah specially erected for the purpose. The idols used for this

ritual are generally made of either wood or metal. These rituals are generally

Page 29: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

257

conducted annually or once in six months. The entire village community

takes part in the celebration. The ritual is identified by the term ‘Koola’

which means decoration, pantomime, festivity, beauty, gorgeous attire and

the like. The performer adorns himself with a colourful headgear, mask,

dress and dances in a splendid way, being possessed by the corresponding

spirit. The time of the performance of the ritual is generally held during any

part of the year, other than the days between July and August.

The offerings vary from animals that are sacrificed to mere rice,

coconut, pancakes and turmeric water. The ritual has been handed over to

the present generations by the primitive societies of tribes. The cult has

excelled in preserving the age-old rituals intact. It can be termed as the

ritualistic theatre.28 The worship, rituals, dress, costume, colours, masks,

head gears, ornaments, narration, dance and music, methods of healing the

ailing, prophecies cited, vary from one spirit to another and hence the study

of each aaradhana is a necessity. The person who is to personify the spirit

cleanses himself and takes a ritual bath all along which the mind is prepared

to take over the characteristics of the spirit that he is to represent. He is now

ready to be made up with colours of varied types. The make up of the face

varies with the spirit concerned. There is the use of different colour

combinations and lines that are used to symbolize the dominance of the

Satwika, rajasika or Tamasika characteristics of the spirit. Thus colours are

used on his face to symbolically suggest the description of the corresponding

spirit. “This face painting demands sophisticated workmanship and it is an

admirable piece of art.29 Awe, reverence and devotion are all evoked in the

28 Ibid, P.13.

Page 30: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

258

hearts of the devotees by the Aharya of the performer. The women of the

family to which the performer belongs sing the ballads that narrate the birth

and the great deeds of the corresponding spirit. With all these as the

preliminary activities completed, the performer is then donned a skirt made

out of the palm which is made ready for the purpose by the performer

himself. With the completion of the make up the performer now appears

before the devotees on the stage with his assistant, who also personifies the

assistant spirit. In certain cases the assistant spirit performer dances in a

comical manner. These two stand on the pedestal that has the beautiful

enigmatic drawing in front of it and dance to the accompaniment of the song

which reminds one of the Voddolaga of the Yakshagana where in the

character reveals himself after a magnificent entry into the corresponding

royal court. The singing of the song in the background stops and the priest

performs the aarati. The performer touches the aarati and this marks the

beginning of the invocation of the spirit into his body.

The anklets are artistically waved to and fro in all the eight directions

as he prepares himself to don the anklets or the bells that are placed in front

of the idol of the spirit. The devotees sprinkle flower and rice on him thus

catalysing the invocation of the spirit in him.

The spirit is now in possession of the performer and hence there is the

display of the acts like striking himself with the sword over his head, poking

an arrow into the region of his stomach, walking on fire cinders, holding the

burning torches very close to his chest, vigorous body movements,

swallowing of burning coal placing a pot containing burning fire on the bare

29 Ibid; P,28.

Page 31: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

259

palm, and so on. Gestures are the only means through which the performer

conveys while performing these feats. The performer exits the stage and is

offered sandal paste to soothe the damages that could have happened while

performing these feats which he applies on the relative areas. The performer

carries two burning torches in his hands and goes around the shrine to pay

his respects to the eight directions. Tender coconuts are offered to the deities

of the eight directions. On his return to the performing area, he goes around

the gathering and takes note of the presence or absence of the important

members of the village. There is the expression of joy for the good deeds of

the gathered, and also the expression of anger for the absence of the

dignitaries or lapses in the ceremonies, if any. This marks the end of the first

stage of the preliminaries to the ritual.

The head gears that are fitted on to the impersonator vary. These are

generally made out of palm leaves and are designed in semi-circular, oval,

horse-shoe, square shapes and termed as ‘Ani.’ This is, further beautifully

decorated with colours, flowers and elaborate ornamentation.

The ceremony thus creates Heaven and the dance of the heavenly

beings in front of our eyes. He and his assistant reach a state of ecstasy as a

prelude to the trance and the possession of the spirit.

With an interlude of about half an hour the performer seats himself

after having adorned the Ani. The assistant embellishes himself with a mask.

This symbolizes the totem of the spirit, sometimes relating to the totem

animal of the spirit in consideration. It is made of either gold or silver in the

case of the spirit of a powerful nature, worshipped by affluent sections of the

Page 32: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

260

community. The head gears that are fitted on to the impersonator vary.

These are generally made out of palm leaves and are designed in semi-

circular, oval, horse-shoe, square shapes and are termed as ‘Ani.’ This is,

further beautifully decorated with colours, flowers and elaborate

ornamentation. The ceremony thus creates Heaven and the dance of the

heavenly beings in front of our eyes. The head gears that are fitted on to the

impersonator vary. These are generally made out of palm leaves and are

designed in semi-circular, oval, horse-shoe, square shapes and are termed as

‘Ani.’ This is, further beautifully decorated with colours, flowers and

elaborate ornamentation. The ceremony thus creates Heaven and the dance

of the heavenly beings in front of our eyes. The performer is now handed the

sword ceremoniously and the Ani is fastened on to him. The performer

dances and leaps all the more and starts identifying him with the spirit and

claims to be the spirit himself. “Man can work magic when dehumanized,

transported, lifted by the divine out of the everyday, torn out of the normal

path of life, he walks into the void, into that expanse where the self mingles

with the infinite. Out of his transport a mastery over spirits grows in him; a

power to work in conjunction with the super human, to take control over the

Page 33: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

261

events of which his daily life is a part.”30 The dance is spectacular,

vigourous and fantastic, to the accompaniment of the drum beat and the

tunes of the pipe. The music is so played so as to suit the exhilarated

movements of the dancer, at a very high tempo of the rhythm and high pitch

of the pipe. There is a greater exaggeration of the music for spirits of greater

ferocity. “Quick manly jumps, whirling steps by male spirits and feminine

and graceful steps by female spirits are enacted. According to his talent,

experience, skill and mental makeup a dancer can create a pleasant and

sublime scene.”31 It is interesting to note that the musical accompaniment on

the tasse, sammela and the mauri also provide the necessary atmosphere for

the possession of the spirit and its ecstatic dance. In addition to this, in

certain ceremonies there is the drumming of the tribes in unison that would

have gathered to witness the ceremonies, to which there is the dancing and

singing of the tribes around a camp fire that is lit for the purpose.

Subsequently, there is the handing over of the sacred pot or the Badikara.

The tender areca flowers stalks, rice or paddy grains, the betel leaf form the

auspicious contents of the pot. The priest is the first receiver of the pot, who

gets possessed as soon as he is in possession of the same and begins to move

violently. The pot is offered to the performer, who is now dressed in the

complete attire, but there is the catch and chase type of dancing between the

impersonator and the priest, so much so that the movements weave into a

beautiful dance to accommodate the above said idea. Consequently they

circumambulate the shrine at least a minimum of nine times before the pot is

30 Curt Sachs, World History Of The Dance, Norton Library New York, 1963; P.49 31 Dr. U.P. Upadhyaya, Dr. Smt Susheela P Upadhyaya, Folk Rituals of the Tuluva region of Coastal Karnataka, Regional Resources Centre for Folk Performing Arts Karnataka, 2002, ch 1 Folk Worship, P.32.

Page 34: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

262

completely in possession of the impersonator. This signifies the formal

transfer of the spirit to the impersonator. This ritual also incorporates the

retinue of the priest and the performer owing to which the performer is

dragged along on a cart that signifies the totem animal of the spirit like the

tiger, pig horse and the like. Sometimes the live totem animal or the statue of

the same is being utilised to lead the procession in the cases when the Koola

is of a greater magnitude. Next to this is the ritual in which there is the

handing over of the sword ceremoniously to the impersonator who is seated.

The sword is previously placed before the shrine for sanctification, which is

then handed over by the possessed priest to the performer. The performer

now gets involved into the characteristics of the spirit that he is to be

possessed with by means of auto suggestion and personifies the same in his

dance, movements and a hysterical frenzy which lasts for a great stretch of

time. The dance stops abruptly when the spirit is completely manifested into

the impersonator.

At this juncture there is a question and answer session, with the

mediation of the organizers. The representatives of the devotees

ceremoniously request the spirit to protect their agricultural lands and the

prosperity of their entire community in addition to which there is the healing

of the sick by the impersonator and the disputes of the gathered devotees are

addressed to and solved by means of the answers that are signified by

counting the stalks of the areca flower. The significance is that the answer is

a positive one when the numbers of the areca stalks picked and placed by

him on the palm are counted and they sum upto an odd number and in the

negative when they sum upto an even number. Prophecies for the year are

made by the impersonator. This is followed by the offering of sacrificial

Page 35: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

263

objects to the spirit. Formerly the offering of the chicken and its blood was a

mandatory practise but of late it is observed that the spirit satisfies itself with

the pancakes and offering of the turmeric water in place of the blood of

animals. The faith and the devotion of both the gathered devotees and the

impersonator contribute a great deal to the invocation of the spirit and the

frenziful dance, healing of the sick and the splendour of the whole ritual.

“The ritual has evolved its own elaborate language of symbolic

gestures.”32 It can be observed that the various ways, in which the

impersonator symbolizes his actions in executing the facts like the descent of

the spirit from the heavens, invocation of the various ganas, the offering of

the tender coconuts to the village deity and the ashtadikpalas, in addition to

the portrayal of the emotional expressions that portray anger, satisfaction,

joy, restlessness etc. There is the imitation of the gait of the pig, and that of

the bride with a mirror in hand in certain ‘Kolas.’

The impersonators as said earlier are from the chosen sects and

families in society that are privileged to do the act. Hence they undergo a

formal training in the apt dances that are meant for the respective spirits that

they are to personify. They are also taught the making of the required

ornamentation with the palm leaves and the elaborate make up by the elder

members of the family. These children are initiated to do the act after they

attain adulthood. However, till date the personification of these spirits has

been the prerogative of the male members of the society. It has been the case

even when the spirit to be personified is a female one.

32 Ibid; P.39.

Page 36: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

264

Nagamandala or the coastal worship of the Naga :

The people belonging to the Vedic period were perhaps the foremost

to offer their worship to the Naga or the serpent god which has continued till

the present day. Greek epics mention the practise of the worship of the

cobras as the sons of Mother Earth on festive occassions. The lavish

presence of the Naga in the precincts of temple sculpture, and the ritualistic,

traditional, worship of the Naga as seen in the ritual of the Nagamandala

stand testimony to the importance and prevalence of the worship of the

Naga. The serpent that was associated with the hills, mountain, streams and

rivers, trees, plants and creepers, came to be associated later with the

different species of the human races like the Nagas, Yakshas, Gandharvas,

Bhutas and pischas. The obeissance to the serpent eventually led to spiritual

worship.”Though serpent is worshipped throughout India nowhere is it

celebrated with such elaborate rituals as in Tulunadu.”33 Incidentally in the

later cultures of the society too it can be noticed that the serpent is associated

in their worship of the various gods as seen in the worship of Lord Vishnu

represented as AnantaPadmanabha, as Ananteshwara, in the worship of Lord

Shiva and Shakti. The prevalence and importance of the serpent god can also

be inferred from the representation of Lord Ganapathi, who adorns the

serpent as a sash and is thus revered. The temple sculptures as mentioned in

chapter one invariably had the Yaksha and the Yakshi which are none other

than representations of the serpent god in the Human form. Amongst the

primitive tribes the serpent was thought of as the symbol of fertility and

prosperity which led to their worship. Historical evidences of the worship of

33 Ramakrishna Reddy.B, Dravidian folk and tribal lore, Dravidian University, Kuppam, 2001, Ch. 25. Current forms of ritual traditions in Tulnadu, A.V.Navada, P.266.

Page 37: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

265

the nagas can be had from inscriptions and the representation of the serpent

in various ways in the sculptural decorations of the temples and monuments

of the dynasties that ruled our country. The very first instance of the

inscription that is extant is that belonging to the Soma dynasty.34 The fact

that the Buddhist cultures also supported the worship of the serpents can be

had from the inscriptions executed during the times of the Banavasi rulers

belonging to the 3rd century in their Buddhist Viharas. The most famous

Barkur inscription of 1458 also testifies the fact that the worship was quite

an important aspect of the Buddhist culture. The Barkur inscription of 1402

relates, for the very first time the terms ‘Mandala’, ‘Yakshi’, ‘Yakshas’ and

Nagas, which are the terms that are generally associated with the serpent

god. The huge Naga motif in bas relief in the ceiling of the cave temple at

Badami also adds to the fact that the Chalukyas of Badami were followers of

the tradition of the worship of the serpent god. An interesting fact is the

representation of the serpent god in the form that exhibits no limbs that there

is the representation of the god with just heads and no hands and legs. This

corresponds to the Brahma Yaksha or the creator of life that is the god of

fertility and is a prominent belief prevalent amongst the cultures that

represent the Tulu people in the regions of South Canara and is identified as

Naga Berumal. The worship of this serpent is thus seen in innumerable

forms in the south Canara districts of Karnataka. In the coastal regions of

Karnataka the practise of propitiating the spirits and their worship has been

in vogue and is performed in an orderly and organized way. As part of the

reverence to the spirits, the Naga worship is also organized. These rituals

34 H.C Boralingiah, Janapada kalegala Kosha, Director of Prasaranga, Kannada University, Hampi, 1996; P,51.

Page 38: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

266

were initiated to appease the serpent and sometimes, also to stop the spread

of the venom in the event of a bite.

An incredible offering to the serpent god is seen in the worship that

corresponds to the Naga Mandala. The very prominent aspect of the worship

is the communion of the Naga Patri and the Naganartaka, which are

personified two male performers, who are believed to be possessed by the

Yakshi. The offering to the god is made through a beautiful series of dance

movements that are exhibited by both of them all through the night. It is

however associated with the strong belief that the participation in the ritual

leads one to ward off the skin diseases of the greatest order, brings marital

harmony to the disturbed couples, provides progeny to the childless,

prosperity to the downtrodden, thus providing in the real sense both

prosperity and fertility. It is therefore a votive offering of a whole

community to appease and applaud the snake god. The worship gets its very

nomenclature from the Mandala or the beautiful drawings that are drawn for

the purpose on the chosen day in a huge enclosure, with an altar, erected for

the purpose. It can be inferred that the origins of the worship must have

come down to the Vaidyas or the Brahmin community during the Vedic

period. “The Vedic rituals were generally performed at an altar, built with a

specific number of bricks that had not only ritualistic but astronomical and

calendrical equivalences. Thus the altar design was based on numbers that

reconciled the lunar and solar years.”35 Prior to this, the Nagas must have

been a tribe that offered their worship to the serpent god as symbol of their

community. The rites and rituals thus arbitrarily date to the 7th and 8th

35 Georg Feuerstein, Subhash Kak & David Frawley; In search of the cradle of civilization Motilal Banarasidass ; Delhi; 1995,2001,2005,2008, ch; The birth of Science in Ritual, P; 201.

Page 39: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

267

centuries. The rite can be traced as a continuous activity after the 13th

century on the basis of the Barkur inscription.

The preliminaries and all the necessities to initiate the worship are

initiated by the people belonging to the Brahmin community irrespective of

the community to which the person who owes to offer the same belongs to.

Separate altars are also set up for the people corresponding to the class they

belong to, to facilitate the preliminary offering and services to the serpent

god, which is followed by the Naga Mandala ritual that is conducted late in

the evening. The major altar that is erected for the purpose is the most

sanctified and perhaps the highly decorated one. It is on this altar that the

elaborate mandala or the image that initiates the all night ritual is drawn, in

the prominent colours adhering to the norm. the drawings of the serpent with

several hoods in odd numbers of three, five, seven The dimensions of this

altar are previously decided. The altar is identified as the Bana. It is so

erected that the devotees can seat themselves all around and view the

proceedings on all sides of the altar uninterrupted by columns or otherwise.

The designs on the floor include the picture of the parrots and the like made

out of the lotus buds. These are thought of to be the seat of the other Gods

who will seat themselves to watch the proceedings. The picture that is drawn

is considered as a single Mandala when it incorporates sixteen intertwined

figures of the serpent as in the Pavitra and the serpent in this case will be

visualized and drawn with fourteen hoods, while it is termed as the ardha

mandala when the Pavitra or the intertwined figures of the serpent are eight

and the serpent god is visualized as a seven hooded serpent god and it is

termed as quarter or Kaalu mandala when the design incorporates a

minimum number as least as four of the Pavitra motif are incorporated and

Page 40: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

268

the serpent is visualized as one with five hoods. Consequently the design is

seen to be of the chauka or the square shape or the ashtakona or the polygon

with eight sides or the Shadaala kona corresponding to the number of the

pavitra motifs and the number of hoods. The outer most outline of the whole

figure or design is made with yellow. However there is the prominent use of

five colours. They are Red, Black, Yellow, White and Green. The seven

hoods are drawn elaborately with the body coiled.

The form of the Naga is generally drawn with yellow, while the eyes

are painted in red; the intertwined ‘Pavitra’ motif has the outgoing and

incoming lines outlined in black, while white is used to dot the lower limbs

of the Naga. The motif is embossed with green, white, yellow, black, red

representing the hood. On the sides are drawn and painted the off springs or

the young ones of the serpent, besides which are the figures of Lord Ganesha

and Brahma Yakshi. All around this beautiful, huge, colourful mandala are

placed stacks of the Hingara or the areca palm flowers, tender coconuts,

areca nut, beetle leaves and fruits. It is customary to find sixteen oil lamps lit

and placed around the mandala.

It is also interesting to note that there is the incorporation of the

Vishnu Pada, which in reality is the representative of Lord Vishnu, drawn

right below the hood of the Serpent Lord. A little above the hood, is the Halo

that is elaborately drawn, under which is the Brahma Kapala, the

representation of the Yakshi in the form of the conch and that of Lord

Ganesha in the form of the Swastika. There is the stacking of the Areca palm

flowers to a height of at least about three to five inches, on the outermost

side of the mandala, on all sides of the altar. As a prelude to the evening’s

and night long performance of the Nagamandala the Ashlesha bali, the Naga

Page 41: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

269

samskaras, the Vatu Aradhana and Dana samakaras are performed during the

day. On this day are also performed the Gana Homa, Chandika Homa,

Godana and the Bhudana rituals.

The actual performance on this altar begins past midnight. The Naga

Patri, Naga Vaidya, the Dakke players accompanied by the priest and the

other accompanying musicians reach the altar, at this point of time. The

priest conducts a pooja which is of a very brief nature. The fact that the

Naga Patri is already possessed by the Naga Yakshi, is very evident in his

movements. He holds two handfuls of the areca florescence, which he

smears on his face in a state of trance. His movements are explicit and one is

reminded of the serpent by each move of his. The Vaidya mela enters the

scene at this juncture. The mela includes one Ardha Nari Vesha, who plays

the Brass Dakke and sings along with keeping the rhythm on the percussion

instrument, in harmony with the other wooden Dakke players, two singers

and one playing the brass cymbals. This Ardha nari veshadhari executes

beautiful dance movements, sometimes singing along too but constantly

keeping the rhythm on the instrument and at times executing complicated

rhythms.

The ardha nari vesha has a simple costume that is very close to that of

the costume that is adorned by the Sthri veshas of the Badagatittu style of

Yakshagana. He is decked with ornate anklets, bells on the ankles as

adorned by the Yakshagana performers, beautiful armlets, a sleeveless top

over a dhothi made out of a checkered saree of red colour as seen in the

Yakshagana, with a beautiful head dress or the turban with a lining in gold

which is decorated with an ornament. The ardha nari vesha is always

accompanied by the Naga – Patri as he moves. They stand facing each other

Page 42: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

270

and are sometimes with their back to each other. The Naga Patri, has both

his hands filled with the areca fluorescence.

The patri donns a red dhothi, his hair is disheveled, the face is

smeared with the areca florescence imitating the serpent god in his

countenance at the very first glance and predominantly exhibiting the raudra

sentiment throughout the whole ritualistic performance.

Initially the patri moves with a gait that is very majestic and subtle.

Later, as the dance proceeds, the possessed patri’s movements become

vigourous and they resemble the movements as if they are those of a serpent

in many respects, all along keeping to the rhythm that is being played by the

accompanying musicians. Simultaneously, water is sprinkled on the areca

florescence that is held by him which is smeared by him repeatedly on to the

face and sometimes to the fore part of his body too. “Every dance is and

gives ecstasy.”36

Leaps and jumps are also executed by the patri in his state of trance,

when the Ardha nari patri leaves the mantapa for a brief interlude which is a

traditional part of the whole ritual. The dance of the couple is seen to

develop after having danced around a number of times around the mandala

on the altar. The most interesting motif is the intertwining and unwinding of

the couple, directly indicating the idea of fertility and explicitly imitating the

moves of a serpent couple in this regard. “The Chinese crane dance was, like

the Hellenic, a round dance, and it belonged to the cycle of vegetation rites

designed to obtain rain, fertility, and regeneration.”37

36 Curt Sachs, World History Of The Dance, Norton Library New York; 1963, P50

Page 43: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

271

The mandala as drawn for the ashlesha bali.

The drawing of the Naga Mandala Motif on the altar in progress.

37 Ibid; P,239.

Page 44: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

272

The dance of the Naga patri and the Ardha Nari Patri.

Yet another instance of the dance.

Page 45: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

273

The most interesting fact is that a lot of the movements and dance

that is executed by the ardha nari vesha, besides his singing of the

padjanas and the playing of the Dakke or the percussion instrument

have a great semblance to the movements and motifs that are executed

in the Yakshagana traditional theatre of Karnataka. The fact that the

Yakshagana must have originated from these ritualistic traditions is

very evident. The padjanas are generally in praise of the serpent god

and are rendered in the fashion that the Bhagavathas of the

Yakshagana follow. There is also the interplay of a great number of

sentiments in the Nagamandala, thus indicating the rich cultural

tradition which it is preserving in the form of a ritual that is both

entertaining as well as of great psychological importance in warding off

the difficulties of the people. “The three other dances that are said to be

have brought in by Thaletas of Crete- The PAIANS to Apollo, which was a

magic dance originally against sickness and death.”38 The incorporation of

the Mandi movements of the Yakshagana is also found to be exhibited

in the dance of the ardha nari vesha.

The elements of the Ottan tullal, certain features of Kathakali and

Koodiattam, the traditional dance forms of Kerala, graceful movements of

Mohiniattam, the classical dance form of Kerala, in the graceful movements

of the ardha nari vesha are found to be part of the Naga mandala on

analyzing the same very meticulously. However the dramatic element on an

elaborate scale is certainly absent and Raudra is the predominant sentiment

that is evidently seen in a major part of the ritualistic dance that is presented.

38 Ibid; P, 240.

Page 46: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

274

In the Bhuta worship it can be seen that the performer is seen to be one with

the spirit or the bhuta as the ritual progresses, so much so that he identifies

himself with the bhuta and addresses the gathering as if he is the spirit

himself. Consequently, there is the absence of the Psychic distance that is

generally an important element in the execution of any character in the

present day presentations in the theatres of today. The impersonator thus

becomes the spirit from head to toe after donning the Mask and the

jewellery, and after being handed the accessories of the corresponding spirit.

The accessories include the shoulder ornaments in certain cases; the mask is

either made of a metal or made of wood and in certain cases prepared out of

the areca bark. The Karlkudka, Karlooti, Panjurli, adorn the masks of metal

in the absence of which the mask is made out of bark.

Kodamanthia, Mallaraya, Jamadi, Lekke Siri, are some of the

important spirits that also use metallic masks.

Anantanadiye and Ullalthige emply two varieties of masks they are

identified as sandalwood mask and golden tongued silver mask.

Mask of one particular spirit cannot be used on any other spirit.

These masks are fitted with certain special features. The execution of

the fearful expression, prowess, and cruelty by means of grotesque features

forms the primary requisite of these masks. These could resemble either the

face of a man or that of an animal. They are thus generally designed to be of

huge dimensions and are hence broad and big. The sight is focused with

huge eyes; tongue is protruded with carnivorous teeth and an open mouth.

Page 47: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

275

Since the very purpose of the mask is to create an atmosphere of fear and

prowess, the female spirits are also quite often seen to sport a huge

moustache which is not considered as a bad taste.

Masks are fearful in their representations as animals, as in the case of

the Panjurli, represented by the Pig mask, the Pili, by the Tiger, and the

Mahishanadaye, by the mask of the Ox. These spirits thus employ the masks

of these animals and are hence fearful in their presentation.

There are also instances when these masks are sometimes worn over

the forehead that is on the head by the impersonator. Symbolic colours are

painted on the face and the body of the impersonator in certain spirit worship

wherein an external mask does not find its necessity and presence.

“There is yet another kind of the mask that ceases to exist when

removed from the face of the performer, since the face provides the

foundation and is also the integral part of the mask. In this context the face is

painted with colour as mentioned in the chapter discussing the masks. Here

the dramatic experience to the artist or the one who dons this mask is

invariably, more intense. Painting of face in the primitive ritual dance or the

use of animal and spirit masks is basically disguise.”39 “Just as the soul [of a

man] after renouncing the nature proper to one body assumes another

character related to the body of another animal, so a person having [a

39 Jiwan Pani, World Of Other Faces Indian Masks, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, New Delhi, August 1986, P.38.

Page 48: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

276

different] colour and make up, adopts the behaviour connected with the

clothes he wears.”40

Tribes that were closely associated with the Buddhist religion also

have been found to have employed interesting ritual masked dances. Hence

it can be inferred that irrespective of the religion that was practised there was

the use of the masks in ritual and dance from the time man danced. The

prime reason for having employed these masks in the spirit worship as

mentioned earlier was to create a feeling of fear, awe and prowess in the

minds of the onlookers. Besides this the onlooker involved himself so much

into the worship that he became a wholesome part of the entire activity. The

padadanas which are recited during the ritual appear to be mainly for the

purpose of achieving the audio and visual fixation of the image of the

corresponding spirit in the minds of the hundreds of people participating in

the ritual by assembling at the place of worship.

The magic spell of the ritual is not limited only to the wearers of

masks; all the participants of the ceremony feel the presence of the

divine beings summoned by the magic power of the mask.41

Weapons are held in the hands primarily to create the idea of the super

natural element and the super human concept. The sword, bow, arrow, whip,

fire torch, a vessel containing burning cinders, a dagger; and all those

weapons that support the idea of the fierce and the extra terrestrial element

40 Manmohan Ghosh, Natya Shastra, Chowkhamba Sanskrit series office ch 23, Costumes and Make up, P.423 -424. v 84-85. 41 Jiwan Pani, World Of Other Faces Indian Masks, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, New Delhi, August 1986, P.2.

Page 49: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

277

are held as part of the ritualistic presentation. Similar to the masks these also

add on to the prowess of the spirit in consideration. During the performance

of the spirit worship and the performance of the impersonator, the dance

with the sword in hand is termed as the ‘sadhago’. The dagger or the kadtale

symbolizes the bravery and energy of the spirit. The impersonator

brandishes the sword, moves it to and fro and executes the dance movements

to ward off the evil. The purpose of these weapons is also to highlight the

miracles that the spirit can perform and the sanctity of the spirit in

consideration. Eventually it can be inferred that there are distinctly two

aspects to the spirit worship. One of them being the ferocious aspect and the

other being the one that brings in serenity. The former is seen in the use of

the above mentioned weapons while the latter is seen in the gifting of the

solutions to problems, epidemics and the like.

The dance accompanying the burning fire torches in hand is similar in

its execution to the ondane hejje, eradane hejje; that are in vogue in the

Yakshagana. The dance is sometimes around the entire area of the ritual

incorporating in particular the area around the sacrificial offering that is

meant for the spirit. Also seen sometimes, are the motifs of the hunter’s

dance with the fire torches held in the hands. The dance is many a time of

the graceful nature too with the to and fro movements and spinning being

incorporated. However the dance is definitely incomplete without the

execution of the leaps jumps and energetic dancing. The indispensable

musical instrument that is used as a major accompaniment to the whole

performance is the Tembare’. The rest of the musical instruments are

optional.

Page 50: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

278

The Kallakuda or Karlooti are famous spirits in south canara. These

two spirits are identified to be siblings that are brother and sister. They are

worshipped once every year. The backward tribes adorn this spirit. Red

flowing cloth, belts on the arms, waste, a chain, palle, nevala, anklets,

ornaments on the head, leaves of the coconut palm, form the costume and

makeup of those who dance these. The Kallakuda is also known as

“Posabootha” and the Karlooti is known as “Sathyadevatha”.

Kuppe panjurlee is another form of bootha worship, where in the

person possessed at the time of worship of this spirit goes into a state of

exhilaration. He leaps and dances every time he speaks since he is in a state

of ecstatic trance. He performs the pooja, sings, blesses does all the activities

with a Kuppe or a Jump or a leap. The Veshadhari is hence identified as

Kuppe panjurlee. “These dancers are possessed in the real sense. They not

only undergo a narrowing of consciousness- a spirit, a devil, a god has taken

over control of their body and has transformed them.”42

Amongst the ritualistic, ancient and traditional, theatrical forms that

belong to the state of Tamil Nadu, Therukkoothu plays a very significant

role in the development and socio- religious affairs of the community that

practices the art presentation. The audience is seated on all the three sides of

the performing area, while the fourth side is meant for the accompanying

musical orchestra or the Pinpattu, meaning background singers. It is an art

sophisticated in its elevation and aesthetics. The art form has been equated

by many a scholar to the Kathakali art form of Kerala and the Yakshagana of

Karnataka for its aesthetics, origins, style of presentation and the like.

42 Curt Sachs, World History Of The Dance, Themes and types; Norton Library New York; 1963, P50

Page 51: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

279

“Considering the nature of the Therukkoothu, i.e; as a ritual performance,

there are some studies which show its ritual significance.”43 The connotation

of the word Therukkoothu is theru in Tamil means ‘street’ and Koothu

stands for ‘play.’ This theatrical presentation is operatic in its nature and is

perhaps one of the foremost presentations amongst rural folk entertainments

in Tamil Nadu since quite a few centuries. In Tandaimandalam, of

Villipuram district, Gingee taluk, Nallanpillaipetral village, one finds deep

rooted significance to the cultural practices of the people of Tamil Nadu.

The chief participants in the Therukkoothu performance include the people

belonging to the castes of the Thuluva Vellala Mudaliar, Vannan and Asari

communities. These are found to be the chief inhabitants of

Nallanpillaipetral village. The people themselves have categorised the

tradition of Therukkoothu as Carnatakam and Vegujavali, meaning classical

and non- classical respectively. The Nallanpillaipetral village also invites

troupes from the neighbouring areas to present the performance on certain

occassions while the local people also present the same during the

corresponding festivals and major occassions meant for the same.

The Vannan or the washerman cult is thought of as the most important

repository of this art form. This community of Vannans is responsible in

more than one way in the presentation of the performance. They are the

actual actors of the Therukkoothu and also are the providers of the Make-up

and costumes. The lighting that is provided to the performance is by means

of torches that are lit by fire and are dipped in oil for the same and are also

43 Ramakrishna Reddy.B, Dravidian folk and tribal lore, Dravidian University, Kuppam, 2001, Ch..26, Folk Performing Tradition in Tamil Nadu with reference to Therukkoothu, A. Chellaperumal, p, 280.

Page 52: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

280

the responsibility of the Vannans. The play begins with an invocation to

Lord Ganesha, to which an actor donning an elephant mask, dances to the

accompaniment of the musicians. The performer is then seated and

worshipped by the priest. Following this all the other deities are invoked.

Each character of the presentation is introduced after the said invocation of

the deities. The singers in the background also provide the introduction of

the various characters by means of their songs. The prelude to the

performance includes the procession of the idols that are meant for worship

along the streets of the village. The costumes are skirts made out of the straw

of paddy over which the saree is wrapped and in certain situations there is

the use of sarees to form a multilayered half skirt to depict the various

characters. The performing area of the Therukkoothu is called as the sabai.

The audience is seated in order of their hierarchy. It is a primarily male

dominated art form for all the male as well as the female roles are played by

the men alone. These performances are organized during that period of time

when the agricultural activities of the people are of not much magnitude.

There is the rehearsing for the performances with the guidance of the chief

priest prior to the staging of the play. Therukkoothu is considered as an

act of devotion to the local deity to which it is traditionally linked.44

“The Therukkoothu is primarily performed as a ritual propitiation of

the village deities or as a ritual marker in important rites of

passage.”45Therukkoothu is less stylized and codified in comparison to its

counterparts and is often termed and identified as a folk theatre. It is also

44 Shovana Narayan,Folk traditions of India, Shubhi publications, Harayana, 2004, P.285. 45 Farley.p.Richmond; Darius.L. Swann, Phillip.B.Zarrilli, Indian Theatre Traditions of Performance,Motilal Banarasidass Publishers Private Limited, Dehi,1990,1993,2007,Ch; p.309.

Page 53: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

281

interesting to note that the presentation of this dance involves the use of the

curtain as seen in the execution of the Yakshagana and the Kathakali Dance

dramas, to conceal the identity of the character’s first entry on stage and thus

maintain the suspense and interest of the audience. The fact that

Therukkoothu is a ritual theatre has been a study of great interest to many

scholars and the occurrence of the idol of deities in the villages, resembling

the Kattaiveshams of the Therukkoothu stand testimony to the fact that the

ritual is very popular amongst the masses. The faith in the miraculous

solutions found to problems that are otherwise puzzling has catalysed the

beliefs of the masses so much so that a votive offering is made and the play

of Therukkoothu is arranged, whenever there is a drought or failure of the

Page 54: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

282

monsoons. However it is interesting to note that it is the prerogative of

particular families to play particular roles through generations. Often a

particular family is allotted these roles which are well rehearsed, and aptly

presented in a performance and hence well appreciated by the masses. The

themes are mostly those, chosen from mythology and the great epics, and are

presented with utmost sincerity, honesty and devotion. However, although

not very often, themes that relate to social problems, pertaining to the

village, are also enacted eventually leading to the resurrection of the

problems.

Baalesaantu :

This is a dance of the whole community of the Marathis inhabiting the

coastal regions of Karnataka, generally identified as South Canara. This is

danced on the full moon day in the month of Mayi, in the Tulu calendar. It is

performed any where between seven to eleven number of days, but the

celebration has to be for an odd number of days. After conducting the

required consecration, the priest installs a stone, on the evening of the day

preceeding the day of the actual ritual, to represent Lord Ishwara or Lord

Bhairava. Lord Ganesha is invoked symbolically and prayed to for a

successful dance ritual of the Baalesaantu. The dancers repeat the refrain

after the priest and go around the stone thrice and proceed to the local

temple where they dance as an offering to the deity. The role of the Koraga

is danced by that dancer whose body is smeared with black soot, wrapped

with a black sheet of cloth around the waist and wears a cap made out of the

areca spathe. He holds a flute in one hand and a stick in the other. The

Korappolu is the female counterpart of the Koraga. She wears a worn out

black blouse, her face is painted in black and also sports two braids of

Page 55: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

283

plaited hair. The other members include two persons who execute the role of

the sanyasis, who are entirely wrapped in dry plantain leaves, yet another as

Adiga, who bears a portable idol of the goddess of Shringeri. The group also

includes the priest, a bhuta and his assistant, a sooth-sayer playing on his

small drum, a monkey trickster and an ordinary citizen, two men to represent

the Muslims in the traditional rather colloquial dress of the Marathis wherein

a lungi is worn upto the knee length, a rolled up sleeved shirt a talisman tied

around one of the arms, sporting a beard, protruding teeth and a hat, besides

huntsmen clad in woven leaves of trees. The group also incorporates

members in modern attire and masks. Hence although they are supposedly

fifteen to twenty members in the group, there is no fixed number to the

group and varies to suit their availability and convenience.

The dance is conducted in an organized manner in the sense that the

group arrives in the courtyard of the house of the villagers. At this point the

Koraga couple addresses the landlord to which the latter lights a lamp and

Page 56: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

284

opens the door. This marks the beginning of their dance which a similar

motif that was mentioned earlier. Having completed the three circular rounds

in their movements they line up aside and make way for the others to dance.

Each of these characters now comes forward to present a sequence of dance

and dialogue.

The foremost amongst them is the Adiga who carries the idol of the

goddess and dance that is similar to the procession of the idol around the

temple deity after which he puts down the idol on a wooden seat placed in

one of the corners. The person characterizing the priest performs worship

which is followed by the actions of the bhuta and his assistant. The spirit

impersonator imitates the ritual dance of the spirit, the miracles that are

exhibited by the Bhutas, ending with a benediction by the assistant. These

are the ritualistic aspects of the Baalesaantu. There is the humourous

conversation between the sanyasins and the koraga and korapulu couple. The

next performance is by the Muslim characters who sing the Maapille Pattu

and dance to it. The city dweller holds a dialogue with the spectators and this

is followed by the dance of the hunters to the popular folk refrain “shivanu

bikshege banda.”

The dancers dance for about half an hour after which they are gifted

by the landlord and the group moves on to the next house where the entire

dance sequence is to be repeated.

At day break the group returns and the symbolic way of driving off

the evil is performed by encircling the poison-nut tree thrice or by encircling

a coconut around the head of every individual performer and breaking the

same under the root of the tree.

Page 57: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

285

Goondolu dance :

The Gondaligas are a group of singers of North Karnataka; conduct a

ritual that is similar to that of the Goondolu of Tulunadu. The deities

worshipped by Gondaligas are Tulajabhavaani of Tulajapura,

AmbhaBhavani of Kolhapur, Renuka of Mahur. The gondola is performed

on auspicious occasions such as Navaratri, Deepavali, weddings and thread

ceremonies. “The Gondulu of Tulunadu is performed by an impersonator

who calls himself Parashurama.”46 The Gondolu dance forms an important

part of the ritual. The sequence of the dance and the movements are quite

highly organized. The principal performer dances to the beat of his drum in

front of the seat of the deity and sings in praise of Lord Bhairava. There is

the dance of the torch bearers as well in tune with the dance of the

impersonator of Parashurama.

The songs also contain the theme that describes the miracles that can

be conducted by the goddess Amnooru or Mammaayi. She is thought of to

be the force that can unleash pestilence or rather control the same too. The

ritual therefore a way of appeasing the Goddess after pestilence has broken

out. The dance in the Gondolu ritual is called Goondolu Nalike. Both

Mother Goddess and Bhairava are worshipped in the Goondolu ritual.

Kangulu :

The members of the Godda community generally perform this dance.

It used to be a very popular dance in the past few years. It is a seasonal

dance and also performed in the month of Maayi on the fullmoon night. The

46 Dr. Ashok Alva, Olasari, Regional research centre for performing Arts, M.G.M. College Udupi, 2001, P, 15.

Page 58: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

286

ritual generally lasts about three days and three nights. The number of

dancers are generally anywhere between four, six, eight or eleven as

practised traditionally. The dance is performed in front of the shrines of

Bermeru and Khadgeswari of Kallatte regions. The chieftain offers the

prayers to these shrines for the well being and uninterrupted dance and

formally fastens the turban on the head of the chief performer. The Tiri

eeruni or the offering of the tender palm leaf garment to the dancers is also

performed by the chieftain, wherein the dancer is completely covered with

tender palm on the shoulders, waist and the head too. These performers are

now identified as Kanguludu Sirikulu. There is a Koraga character as seen in

the other dances of this region. The koraga wears a conical hat made of the

areca spathe over his head and carries a flute and a staff in both his hands.

He also carries a basket made from bamboo or twigs on his shoulder. He is

the one who personifies the deity of this community. The dance commences

after the dancers are ready in their attire. The chief dancer is handed a bell

and all the dancers make a small offering of their dance in front of the

shrine. Further they move on to the house of the Landlord, who opens the

door after having lit a lamp. The dancers perform in the courtyard of his

house and further move on from house to house till daybreak.

The Koraga offers a black tilaka or the mark on the forehead of any

ailing person during these performing sessions. It is believed that the ailing

person will be relieved of his illness since the Koraga is thought of to be

having the power to ward off the evil caused by spirits. It is also considered

to be the time when votive offerings can be made to the Koraga and fulfilled

in place of the deity. The dance sequence concludes only on the next

evening and is

Page 59: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

287

resumed in the nights. The last day marks the ritual of the discarding off the

costume formally. This ritual is performed on the outskirts of the village. On

this day, the impersonator of Koraga gets possessed by the spirits of Niica,

Jumaadi, and Banta. These express their satisfaction of the services that have

been offered and make assurances of the safety of the village in the event of

any calamity, and the prosperity of the village. Having done this the dancers

Page 60: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

288

discard their costumes in the centre of the junction of three roads after

breaking a coconut at the place, offering a piece of jaggery and leave the

area without bothering to look back to denote the warding off the spirits that

they were impersonating.

Mahishanadaye : ritual of Buffalo worship :

It is a common practice for the Tulu people to worship animals as deities.

One of the most common animals that is worshipped is the Buffalo.

Mahishanadaye is the bhuta form of the Buffalo. In the Mahishanadaye

shrine there are masks and images of the buffalo or the bullock. There are

several versions of the Paaddana releting to Mahishanadaye. Each version

describes the origin of the deity in a different way. One of the supernatural

accounts of the origin of Mahishanadaye is the union between the divine

Ishwara in the shape of a white lotus and Abbaga, a mortal leading to the

birth of Kumara. Kumara gets killed by a buffalo. Kumara is grafted with the

head of the buffalo on to the trunk of Kumara, resulting in the strange figure

of Mahishanadaye. Thus Kumara begets a supernatural aura.

The different Paaddanas reveal some of the characteristics of this deity:

1. He has a human body and the head of a buffalo.

2. The child has a horn on the forehead by virtue of his birth and hence is

often addressed as Baale Kanjige Kumara.

Page 61: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

289

3. A soldier killed in the battle-field attains divinity by the blessing of his

mother.

4. He appears as a buffalo-calf to Abbaga-Daaraga when they cross a stream.

5. He is Kumara appearing as a four footed animal and helping the twin

sisters to find their way to Nandolige.

6. Mahishanadaye appears as a poor Brahmin with a horn on the forehead.

7. Mahishanadaye has forms like the buffalo, bull or calf.

The ritual of Mahishanadaye is as interesting as the paaddanas.

The make up of the Mahishanadaye impersonator is quite simple.

There is nothing that symbolizes the bullock or the buffalo. However the

performer sports mask made of bronze or sometimes made of areca spathe.

The mask resembles the head of the buffalo or the bullock. The wearing of

Page 62: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

290

the mask instigates the performer to get into the prowess and grunting of the

buffalo.

The movements of the performer resemble those of a buffalo or the

bullock. The possessed impersonator expresses everything that he intends to

in the event of the ritual performance by means of grunts and does not, on

any accord speak. The offerings made during the ritual also correspond to

the feed of the buffalo. Hence he is offered and receives cooked horse gram,

coconut, banana and grass. It is an interesting fact that the buffalo is

considered as one of the important objects of worship and ritual amongst the

Tuluva people while it is considered an inauspicious animal amongst many

of the other cultures even to this day.

Panjurli:

Panjurli is one of the most powerful spirits worshipped throughout the

Tulu speaking regions. It is the deity that represents the boar the most

common predator that destroys the crops. It is worshipped by the public in

shrines as well as by the family gatherings as a family deity in their

households. There different forms of the Panjurli and are termed as Annappa

Panjurli, Kuppe Panjurli, Baggu Panjurli, Malaara Panjurli, Botti Panjurli,

Angana Panjurli to mention a few. The ceremony is a night long one with

offerings of cock, rice and the like. The specialty of the Aharya is seen in the

head dress which is circular in shape and has a mask of the pig. The hair is

let loose, the make up

Page 63: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

291

is elaborate and the performer wears a palm leaf skirt. A great number of

dance movements are executed by the performer and a divine message is

also conveyed at the end of the possessed dance. The make up is so designed

on the forehead with vertical lines, and colours that they resemble the horn

of a pig.

Jumadi :

This is also celebrated with different versions and is very popular

amongst the Tulu speaking community. The spirit here is considered to be

the incarnation of Mother Goddess. The actual impersonator is seen to be

dressed as half female and half male since attributes include a white

moustache as well breasts, which is seen in the idol too. The Kola is

performed with great pomp and show. The performer is adorned with a

square shaped head dress and elaborate ornamentation. He performs the

dance with violent movements and is assisted by yet another performer who

is identified as the dumb servant spirit. This assistant spirit relegates the

audience through humourous gesticulations and light behaviour.

Page 64: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

292

Ullalthi :

This spirit propitiation is very popular amongst the southern part of

the Tulu speaking regions. Ullalthi is considered to be the incarnation of

Parvathi the Mother Goddess. The belief is that the spirit displayed her

presence by letting the royal elephant loose which eventually ran amok

during the rule of the Banga dynasty. To appease the spirit the King got a

shrine at Kutrottu built which is still preserved. In Ananthadi the spirit is

seen in a red sandalwood mask, while a silver mask is used to mark the

festivities. Here the impersonator dances with burning torches in his hands.

The head gear is horse shoe shaped and the tongue made out of the areca

spathe is long enough to touch the ground. The head gear, mask and the

ritual varies from place to place. Elsewhere, at Balnad one can see the

impersonator holding the Kalasha Kannadi: an auspicious tray containing the

mirror, water filled pitcher, the coconut and other objects of the ritual and

dancing the dance of a bride.

Lakkesiri :

This is the spirit of Rakteswari, the incarnation of Goddess Durga,

who killed the demon Raktabijasura. Lakkesiri is worshipped in a pillar

shaped granite structure with a triangular summit. The impersonator here

dances wearing a square shaped head gear made of tender coconut leaves. A

very short ritual is observed in this case.

Page 65: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

293

Kodamantaya :

This is a Rajan Daiva or the royal spirit since it is patronized by the

kings and the like. The Kodamantaya shrines at Uppinangadi, Perinjeguttu,

Polali and Ekkar are well known for their annual festivals celebrated with

great fervour. The impersonator here is seated on a cart which has the figure

of the tiger on it and taken in a procession. The head dress is huge, with rich

ornamentation and is semicircular in shape. The performer exhibits varied

movements in his dance during the night long ceremony.

Bobbarya :

Bobbarya is known as the Lord of the seas and he is worshipped by

the community of fishermen. The most fascinating fact about this spirit is

that the spirit is believed to be born of a Muslim father and a Jain mother.

Bobbarya is worshipped in a shrine that resembles a pillar like structure with

a platform of stone that serves as an altar. A mace is placed in the shrine as

the weapon of the spirit. The Kola is celebrated in the varied regions of the

coastal area. The impersonator wears a special crown as a headgear while

performing the dance in his possessed state. The performer circumambulates

the temple with a mace made and moulded out of a dish that is prepared out

of rice and coconut. The procession then proceeds towards the sea shores

with the impersonator to obtain the blessings of Bobbarya for a good catch

of fish.

Page 66: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

294

.

Page 67: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

295

These are some of the spirit propitiation and the ritualistic dances that

have been observed in the coastal regions of Karnataka. The Therukkoothu

of Tamil Nadu is also a significant ritualistic dance tradition which leads to

the inference that the two aspects; that is ritual and dance are complementary

to each other as mentioned earlier.

The Cindu Madiga is a sub caste of the Madiga community in the

Andhra country. “Cindu as a qualifying denotes a group of Madigas who

perform the cultural text of Madigas by a way of dance form.”47 The

connotation of the word Cindu would be a vibrant step patterned in a

stylistic expression, which creates movements that are circular and look like

dancing. The performances of Cindu Madigas include typical dances with

47 Ramakrishna Reddy.B, Dravidian folk and tribal lore, Dravidian University, Kuppam, 2001, Ch..8 Ritual performance and theoretical validity to folklore: the case of Andhra Pradesh, Y.A Sudhakar Reddy, P, 300.

Page 68: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

296

Cindus accompanied by the overall narration in the theatrical forms. The

episodes are choosen from the epics and the presentations are termed as

Bhagavathams and Yakshaganams. “ Apart from these, they also enact the

ritual performances known as Jambapuranam and Yellamma Vesam that are

semi theatrical in nature.”48 In accordance with the traditional norms the

Cindu Madigas take the role of priests to perform certain purification rites

that prelude the performance.

The Cindus also have the prerogative to perform the role of the village

Goddess, Matangi or Yellamma. In this instance the impersonator is a

female whose life is dedicated to the Goddess Yellamma and married to her.

She is identified as Basavi or Jogini. The system is popularly known as the

basavi system. She is the privileged woman who is approached by the

village community to perform the rites of purification preceeding all the

festivities in the village.

Yet other celebration of a ritual through dance is the Yellamma

Vesham. She is considered to be the deity of the clan of Madigas. The belief

goes that Yellamma is enraged and on pacification she goes about whipping

and blessing the gathering. Make up or attire forms the major part of the

Yellamma Vesham. She is adorned with leather shell decorations. The head

is also ornamented with a shelled head gear. In the right hand she holds a

sword and in the other a ladle. After the make up and costuming is complete

the performance begins. The other character who performances along with

the impersonator of Yellamma is Potharaju, who is simultaneously prepared

for the performance at yet another location in the same village. He carries a

48 Ibid; P, 300.

Page 69: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

297

whip in his hand as an important stage property. After having made both of

them ready they are brought to the venue of the presentation.Yellamma

impersonator is offered toddy and jaggery to intoxicate her and alow her to

get possessed by the Goddess, by Potharaju as part of the performance. The

elders of the Cindu Madiga community then fasten a Yellamma Yantram on

the forehead of the impersonator when she gets possessed. She moves in a

furious mood, possessed by the goddess from house to house where she is

appeased by the dance of Pothraju, who offers her gifts that are offered from

every household.

There is the enactment of the story of Jambapuranam which is a myth

associated with the caste that goes on till midnight although it begins in the

evening as early as Four o’ clock, following which she visits the households

in the village.

After having visited every household in the village she is brought to

the centre of the village where she is to be offered a sheep. Pothraju now

dances violently to the accompaniment of the drumbeats and at one point

slits the throat of the sheep with his teeth and offers the same to the

impersonator of the Goddess. At this point the elders of the village make on

offering of cash to the Goddess to ward off the evil that can befall them by

her wrath. Following this is the sprinkling of the cooked sacrificial animal,

by the assistant spirit or bhootam, who is identified as Bhuta Poligadu.

Further there is the dance of Pothraju in front of the Goddess, in a violent

form after having donned the intestines of the sheep around his neck and

placing the lungs of the same in his mouth. Yellamma also dances at this

juncture and is warded off the evil eye which marks the end of the ritualistic

dance. The performance is held for two days. One of the performances is

Page 70: CHAPTER 5 THE RITUALISTIC FOLK FORMS OF KARNATAKA, …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/72945/10/10_chapter 5 t… · for; beliefs and myths can exist without rituals but

298

dedicated to the villagers while the other one is dedicated to the Cindu

Madigas. They collect gifts in kind and cash and hold these ritualistic

performances over several villages. It is a fact that the Cindu Madigas share

the income out of this performance with the whole community in the village

as it is their only means of livelihood.