Chapter 5 Polypeptide Sequences, Analysis, and Evolution€¦ · Ion exchange chromatography o...

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Chapter 5 Polypeptide Sequences, Analysis, and Evolution 1. Polypeptide diversity 2. Protein purification and analysis 3. Protein sequencing 4. Protein evolution

Transcript of Chapter 5 Polypeptide Sequences, Analysis, and Evolution€¦ · Ion exchange chromatography o...

Page 1: Chapter 5 Polypeptide Sequences, Analysis, and Evolution€¦ · Ion exchange chromatography o Eluant, elution buffer, reduces affinity between protein and stationary phase, increases

Chapter 5 Polypeptide Sequences, Analysis, and Evolution

1.  Polypeptide diversity 2.  Protein purification and analysis 3. Protein sequencing 4. Protein evolution

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Introduction

o  Protein function is central to life o  => understand their structure & function o  Sequence directly protein or the corresponding

DNA/cDNA

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2) Diversität der Polypeptide, Protein Reinigung, Protein Evolution

Lernziele:

1) Verstehen, dass die Grösse und Zusammensetzung von Polypeptiden enorme Varietät zulässt

2) Verständnis der Faktoren, welche die Stabilität eines Proteins beeinflussen

3) Verstehen, wie die ionische Ladung eines Proteins seine Polarität, Grösse und Liganden-Bindung, die chromatographischen Eigenschaften des Proteins beeinflussen

4) Verstehen, wie Gelelektrophorese benutzt wird, um Proteine zu analysieren

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Die Peptidbindung Lineare Verknüpfung / Kondensation von Aminosäuren

N -> C Amino -> Carboxyl

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AYDG

Struktur eines Tetrapeptides

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o  Polymerisierung von AS –  Dipeptiden (202), Tripeptiden (203) –  Oligopeptiden (3-10) –  Polypeptide (linear)

o  Protein: eine oder mehrere Polypetidketten –  40-4000AS, Mw ~4-440 kDa (AS ~110 Da)

o  Proteine mit vielen verschiedenen Funktionen basieren auf Variationen der Reihenfolge (Sequenz) der 20 Standard AS

Proteine sind Polymere der AS

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1) Polypeptide Diversity o  Primary structure: sequence of amino acids o  20n possibilities, n= number of residues o  20100, more possibilities than are atoms in the

universe

o  Range from: <40 to >10‘000 Peptides, multi-subunit complexes Normally 100-1000 residues

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Primärstruktur von Insulin

Frederick Sanger 1953 erste Protein Sequenz Intra- und Inter-Ketten Disulfidbrücken

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Disulfidbrücken Vernetzung von Polypetiden über Cys-Cys Brücken innerhalb eines Peptides oder zwischen zwei Peptiden

reduziert

oxidiert

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Constrains of protein structure 1.  Size: minimal for function, max for synthesis

2.  Not all amino acids are equally frequent in proteins a) Most abundant Leu, Ala, Gly, Ser, Val, Glu b) Rarest: Trp, Cys, Met, His Hydrophobic residues cluster inside Hydrophilic and charged residues are exposed to

water, ie on surface of protein Characteristic is AA sequence rather than AA

composition (“kitchen” anagram “thicken”)

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2) Protein Purification and Analysis Purify: enrich something that makes up <0.1% of a

tissue to ~98% purity, ie 1000x What does this mean: 1000x ? A) Purifying a protein requires a strategy - Earlier: purify abundant proteins, ie haemoglobin - Today: express gene in E. coli, -> purify recombinat protein Can constitute up to 40% of host cell protein Often in inclusion bodies

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Faktoren, welche die Stabilität von Proteinen beeinflussen

Falls das Protein in aktivem Zustand (nativ) gereinigt werden soll, muss seine Stabilität gewährleistet sein 1.  pH und Salzkonzentration: Buffer muss richtige Zusammensetzung haben 2. Temperatur: Je tiefer, desto stabiler, 4°C 3.  Degradative Enzyme: Proteasen, Nucleasen, etc. sollten inaktiviert/inhibiert werden 4.  Oberflächenadsorption: Denaturierung an Luft-Wasser Grenzfläche oder Plastikoberfläche sollte vermieden werden, kein Schaum… 5.  Langzeit Lagerung: kein mikrobielles Wachstum, keine Oxidation etc, -80°C, or -196°C (fl N2)

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Quantification of proteins

To purify a protein you need to be able to „see“ it somehow, to follow its enrichment during different purification steps

Assay: - monitor catalytic activity of your protein - use of an antibody against your protein (ELISA)

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ELISA enzyme-linked

immunosorbant assay

Bsp. Schwangerschaftstest basierend auf ELISA detektieren Chorion Gonadotropin im Urin

Animated Figure

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Determination of protein concentration by spectroscopy

Determination of the concentration of a solute that absorbs light

By Beer-Lambert law: A = log (I0/I) = εcl A, absolute absorbance (optical density) I0, intensity of light at given λ I, transmitted intensity ε, extinction coefficient c, concentration

l, length of light path

Polypeptides absorb strongly in the 200-400 nm region (UV), due to aromatic side chains (Trp, Phe, Tyr) but not in the visible light region (400-800 nm) colorless

Unless it has a chromophore, such as cytochromes

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UV absorbance spectra •  Not very sensitive •  Need 50-100µg/ml •  Aromatic Aa

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Determination of Protein concentration Monitor absorbance at 280 nm to follow total

protein concentration (But DNA and RNA also absorb at this wavelength)

More specific Assays: Bradford Assay: Use of Coomassie brilliant blue

shifts absorbance from 465 to 595 nm when bound to protein

sensitive: 1µg of protein/ml - Will also thightly stain your fingers ...

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Protein Reinigung ist ein mehrstufiger Prozess

Prinzip: Die einmaligen physikochemischen Eigenschaften des gewünschten Proteins werden ausgenutzt, um es von allen anderen Proteinen schrittweise abzutrennen

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Aussalzen trennt Proteine nach ihrer Löslichkeit

– Was bedeutet Löslichkeit ? –  Durch Aussalzen fallen Proteine aus der wässrigen

Lösung und können abzentrifugiert werden -  Ammoniumsulfat, (NH4)2SO4,

bis 3.9M in Wasser löslich

-  Jedes Protein ist bei seinem isolektrischen Punkt, pI, am wenigsten löslich

-  pI = pH bei dem das Protein keine Nettoladung mehr trägt, dh Anzahl der positiven = Anzahl der negativen Ladungen

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pH-Abhängigkeit der Löslichkeit

•  Minimal beim isoelektrischen Punkt, pI, des Proteins, isoelektrische Prezipitation

•  pI eines Proteins: Summe der neg. = Summe der pos. Ladungen –  Keine Nettoladung –  Keine Mobilität im elektrischen

Feld.

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Chromatographische Trennungen

o  Chromatographie: Gr. chroma, Farbe + graphie, schreiben o  Auftrennen von Farbe in ihre Bestandteile

o  Prinzip: Mobile Phase - stationäre Phase Dabei treten Wechselwirkungen zwischen den in der mobilen Phase gelösten Analyten und der stationären Phase auf

o  Klassifikation nach Art der Wechselwirkung mit der stationären Phase, Bsp. Ionentauscher Chr., Adsorptions Chr.

o  Zur Proteinreinigung werden typischerweise mehrere Chr. Separationen hintereinander durchgeführt.

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Papierchromatographie •  Set 1941, einfache Technik zur

Separierung von kleinen Molekülen, AS, Oligopeptide

•  Stationäre Phase ist polar (Cellulose), mobile Phase ist apolar -> Separation aufgrund der Polarität der Substanz

•  Migrationsrate hängt vom Partitionskoeffizienten ab:

Kp = conc. Stat. Phase / conc. Mobil Phase •  Migrationsrate charakteristisch für jede

Substanz, Rf = Distanz der Substanz /Distanz des Lsm

•  Dedektion: Radioaktiv, Fluoreszenz, Derivatisierung, Bsp. Ninhydrin für AS

•  Zwei-dimensional

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Ionentauscher Chromatographie

o  Reversibler Austausch von Ionen an der inerten Matrix (stationäre Phase, R+) mit Ionen in der Lösung (mobile Phase, B-)

R+A- + B- <-> R+B- + A- (Anionen Tausch)

o  Proteine sind Polyelektrolyte, können daher über Anionen- oder Kationen-Tauscher gereinigt werden

o  Affinität der Interaktion hängt von der Präsenz anderer Bindungspartner ab, Salz, pH

o  Vorgehen: 1. Bindung der Proteine an den Ionentauscher unter gegebenen Bedingungen

2. Selektive Elution entweder schrittweise oder mittels eines Gradienten

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Beispiele von Ionentauschern

Oft verwendete Matrix: - Anionentauscher: DEAE, Diethylaminoethyl - Kationentauscher: CM, Caboxymethyl Proteine sind Polyelektrolyte und können daher sowohl an Anionen- wie an Kationentauscher binden. Affinität (Ladung) hängt allerdings stark vom pH- und Salzgehalt des Puffers ab.

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Animated Figure

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Ion exchange chromatography

o  Eluant, elution buffer, reduces affinity between protein and stationary phase, increases affinity of protein to buffer (eluant)

o  Proteins with high affinity for the matrix elute slow, those with low affinity elute fast

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Hydrophobe Interaktions-Chromatographie (reverse phase)

o  Um nicht-polare Substanzen, i.e. AS, Lipide, hydrophobe Proteine (Membrane Proteine)

o  Matrix ist mit Octyl- oder Phenyl-Gruppe substituiert

o  Hyrophobe Interaktion wird durch Salz im Puffer erhöht

o  Elution durch tiefen Salzgehalt, evtl. mit Detergentien kombiniert, welche die Interaktion zwischen Protein und Matrix unterbinden

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Gel-Filtrations Chromatographie o  Gel-Filtration = Size Exclusion Chromatography =

Molekularsieb, Trennung nach Grösse und Form

o  Stationäre Phase, Gelkügelchen mit kleinen Poren

o  Porengrösse wird durch den Hersteller bestimmt und kann durch den Grad der Quervernetzung der Matrix verändert werden

o  Wenn ein Protein zu gross ist, um in die Poren einzudringen, kommt es schnell wieder von der Säule runter

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Animation gel filtration

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Affinitätschromatographie o  Nutzt spezifische Bindungs-

eigenschaften des Proteins aus

o  Ligand wird an Matrix gekoppelt, via Spacer

o  Immuno-Affinitäts-chromatographie, Antikörper gegen das Protein ist an Matrix gekoppelt

o  Metal Chelat Affinitäts Chromatographie, Zn2+ oder Ni2+

sind an die Matrix gekoppelt, binden poly-His tags (6xHis)

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Elektrophorese o  Wandern von Ionen in einem elektrischen Feld

o  Bei pH~9 sind die meisten Proteine negativ geladen und wandern zur Anode (Trennung von Serum Proteinen)

o  Visualisierung der Proteine: Färbung mit Coomassie Blau, Autoradiographie oder Antikörper (Western Blot), oder ...

o  Polyacrylamid Gel Electrophorese, PAGE (nativ) oder SDS-PAGE (denaturierend) - Grundlage der Trennung: Kombination von Gel Filtration (Grösse und Form) und elektrophoretischer Mobilität (Ladung)

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Papierelektrophorese

o  Eine Art zonaler Elektrophorese, die Probe muss auf einem Träger und nicht in Lösung wandern

o  ~20 V/cm

o  Hochspannungs Elektrophr. ~200 V/cm

o  Kombination von Papierelektroph. (Trennung aufgrund der Ladung) und Papierchromatography (Trennung aufgrund der Polarität) wird zum Fingerprinting eingesezt

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SDS-PAGE o  SDS, starkes anionisches Detergents, Bindung

von ca. einem SDS Molekül pro 2 AS -> negative Ladung

o  Alle Proteine haben die selben Ladung-zu-Masse Verhältnisse und eine ähnliche Form, da denaturiert

o  Trennung aufgrund der Masse durch die Gel Filtration von PAGE

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Färbung von Proteinen o  Coomassie-Färbung, detektiert µg

Fraktionen o  Silber-Färbung, ca. 50x sensitiver o  Fluorescamin modifiziert Lys

–  Radioaktive Proben -> Autoradiographie

–  Scintillations Zählung

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Two-dimensional electrophoresis

o  To resolve complex protein mixtures

o  First dimension: isoelectric focusing (IEF), separation of proteins according to their pI in a stable pH gradient

o  Second dimension: SDS-PAGE (separation acc. to molecular mass)

o  Can resolve up to 5‘000 protein spots, i.e. E.coli or yeast proteome

o  Proteomic studies

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Zwei-dimensionale Gelelektrophorese

•  Isoelektrische Fokusierung (IEF) gepaart mit SDS-PAGE

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Lernziele:

1) Verstehen der Schritte, welche zu Sequenzierung eines Proteins notwendig sind, inklusive N-terminale Analyse, Spaltung der Disulfidbrücken, Kettenfragmentierung, Edman Abbau (oder Massenspektrometrie), und Rekonstitution der Sequenz

2) Verständnis der Wichtigkeit von Proteindatenbanken

3) Protein Sequencing

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Protein Sequencing Why ?

1) Sequence -> understand function, determine structure of protein

2) Sequence comparison of related proteins 3) Diagnostic test for inheritead diseases caused by mutations in a given protein

•  1953, first sequence of bovine insulin, took 10 years, 100g protein

•  Principle: Need a pure sample of your protein, break down protein into pieces that can be sequenced by a chemical method

See guided exploration 4

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Overview of protein

sequencing

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A) First step: separate subunits •  How many subunits is my protein composed of ?

•  N-terminal amino acid analysis reveals the number of different types of subunits:

–  Modify N-terminal AA with dansyl chloride, hydrolyze all peptide bonds, determine the nature of the dansyl-modified AA

–  Or performe 1 cycle of Edman degradation

–  If I get Gly and Phe, I know that my protein has at least two nonidentical subunits

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Disulfide bonds between and within polypeptides are cleaved by 2-

mercaptoethanol

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Alkylierung der Cysteine mit Iodessigsäure

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B) The polypeptide chains are then cleaved

•  Sequence determination has a size-limit of about 40 AA

•  Peptides longer than 40 to 100 AA need be shortened: cleaved into pieces, fragments that can be subject to chemical sequencing

•  Chemical or Enzymatic cleavage of proteins by: endopeptidases, exopeptidases, CNBr

•  Trypsin as example for an endopeptidase that cleaves after Arg or Lys

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Typsin cleavage

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Cyanogen bromide (CNBr) cleavage Chemical cleavage after Met

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C) Edman degradation removes a peptide’s first amino acid residue

•  Stepwise remove one amino acid after the other in a cyclic chemical process from the N-terminus of a purified peptide: 1 = Ala, 2 = Gly, 3 = Phe (sequence)

•  Edmans reagents: PITC, phenylisothiocyanate => phenylthiocarbamyl adduct, PTC

•  Hydrolyze with anhydrous trifluoroacetic acid => thiazolinone derivative

•  Determine nature of phenyltiohydantoin, PTH-amino acid after each cycle

•  Automated process, up to 100 Aa in a run

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Animated Figure

-> identify after each cycle

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D) Mass spectrometry determines the molecular masses of peptides

•  Mass spec measures mass-to-charge ration (m/z) of ions in the gase phase

•  + charge due to Lys or Arg

•  Ile = leu

•  Gln-Lys, ∆=0.036Da

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Electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS)

Massenspektrometrie trennt Ionen aufgrund ihres Masse-zu-Ladungs-Verhältnisses (m/z)

Positive Ladungen in Proteinen durch Lys oder Arg

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Sample calculation

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Tandem mass spectrometry in peptide sequencing

Up to 25 Aa

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Zwei-dimensionale Gelelektrophorese

•  Isoelektrische Fokusierung (IEF) gepaart mit SDS-PAGE

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Reconstructed protein sequences are stored in databases

•  Sequencing of overlapping peptides for reconstruction of the entire protein sequence

•  Determine position of disulfide bridges

•  Record sequence in public database, UniProt, Swissprot

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Generating overlapping fragments to determine the amino acid sequence of a polypeptide

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Determining the positions of disulfide bonds

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Lernziele:

1) Verstehen, dass Sequenzvergleiche die evolutionäre Verwandtschaft zwischen Proteinen aufzeigen

2) Verstehen, wie Proteinfamilien durch Genduplikationen und Divergenz von Proteindomänen evolvieren

3) Verstehen, dass die Evolutionsrate von Protein zu Protein unterschiedlich ist

4) Protein Evolution

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Protein Evolution

•  Proteins and genomes evolve through mutation and selection (Darwin)

•  Random mutations in genome, can be lost or maintained if they bring an evolutionary advantage, that is through natural selection

•  Lethal mutations die out (if homozygous)

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A) Protein sequences reveal evolutionary relationships

•  Example, cytochrome c, of mitochondrial electron transport chain

•  Aerobic respiration 1.5 to 2 Mia years ago

•  Compare cytochrome c sequences of more than 100 species

•  What do you learn from these similarities and differences ?

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Sequence comparisons provide information on protein structure and function

In case of cytochrome c: •  38 positions are invariant (fully conserved) •  Remaining positions are occupied by chemically

similar Aa (conservative substitution) •  In 8 positions we find 6 or more different Aa

(hypervariable residues) •  Neutral drift, change of Aa over time, these

residues are not critical for the function of the protein

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Phylogenetic trees depict the evolutionary history

•  Comparison of homologous proteins:

–  Which Aa are important for function (conserved)

•  Quantify difference, count number of different Aa

–  Normalize to differences in 100 Aa

•  Note that evolutionary distance of modern forms to the earliest common forms are equal, the earliest forms thus continued to evolve and did not stand still….

•  Conservation of protein domains See bioinformatics exercise 5-1 and 5-2

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Taxonomische Information durch Proteinsequenzvergleiche

•  Phylogenetischer Stammbaum von Cytochrom C

–  Anzahl Unterschiede per 100 AS = PAM units, Prozent der akzeptierten Punktmutationen

–  Gleiche Distanz am Ursprung, d.h. auch die Vorläufer haben sich weiter evolviert.

•  Quantifizierung der evolutionären Distanz

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B) Proteins evolve by the duplication of genes or gene segments

•  Proteins with similar function have similar sequence, orthologs

•  Probably evolved from a common ancestor

•  Gene duplication (genome duplication), 98% of proteins in human have paralogs, i.e. are present in at least two copies/haploid genome

•  Example, globin family, α-, β-subunit, similar to myoglobin, fetal forms, pseudogenes

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Genealogy of the globin family

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The rate of sequence divergence varies between different proteins

•  Blot rate at which mutations are fixed in the proteins structure against time

•  Functional constraints in protein sequence, i.e. Histone H4, cannot further evolve

•  Structural constrains (binding partners)

•  Folding constraints

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Rates of evolution of four proteins

Page 76: Chapter 5 Polypeptide Sequences, Analysis, and Evolution€¦ · Ion exchange chromatography o Eluant, elution buffer, reduces affinity between protein and stationary phase, increases

Many proteins contain domains that occur in other proteins

•  Many proteins are composed of mosaics of protein domains that are 40-100 Aa long

•  These domains are also found in other proteins, or are repeated many times in a given protein

•  Functional, structural and folding modules

•  Evolution by domain shuffling

Page 77: Chapter 5 Polypeptide Sequences, Analysis, and Evolution€¦ · Ion exchange chromatography o Eluant, elution buffer, reduces affinity between protein and stationary phase, increases

Construction of some multidomain proteins