Chapter 5 LEARNING IN ORGANIZATIONS. CHAPTER 5 Learning in Organizations Copyright © 2002...

chapter

55LEARNING IN

ORGANIZATIONS

CHAPTER 5 Learning in Organizations

Copyright © 2002 Prentice-Hall

Learning in Organizations

• Definition: A relatively permanent change in knowledge or behavior that results from practice or experience.

• Two types of learning:• Operant conditioning• Social learning

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Operant Conditioning

• Learning that takes place when the learner recognizes the connection between a behavior and its consequences.– Individuals learn to operate on

their environment, to behave in certain ways to achieve desirable consequences or avoid undesirable consequences.

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Insert Figure 5.1 here



Reinforcement• Reinforcement:Reinforcement: Increasing the probability that a

desired behavior will occur again in the future by applying consequences that depend on the behavior in question.

• Positive Reinforcement:Positive Reinforcement: The administration of positive consequences to workers who perform desired behaviors.– Pay, promotions, interesting work, praise, awards

• Negative Reinforcement:Negative Reinforcement: The removal of negative consequences when workers perform desired behaviors.– Nagging, complaining

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Reinforcement Schedules• Continuous Reinforcement: Occurs

after every occurrence of a behavior.• Partial Reinforcement: Occurs only a

portion of the time that behavior occurs.

• Differences:– Continuous reinforcement can result in

faster learning of desired behaviors.– Behaviors learned using partial

reinforcement are likely to last longer.

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Reinforcement Schedules• Fixed-Interval ScheduleFixed-Interval Schedule: The period of time

between the occurrence of each instance of reinforcement is fixed or set.

• Variable-Interval ScheduleVariable-Interval Schedule: The amount of time between reinforcements varies around a constant average.

• Fixed-Ratio ScheduleFixed-Ratio Schedule: A certain number of desired behaviors must occur before reinforcement is provided.

• Variable-Ratio ScheduleVariable-Ratio Schedule: The number of desired behaviors that must occur before reinforcement varies around a constant average.

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Advice to Managers: Reinforcement

Administer rewards only when workers perform desired behaviors or close approximations of them.

When using reinforcement, make sure you identify the right behaviors to reinforce (those that help the organization achieve its goals).

Because job performance is likely to vary across workers, administer rewards so that high-performing workers receive more rewards than low-performing workers.

Do not assume that a given reward will function as a positive reinforcer to all workers. Take individual preferences into account.

Make sure the consequences of a behavior are equal to the behavior.

Make sure that workers know what reinforcers are available for desired behaviors. Don’t just assume that they know.

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Extinction and Punishment• ExtinctionExtinction: Removing a consequence that is

currently reinforcing an undesirable behavior in an effort to decrease the probability that the behavior will occur again in the future.

• PunishmentPunishment: Administering negative consequences to workers who perform undesirable behaviors in an effort to decrease the probability that the behavior will occur again in the future.– Verbal reprimands, docking pay, loss of privileges

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Negative Reinforcement vs. Punishment• These two concepts are often confused; however,

they differ from each other in two important ways.• First difference:

– Punishment reduces the probability of an undesired behavior.

– Negative reinforcement increases the probability of a desired behavior.

• Second difference:– Punishment involves administering a negative

consequence when an undesired behavior occurs.– Negative reinforcement entails removing a negative

consequence when a desired behavior occurs.

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Advice to Managers: Punishment

Remember that all behaviors, good and bad, are performed because they are reinforced in some way. Undesired behaviors can be eliminated by determining how the behavior is being reinforced and removing the reinforcer.

When feasible, use extinction rather than punishment to eliminate undesired behaviors.

When you use punishment, make sure workers know exactly why they are being punished.

Make sure the chosen negative consequence is indeed a punishment for the individual in question.

Downplay the emotional element in punishment, punish immediately after the undesired behavior, and do not punish in front of others.

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Organizational Behavior Modification (OB Mod)

The systematic application of the principles of operant conditioning for teaching and managing important organizational behaviors.

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The Basic Steps of OB Mod• Identify the behavior to be learned

– Should be observable, objective, and countable

• Measure the frequency of the behavior– Provides a baseline of current performance

• Perform a functional analysis– Current antecedents to and consequences for behavior

• Develop and apply a strategy– Taken directly from operant conditioning principles

• Measure the frequency of the behavior– Assesses revised performance

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Identify important organizational behavior Identify important organizational behavior

Measure the frequency of the behaviorMeasure the frequency of the behavior

Do a functional analysisDo a functional analysis

Develop and apply a strategyDevelop and apply a strategy

Measure the frequency of the behaviorMeasure the frequency of the behavior

NoNo YesMaintain behavior

YesMaintain behavior

Problem solved?Problem solved?

Steps inOB Mod

(Figure 5.2)

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Social Learning Theory• A learning theory that

takes into account the fact that thoughts and feelings influence learning.

• Necessary components include– Vicarious learning– Self-control– Self-efficacy

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Insert Figure 5.3 here



Vicarious Learning• Learning that occurs when one person (the learner) learns

a behavior by watching another person (the model) perform the behavior.

• Conditions required for vicarious learning to take place:– Learner observes the model when the model is performing the behavior– Learner accurately perceives model’s behavior– Learner must remember the behavior– Learner must have the skills and abilities to perform the behavior– Learner must see that the model receives reinforcement for the behavior

in question

• Learners can also learn from situations in which models get punished.

• Role models can be positive or negative.

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Self-Control• Self-discipline that allows a person to learn to

perform a behavior even though there is no external pressure to do so.

• Conditions indicating a person is using self-control:– Individual is engaging in a low-probability behavior– Self-reinforcers are available to the learner– The learner sets goals that determine when self-

reinforcement takes place– The learner administers reinforcers when the goal is

achieved

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Self-Efficacy• A person’s belief about his or her ability to perform a

particular behavior successfully.– Not the same as self-esteem

• Self-efficacy affects learning in three ways:– The activities and goals that individuals choose for themselves

– The effort that individuals exert

– The persistence with which a person tries to master new and sometimes difficult tasks

• Four sources of self-efficacy:– Past performance

– Vicarious experience or observation of others

– Verbal persuasion

– Individuals’ readings of their internal physiological states

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Advice to Managers Make sure newcomers see good performers being positively reinforced for the desirable behaviors they perform.

Tell your subordinates who the particularly good performers are so your subordinates will know whom to model.

Do not closely supervise workers who engage in self-control.

To boost and maintain high levels of self-efficacy, do the following:

a. Encourage small successes, especially for subordinates with low levels of self-efficacy. Give them tasks that you are confident they can succeed at, and progressively increase the difficulty of the tasks. b. Let subordinates know that others like them have succeeded on especially challenging projects. c. Have high expectations for your subordinates, and let them know that you are confident they can learn new and difficult tasks.

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The Learning Organization• Organizational learning is the process through which

managers instill in all members of an organization a desire to find new ways to improve organizational effectiveness.

• Five activities are central to a learning organization:– Encouragement of personal mastery or high self-efficacy.– Development of complex schemas to understand work activities.– Encouragement of learning in groups and teams.– Communicating a shared vision for the organization as a whole.– Encouraging systematic thinking.

• Knowledge management is the ability to capitalize on the knowledge possessed by organizational members which is not necessarily written down anywhere or codified in formal documents.

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Chapter 5 LEARNING IN ORGANIZATIONS. CHAPTER 5 Learning in Organizations Copyright © 2002...

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