Chapter 5dearmond/222/222.New/new.chap.5.1.pdf · March 1997 126 File: new.chap.5.1 (426) [AP...

Introduction to Syntax Chapter 5:

Chapter 5

5. AdjunctionÑModification

5.1 Introduction

This chapter covers the introduction of modifiers. The central claim is thatmodifiers are adjoined to the node which they modify. The adjunction configurationis defined in (401):

(401) Adjunction

A node Y is adjoined to X if X immediately Dominates both Xand Y:

The adjoined node Y may be adjoined to the left of X as in (402a) or to the rightof X as in (402b). By convention, both Xs are the same category, though they behead nodes, phrasal nodes, or any intermediate nodes. The basic claim in thissection is that modifiers are adjoined to XP, not to X:

In this chapter we will show that a modifier can be adjoined either to the leftor to the right of the modificand. Specific parameters of English will determinewhether a specific modifier is adjoined to the left or to the right.

5.2 The Modification of Nouns

An example of adjunction occurs in the following phrase:

(405) the red pencil.

Modifiers such as the adjective red in (405) are adjoined to the form that theymodify. We will initially claim that the adjective modifier is adjoined to NP (406), but

(402) a. X

Y X

X

X Y

b.

(403) a. XP

Y XP

XP

XP Y

b.

March 1997 119 File: new.chap.5.1 :

Configurational Syntax Section 5.3:

at the end of section 5.3 we will note that it must be adjoined to a new internalconstituent called ‘µ’:

First we will argue that they are adjoined to NP. Then we will argue that modifiersare adjoined to the forms they modify

5.3 The Modification of Nouns—Prenominal Position

In this section we will show that adjective phrases are adjoined to NPs. Pre-nominal adjective phrases are adjoined to the left of NP.

Traditionally in configurational syntax, the adjective phrase has been assumedto be directly dominated by NP:

(407) The Traditional Expansion of NP

NP ˘ (Det) (AP)n N.

The superscript ‘n’ indicates that more than one AP may occur in prenominalposition:

(408) The large fast black Lexus.

We will show that Rule is incorrect in that it fails to capture certain facts about themodification of nouns.

The first evidence that we cite covers the function of adjectives. Adjectivesmay modify adjectives as well as nouns:

(409) Elvis’s Caddy was bright pink.

Here, bright is modifying pink. Bright is considered an adjective and not a degreemodifier because bright can be modified by very and it can be compared:

(406)

N

NP

Det

pencilthe red

A

AP NP

NP

March 1997 120 File: new.chap.5.1


(410 Elvis drove a very bright pink Caddilac.) a.

b. Elvis drove a brighter pink Cadillacs than did Little Richard.

c. That woman is likes bright yellow shirts.

The last of these sentences is ambiguous. Here, bright either modifies (yellow)shirts, or it modifies yellow alone. Cf.:

(411 Some yellow shirts are bright.) a.

b. Some shirts are bright yellow.

First note that if bright and yellow are sister nodes as in (412), bright willmodify both yellow and shirts, and yellow will modify both bright and shirts:. Let ussuppose that adjectives and adverbs belong to same category which might be calleda modifier. Following the usage in modern transformational grammar, this node iswritten as A:1 Recall that A is dominated by AP. It has been assumed by some lin-guists that the structure for bright yellow shirts is the following:

The structure in (412) is inappropriate since it fails to resolve the ambiguity. Whena node immediately dominates more than two nodes, such a structure is called a flatstructure. To resolve this ambiguity, let us suppose that if bright modifies shirts then it must be a sister2 to N, and if it modifies yellow, then it must be a sister toA, but bright cannot be a sister to yellow if it does not modify yellow:

1. Presumably, A is derived from the first letter of both adjective and adverb. In more traditionalgrammars the adjective is assigned the node Adj, and the adverb the node Adv.

2. The term sister is defined below in this section.

(412) NP

bright yellow

AP AP N

shirt

A A



It should be obvious that there are two different kinds of modifiers—adjectives andadverbs. How are these distinguished? One way to differentiate them is by a featureof the node: A[Adj] and A[Adv]. A[Adj] must be adjoined to NP, and A[Adv] mustbe adjoined to VP. We could write (414) as (414):

If it is true that all modifiers are sisters3 then the feature is predictable. We will notuse the features except to clarify a point from here on.

In (414) it would be difficult to determine which modifier is modifying whichmodifier if the sister modifiers are not differentiated somehow. Note that it becomesnecessary therefore to introduce indexation. Here, each modifier receives a differentindex since [A yellow] is the modificand and is the node that is copied, the dominantmodifier must bear the same index. Thus, bright modifies yellow. The dominant mod-ifier modifies N. Since the dominant modifier has the same index as the subdominant

3. A sister node is defined on the following page. In advanced work sisterhood will be replacedwith another configurational related called c-command.

(413) a. b.

bright yellow shirtyellowbright

AP NPAP

NP

NP

NP

NP

shirt

AP AP

A

N

NA

A

A

AP

(414) a. b.


AP NPAP

NP

NP

NP

NP

shirt

AP AP A[Adj]

N

NA[Adj]

A[Adj]

A[Adv]



modifier, it stands to reason that yellow modifies shirt. If an index4 is added to N,its index occurs on the copied Ns and on the NP of which [N shirt ] is the head:

We will not show indexation consistently, except to clear up an ambiguity or to illus-trate a point.

Next, we find that substitution provides strong evidence in favour of theadjunction hypothesis for adjectival modification. Consider the following sentences:

(416 the new bright yellow shirt) a.

b. the new bright yellow one

c. the new bright one

d. the new one.

The pronominal one replaces the noun in (416b), yellow shirt in (416c), and brightyellow shirt in (416d). If adjectives were not adjoined to nouns, but if they occurredin a flat structure (as in diagram (412), then pronominal substitution should not occur.Given this evidence, we will now assume that modifiers are adjoined to categorythey modify.

Now consider the following conjoined structure:

(417) very timid men and very brave women.

Timid modifies man, and brave modifies woman. Neither adjective modifiesthe other noun. How do we know this? Suppose we restrict modification in structural

4. In advanced work an index is considered to be an abbreviation of grammatical and semanticfeatures.

(415) a. b.


APj NPiAPk

NPi

NPi

NPi

NPi

shirt

APj APk

Aj

Ni

NiAj

Ak

Ak

APj



terms such that a modifier must be a sister node to the modificand. Two nodes aresister nodes if they are immediately dominated by the same node:

(418) Sister Nodes

All nodes that are immediately dominated by a common nodeare sister nodes.

(419) Modification

5

X modifies Y, only if X is an A, an adjectival adverb, a deter-miner, or a degree modifier, and X and Y are sisters.

Whether a node is a modifier or whether it can be modified depends on the categoryof the node. All nodes A (adjectives) and all nodes Deg (degree) are modifiers.Nouns are not inherently modifiers. Up to this point, adjectives modify nouns, anddegree words modify adjectives. In the following P-marker we assume that A isadjoined to N, as Deg is adjoined to A:6

First, note that timid is not a sister to woman; so timid does not modify woman.This also holds between brave and man. Timid and brave are sisters to man andwoman, respectively. Thus timid modifies man and brave modifies woman. Thedegree modifier very is a sister to timid in the first NP, and a sister to brave in thesecond one. Thus, very modifies timid in the first structure, and brave in the second.

The following P-rule expands NP such that the AP may be adjoined to it:

5. Phrases and clauses will be later analyzed as modifiers.6. Degree words are formally covered in §5.7 below.

(420)

AP

AP

Deg

very timid

AP

AP

Deg

very braveand

Conj

men women

NP NP

N N

NP

AA



(421) The Prenominal Modification of NP [1]

NP ˘ AP NP.

Note that P-rules by definition are optional. Suppose we had stated that the degreemodifier is optional, e.g.:

(422) The Prenominal Modification of NP [2]

NP ˘ (AP) NP.

The result would be that the node A could dominate another node A and by reap-plying the node A could directly dominate a further node A. This is undesirable sinceit could be repeated infinitely. Also, to claim that A only directly dominates itself isa cyclical argument. It tells us nothing. We certainly want to avoid redundant struc-tures like:

Rule (421) permits NP to directly dominate NP only if NP dominates AP as well.Rule has another consequence. It applies iteratively, producing structures similar to(423). Thus we could treat rule as optional, which would yield structures like thosebelow:

(424) [NP book ]

(The optional expansion of A is not utilized.)

(425) [AP interesting [NP book ]]

(The optional expansion of A is taken.)

(423) *

book

NPj

NPj

Nj

NPj

NPj



(426) [AP interesting [AP recent [NP book]]]

(The optional expansion of NP is taken once again).

This optional expansion of NP can be done over and over again to produce a mod-ified adjective of indefinite length. (In section §2.12 we discuss the implications ofindefinite recursion).

The AP is adjoined to NP, not to N. The evidence is found in conjoined struc-tures:

(427 the tall green trees and plants) a.

b. angry gaggles of geese and herds of cattle.

Both examples in (427) are ambiguous. Either the adjectives tall and green are mod-ifying trees alone and the adjective angry is modifying gaggles of geese alone.; orthe first set are modifying both trees and plants and angry is modifying both gagglesof geese and herds of cattle. In ambiguous cases the adjective must be adjoined tothe NP in order to have scope over both NPs:

Rule (421) now makes it possible to eliminate ‘Adjn’ in simplifying the grammar.

In English, there is a restriction on the expansion of prenominal APs. The APcannot occur in prenominal position, if the adjective occurs with its complement:

(429 *The proud of his son father) a.

b. *An angry about his marks student.

(428)

angry

A

gaggles of geese

N

NPP

PPN

and herds of cattle

N

NPP

PPN

NPConjNP

NPAP

NP



Conjoined APs modified by a DegP may occur in prenominal position:

(430) A very proud and happy parent.

This restriction cannot be built into the P-rules. It must be written as a filter. Thefilter bars adjective complements in prenominal position:

(431) Prenominal Adjective Constraint

*[NP [AP A XP ] N ], where XP has phonetic form.

There are languages to which this filter does not apply; e.g. German.

5.4 The Modification of Adjectives

Adjectives and adverbs can be modified with a degree modifier:

(432 The very shy boy dated the rather pretty girl.) a.

b. The somewhat timid deer disappeared.

c. John ate his lunch very fast.

d. The deer rather quickly jumped over the hedge.

Degree words modify adjectives, adverbs, and prepositions in English. Most degreewords cannot be modified:

(433 *the rather very shy boy) a.

b. *a few somewhat rather rotten apples.

Degree words cannot be compared:

(434 *this verier shy boy) a.

b. *a few ratherer rotten apples.

The examples in (433) show that degree words cannot modify other degree words,and the examples in (434) show that degree words cannot be marked for the com-parative degree.

The degree modifier very modifies the following adjective, but it does notmodify Ns:

(435 *The shy very boy bought the expensive rather book.) a.

b. *The timid somewhat deer disappeared.



In sentence (432a), very modifies shy boy but not pretty girl, and rather modifiespretty girl, but not shy boy. First we may assume that the degree modifier precedesthe noun that it modifies. It now seems reasonable to assume that the degree mod-ifier plus the adjective form a constituent. Evidence to support this assumption canbe found in sentences such as:

(436 Very tall though she is, Mary is an inch shorter than John.) a.

b. *Tall though she is very, Mary is an inch shorter than John.

(437 Somewhat timid seemed the deer.) a.

b. *Timid seemed the deer somewhat.

c. *Somewhat seemed the deer timid.

Sentences (436a) and (437a) may seem questionable out of context, or even ratherformal once their contexts are given, they are a part of English and they must beaccounted for, especially in contrast with sentences (436b) and (437b and c). Sen-tences (436a) and (437a) show that the degree modifier and the adjective must begrouped such that the degree modifier is adjoined to the adjective as in attributiveadjectives.

It appears that a degree modifier must always precede the noun it modifies.The constituent that immediately dominates the degree modifier and the adjectiveis often called an adjective phrase. When a node X is adjoined to a node Y, a copyof Y is created, such that Y directly dominates X and Y. In the following diagram thenode AP is adjoined to AP. The node to which another node is adjoined is calledthe host: Degree words are modifiers that can modify adjectives and adverbs. Intraditional grammar degree words are often called adverbs. The feature ‘Deg’ maybe indicate on A—A[Deg].

(438)

APi

APi

APj

very timid

Ai[Adj]

Aj[Deg]



We will present more evidence below that the degree modifier (AP) is adjoined toAP. Degree words are differentiated from common adverbs only it that they cannotbe modified by other degree modifiers:

(439) *The very rather bright shirt.

It is even possible for yellow or bright or both to be modified by a degreemodifier. If a degree modifier is modifying yellow, then bright cannot modify it ifbright precedes yellow:

(440 a bright, very yellow shirt) a.

b. a very bright, very yellow shirt.

Bright shows that an adjective can be modified by adverb or by a degree modifier.The ‘or’ relation is expressed by enclosing the constituents affected by or in curlybrackets:

(441) The Modification of AP [1]

AP ˘ AP{Adv, Deg} AP.

Note that the indexation of the adjectives prohibits a node from modifying itself.The indexation is required to differentiate the modifying adjective from the one thatis being modified.

The following P-rule expands AP such that the degree modifier phrase (AP)may be adjoined to it on the left. Note that the indices are required here to differ-entiate the expanded AP from the modifying AP:

(442) The Modification of AP [2]

APi ˘ APj APi.

Now, we can provide evidence for adjunction. Consider the following NP:

(443) a very timid man.

As we have discussed above, timid modifies man, and very modifies timid. Thedegree modifier cannot modify a noun:

(444) *a very man.

Consider also the following conjoined structure:

(445) a timid man and a brave woman.



In the string the very very timid boy, each occurrence of very is a sister tothe node A:

Degree words include some words that end in ‘-ly’; e.g., extremely, barely,hardly. These forms are degree words and not true adverbs.7 First, very and rathercannot modify extremely and barely; nor can the latter modify the former:

(447 an extremely hot day) a.

b. a very hot day

c. *a very extremely hot day

d. *an extremely very hot day.

Second, extremely and barely cannot be marked for the comparative and superlativedegrees:

(448 *a more extremely hot day) a.

b. *a barelier (more barely) warm cup of coffee.

Note that it is marginally acceptable whether degree words can be modified:

7. In traditional grammar degree words are called adverbs.

(446)

timidvery very

APk

APj APi

APi

APi

Ai[adj]

Aj[deg]

Ak[deg]

NP

NP

N

NP

Det

the boy



(449) ?Jerry is barely very tall.

Sentence (449) could be ambiguous. In the more acceptable reading, barely is mod-ifying the AP very tall. In the second more questionable reading it could be modifyingvery.

In non-standard colloquial English there is further evidence that degree wordscan be modified:

(450) Ellen put the book down right smack dab on the counter.

Dab does not appear to occur alone as a degree word, but smack may be modifiedby right. Right is a degree word that modifies prepositions and such forms as smack:

(451) Gary walked smack into the house.

Smack appears to be a modifier of prepositions in colloquial English; dab can modifysmack only (as far as it is known):

(452 John hit Bill right smack in the belly.) a.

b. John hit Bill smack in the belly.

c. John hit Bill right in the belly.

d. John hit Bill smack dab in the belly.

e. *John hit Bill dab in the belly.

5.5 Degree Phrase

There is evidence that the degree word is the head of a phrase:

(453 The giraffe is so tall that it can eat fruit from large trees.) a.

b. John is as happy as he can be.

c. The chicken is too spicy to eat.

The clause that follows the adjective is part of the meaning of the degree word.Note that the clause cannot be omitted after so and as unless it is part of a dis-course:

(454 *) a. (*)The giraffe is so tall.

b. (*)John is as happy.

c. The chicken is too spicy.



The complement of as can be omitted in the appropriate context:

(455) Bill is as happy as a lark, and John is as happy.

Examples like (455) are better of as is modified by just:

(456) John is just as happy.

Just is one of the few degree words that can modifier other degree words. Someother examples include the following:

(457 John is about as tall as his brother.) a.

b. Julia is almost so happy that she could blush.

c. Picasso is ever so proud of his blue period.

d. Columbus was almost so meek that Isabella was about to ban-ished him.

In these meanings is appears that almost can modify a noun as well as anotherdegree word, but about and ever do not although just about can:

(458 *John is about tall.) a.

b. Julia is almost happy.

c. *Picasso is ever proud.

d. Mrs. Greerson is just about awake.

Note that ever can modify an adjective in exclamatory clauses:

(459) Is Picasso ever proud!

This distribution of degree words may be in part semantic. Formal semantics liesbeyond the scope of this text.

The complement clause is not part of the adjective phrase:

(460) a. The giraffe is tall.

b. John is happy.

c. The chicken is spicy.

This shows that the clause is dependent on the degree word, and, hence, a com-plement of the degree word.



The puzzle here is fact that the complement is separate from its head. Com-plements normally cannot be separate from their heads. The solution to this puzzleis theoretical; it is too complex an issue to go into here.

(461) The Expansion of DegP

DegP ˘ Deg Ú (ß).

Considering Deg to be dominated by DegP raises a few problems that are tooadvanced for us to handle here. We will not analyze ‘DegP’ any further here, leavingthis for an analysis that is more advanced.

The P-maker for (449) is given:

Degree words may take a complement similar to other heads. An embeddedsentence or prepositional phrase occurs in some constructions containing a degreeword:

(463 The boy is as shy as the girl.) a.

b. The boy is as she as the girl is.

c. The girl appears so bright that she will skip this grade.

d. The deer was so timid that he disappeared into the bush.

(462)

e Jerry is barely

A[Deg]

very

A[Deg]

tall

A[Adj]

APAP

APAP

APVAuxCop

VPNP

SC

CP

N



If the embedded phrase or clause is omitted, the result is either ungrammatical orthe omitted constituent is understood from context. One cannot begin a conversation(discourse) with examples of the following sort:

(464 (*)The boy is as shy.) a.

b. (*)The girl appears so bright.

c. (*)The deer was so timid.

The degree words as and so can be modified by the degree word just:

There is another degree word so that does not require a complement. In theintended reading so means to the extent that. (The deer was timid to the extent thathe disappeared into the bush). In the second reading so functions like an intensifier.It is similar in meaning to very, but he seems to have an emotive value. This usedoes not require a complement.

There is at least one degree word that follows the adjective it modifies:

(465 John is fast enough to enter the race.) a.

b. *John is enough fast to enter the race.

For some unknown reason the degree word enough follows the adjective. It occursin construction with its complement.

The rule that accounts for the modification of adjectives is revised. Recallfrom Chapter two that the symbol ‘\’ means the linear order is optional:

(466) The Modification of Adjectives

AP ˘ APDeg\AP.

The default position for the degree word modifier appears to be on the left. Let usassume this to be the case. Then degree words which occur on the right are markedin the lexicon with this property. Enough is one of them.

The omission facts support our claim that the complements are dependent ontheir heads. The complement in (463a) is the PP as the girl. The complements inthe three remaining examples are embedded clauses. The use of so as an affirmativeparticle is discussed in section (§3.4). The complements of so and as are theembedded sentence that occurs immediately to the right of the AP that it is modi-fying.

The degree word too often cooccurs with an embedded clause:



(467 The chicken is too hot.) a.

b. The chicken is too hot to cook.

c. *The chicken is hot to cook.

The embedded infinitival clause to cook is a purpose clause. Simple stative verbsdo not appear to be modified by purpose clause as (467b) indicates. The purposeclause must be associated with the degree word. The purpose clause seems to bemodifying the degree word. We will not purse this matter here.

These examples show that Deg is dominated by DegP. We should now expectDegP to be expandable by the principle of phrase structure expansion introduced inChapter 2: What is new here is the rule produces a discontinuous constituent. Adiscontinuous constituent is one where another form that is not part of the con-stituent occurs somewhere between the initial and final members of the constituent.If [X Y] is a constituent, and A is not part of the constituent [X Y], then [X Y} in thefollowing string is a discontinuous constituent:

(468) [X A Y].

The discontinuous dependency can be illustrated in the follow tree structure. Thenode ‘W’ directly dominates [X Y], and ‘V’ dominates ‘A’:

(470) The Expansion of AP

Deg

APDeg˘ ADeg Ú (ß).

The concept of the discontinuous constituent is very controversial. We argue againstit in a subsequent chapter. In one view in advanced syntax it can be shown that ßis repositioned (moved) to the right of and adjoined to the AP. We will tentativelyadopt rule here, leaving the final expression of the rule for advanced syntax.

Assuming DegP, the P-marker for (471) is given in (472). Without argument,we assume that the embedded constituent is adjoined to AP. A link is used to markthe discontinuous constituent linking the embedded constituent to a hypotheticalempty complement position:8

(471) The rhinocerotes appear as large as the hippopotami.

(469) V

W

X YA



is the following:

The evidence for the adjunction of the embedded constituent to AP rather than tosome other constituent such as VP is found in such constructions as:

(473) As large as the hippopotami though the rhin9ocerotes appear,they are somewhat smaller.

The adjective phrase is repositioned at the beginning of the sentence and theembedded clause immediately follows the adjective head. This provides evidencethat the embedded clause is still within AP and not adjoined to VP or some higherconstituent.

Although these degree words do not take complements, we assume that likeall degree words that occur as part of APDeg::

8. This proposal is more or less compatible with transformationalists and those who do any vari-ant of Generalized PHrase Structure Grammar, there are other schools of syntax that do notbelieve there is an empty constituent here. For those who hold this view the structure is trulydiscontinuous.

(472)

e rhinocerotes

NP

appear as large

A[Adj]

AP

AP

AP

V

VPNP

SC

CP

A[Deg]

NPP

as the hippopoto

APDef

the e

PP



Comparative degree words also take complements:

(475 John is more ambitious than Bill is.) a.

b. Mary is less forceful than Betty.

By logical extension the suffix ‘-er’ adjoined to adjectives functions like a degreeword, except its form it that of a suffix rather than that of a word:

(476 *John is tall than Bill.) a.

b. John is taller than Bill.

Clearly, the embedded clause is dependent on the suffix but not on the adjective.Further analysis of comparatives formed with suffixes lies beyond the scope of puresyntax entering in the field of morphology9. We will not cover this construction here.

9. Some linguists believe that syntax and morphology are distinct components of grammar. Oth-ers believe that there is no theoretical distinction. The distinction is based on convenience,not on theory. This text is arbitrarily limited to ‘pure syntax.’

(474)

e John

N

is as tall

AAPi

AP

AP

V

VPNP

SC

CP

Ai[Deg]

PP

as his brother

AP

e

PP

APi

APj

about

APi[Deg]



5.6 Possessive NPs

The so-called possessive noun phrases are formed with “-’s”:

(477) a. The student’s book is expensive.

b. Mary’s daughter starts kindergarten soon.

Although the possessive NPs in (477) are actually possessive, it is not true that allsuch NPs are possessive. In the following Ss the enemy does not possess thedestruction in any sense of the term, nor does the prisoner possess his escape:

(478) a. The enemy’s destruction of the city was disgraceful.

b. The prisoner’s escape from prison baffled the warden.

The enemy is the agent associated with the destruction (he destroyed the city), andthe prisoner is the agent associated with the escape (he escaped from prison).

The possessive NP and the determiner associated with the subject NP cannotboth occur:

(479) a. *Mary’s the daughter starts kindergarten soon.

b. *The Mary’s daughter starts kindergarten soon.

This suggests that the determiner and the possessive NP occur in the sameposition—only one of them can occur there at one time. This position is called Spec-

N (Specifier of N—this is covered in chapter 7. Note, however, that the possessiveNP may have its own determiner as in (477a) and (478) above. The form “-’s” is aparticle called a clitic that is adjoined to the NP, unlike the plural inflectional suffix“-s” that is adjoined to nouns:

(480) a. the mayor of Sarnia’s vest

b. *the mayor’s of Sarnia vest

In (480a) the clitic is adjoined to Sarnia, although in the normal interpretation of thephrase, the vest belongs to the mayor, not to Sarnia. If the vest did belong to Sarnia,(480a) would make no sense. Thus, the possessive clitic must be adjoined to NP.The evidence that the clitic is adjoined to NP is found in such conjoined NPs as:

(481) Betty and Bob’s child.

In the intended reading, the child is the offspring of both Betty and Bob:

(482) [NP [NP Betty and Bob] ’s ] child.



In a second reading, the child could be Bob’s but not Betty’s:

(483) [NP [NP Betty] and [NP Bob’s child ]].

The following possessive phrase is an interesting example of ambiguity:10

(484) A friend of John’s wife.

It either means

(485) the wife of a friend of John,

or it means

(486) a friend of the wife of John.

s resolved structurally be determining which NP is possessive:

(487 [NP [NP a friend of John]’s wife ]) a. [NP

b. [NP a friend of [NP John ’s wife]].

The P-rule expanding NP must now be revised. Note that the possessive NPdominates a clitic, whereas the matrix NP does not. To ensure that the matrix NPdoes not generate a clitic, let us mark the possessive NP with the feature ‘GEN’,which is assigned to the branching NP indicating that only the NP marked with thisfeature may dominate a clitic:

(488) The Possessive Expansion of NP

a. NP ˘ ({Det, NP+[Gen]}) N.

b. NP+[Gen] ˘ NP Cl (non-iterative).

Only determiners and definite possessive NPs can occur In the prenominalposition. We can indicate this with the feature [+def]:

10. This example is due to Benji Wald.



As in the case of other features, features are optionally included in phrase markers.We do so only to illustrate a point or for clarity.

A difficulty arises in the representation of (362). The NP in Spec-N must notbe interpreted as identical to the dominant NP. The use of the feature ‘GEN’ elimi-nates this problem. Note that indexation also overcomes this problem:

(489) CP

C

VP

S

NPgendef

NP

Det NP

Cl

NP Vauxcop

AP

A[adj]

e the student 's book is expensive

NP N

N



Note that the NP immediately dominating Cl must be a sister to N:

(491) *The student’s is here.

The NP may be a sister to an empty N, however:

(492) The prof’s book is on the table, and the student’s is on hisdesk.

The student’s is a sister to an empty N, the head of the subject NP. The empty Nrefers to the book which belongs to the student:

CP

C

VPl

S

NPj

NPi

Det

Nj

Cl Ni

Vl AP

A

e the student 's book is expensive

NPj

NPj

NPk

(490)



If the final word ends in ‘s’ (plural), the letter ‘s’ following the apostrophe isdeleted:

(494) the students ’s ˘ the students’.

If the plural is irregular, the final ‘s’ is not deleted:

(495) the geese ’s ˘ the geese’s.

These rules are a spelling convention; they are not syntactic rules. There are morerules covering the use of spelling out the possessive clitic, but we won’t cover themhere.

The claim that rule (362b) is non-iterative is proven by the fact that “‘s’” canbe added only once to NP:

(496) *The student’s’s textbook.

Rule (362a) indicates that possessive NPs occur recursively. This is true:

(497) John’s father’s boss’s wife’s pet dalmatian had a litter of 14pups.

As in other cases of recursion, the number of recursively embedded possessive NPsis bound only by performance factors.

5.7 Prepositional Phrases as Noun Phrases Modifiers

Nouns may also be modified by PPs that follow them:

(493)

the student

Nj

Det

's

ClNPj

e

NPi

NPi

NPj

NPj



(498 very boring lectures in class.) a.

b. a tall person with red hair.

c. some cool cats in town.

d. those cool enchanted evenings in the Pacific.

Repositioning provides evidence that the PP in the NP:

(499) a. Very boring lectures in class put the students to sleep.

b. The students were put to sleep by very boring lectures in class.

c. ≠The students in class put to sleep by very boring lectures.

Note that (499c) does not mean the same thing as (499a). In the latter example, inclass is referring to the location of the lecture, whereas in the former it is referringto the location of the students. Although under normal condition both the lecture andthe students are in the same classroom, this is not necessary the case; cf. the fol-lowing sentences:

(500) a. Very boring lectures produced on television put the students tosleep.

b. ?Very boring lectures put the students produced on televisionto sleep.

The fact that the PP modifies lecture shows that there is a dependency between thePP and lecture, which provides more evidence to the inclusion of the PP in the NP.

Substitution also provides evidence that the string the very boring lecture inclass is a NP:

(501) It put the students to sleep.

Here, the pronoun it refers to the entire string.

Conjunction provides further evidence:

(502) Very boring lectures in class and the comments on thehandout put the students to sleep.

Here, two NPs are conjoined, and each NP contains a PP.

The prepositional phrases introduced in this section differ from the PP com-plements of nouns introduced in chapter 2. Like adjectives the PPs in this sectionmodify the noun which they are in construction with. Explaining the differencebetween PPs which are modifiers and those which are complements is not easy.



This distinction is crucial to the fundamental basis of syntax: the distinction betweena complement and a modifier.

A modifier provides information about the modificand that is not part of theinherent meaning of the modificand. A complement is part of the meaning of themodificand. Compare the two following NPs:

(503 the governor of the country) a.

b. the governor by the statue.

The PP of the country is a complement. It is part of the meaning of governor. Inthe meaning of ruler, governor implies that the governor rules some kind of apolitical state. Compare the noun with the verb govern which it is related to:

(504) Huey governed the country.

The country is a complement of the verb. The structure of the NP and the VP areparallel structures in this respect. Part of the meaning of govern is the entity gov-erned; part of the meaning of governor is the entity governed.

In (503b) the PP by the statue is modifying the governor. The governor is notgoverning the statue. The PP refers to the location of the governor. Location is notpart of the meaning of govern(or). It is adding information about the governor. Ittells us nothing about what he governs.

There is a syntactic test to determiner whether a postnominal PP is a com-plement or a modifier. A modifying PP can be replaced with a relative clause:

(505 *the governor who is of the country) a. *

b. the governor in the next room

c. the governor who is in the next room.

If the PP can be replaced with relative clause that has the same logical meaning asthe PP, then the PP is a modifier as are all relative clauses. In (505a) the PP cannotbe replaced with a relative clause with the same meaning. Hence, the PP is a com-plement of the head noun governor. The PP in the next room may be replaced witha relative clause with no change in logical meaning. Therefore, the PP is a modifierof the head noun.

Determiners take scope over conjoined µs. Consider the following sentences:

(506 These boxes of candy and pots of beans) a.

b. The mayors of cities and governors of states

c. The King of England and Queen of france will marry.



The determiners in these three examples in all probability takes scope over both µphrases.

The P-rule for the µ must be modified:

(507) The Modification of µ Revised

µ˘ µ (PP). (Expansion is iterative.)

The iterativeness condition permits more than one PP to be adjoined to NP:

(508 lectures on semiotics in class at noon) a.

b. the governor of Alabama with gray hair on a chair.

The PP of Alabama is a complement, the next two PPs are modifiers.

The P-marker for (498a) is the following:

One remaining question is how do we node that the PP is adjoined to NP higherthan AP. The answer to this question is that the AP could be adjoined higher thanPP:

(509)

AP

NP

PP

N

boring lectures class

P

in

NP

very

APAP

NP

N

A[Adj]

A[Deg]

NP

NP



The two structures are nearly identical. The difference in meaning is very subtle.The difference virtually corresponds to the difference in the following sentences:

(511 The very boring lectures are in class.) a.

b. The lectures in class are very boring.

It is very difficult to explain this distinction without some background in semantics.For now we will not be concerned with this distinction. We will consider eitherdiagram (509) or diagram (510) to be the correct representation for example (498a).

The structure for (508a) which contains three PP modifiers is the following:

If a prenominal modifier precedes lectures as in

(510)

AP NP

PP

NP

boring lectures class

P

in

NP

very

APAP NP

NA[Adj]

A[Deg]

(512)

NP

PP

lectures semiotics

P

on

NP

NP

N

N

in class at noon

PP

P

PP

P

NP

NP

N

N

NP



(513) boring lectures on semiotics in class at noon,

then boring could be adjoined to any node µ in (512) yielding four structures.


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