Chapter 4Jainism

Overview

•Tirthankaras & ascetic orders

•Freeing the soul: ethic pillars

•Spiritual practices•World Jainism

ahimsaanekantwadaparigrahaDigambarajivamunisamsaraSvetambaraTirthankaras

Key terms

“Once when he [sat in meditation], his body unmoving, they cut his flesh, tore his hair, and covered him with dirt. They picked him up and then dropped him, disturbing his meditational postures. Abandoning concern for his body, free from desire, the Venerable One humbled himself and bore the pain.”

Akaranga Sutra

“All breathing, existing, living, sentient creatures should not be slain, nor treated with violence, nor abused, nor tormented, nor driven away. This is the pure, unchangeable, eternal law....Correctly understanding the law, one should arrive at indifference for the impressions of the senses, and not act on the motives of the world.

Akangara Sutra

before c. 777 BCE

599-527 BCE

from 3rd century BCE

1914-1997 CE

1970s-1980s CE

TimelineSeries of 23 Tirthankaras

Life of Mahavira

Digambaras and Svetambaras diverge

Acharya Tulsi

Jain monks establish Jain centers outside India

The Tirthankaras and Ascetic Orders

• Mahavira, “The Great Hero,” is Jainism’s major teacher, a contemporary of the Buddha

• Mahavira is the twenty-fourth of the Tirthankaras, or “fordmakers,” considered by Jains to be great teachers

• An ascetic path, Jainism is practiced in its fullest by monks and nuns

• Some adherents will carry the principle of nonviolence to wearing a gauze mask to avoid inhaling insects

The Tirthankaras and Ascetic Orders (continued)

• Jain nuns and monks are celibate; they fast, do penance, and learn to endure hardships with indifference– Digambaras

– Svetambaras

• Jainism, an ancient religion of India, holds a modern relevance in its gentle warnings of the importance of caring for all life

Mahavira (“great hero”), whose given name was Vardhamana, and who was born a kshatriya, founded Jainism in the 6th century BCE.

Jain nuns venerate small and colossal statues of Bahubali.

Freeing the Soul: the ethical pillars

• Karma– Considered to be subtle matter that accumulates and

clings to us as we think and act

– Distinguish between destructive and nondestructive types

– Must be eliminated to attain kevala; three principles

• Ahimsa: nonviolence

• Aparigraha: nonattachment

• Anekantwad: nonabsolutism

Spiritual Practices

•Jainism is practiced in its fullest by monks and nuns

•Laypeople seek to lead simple lives– Their homes are scrupulously clean– They are strict vegetarians– Medicines are prepared without cruel testing on animals

Spiritual Practices (continued)

•12 “limited” vows Jain laypeople are to undertake

•The first 5 are most important– Nonviolence– Truthfulness– Not taking anything that has not been given– Renouncing sexual activity outside of marriage– Limiting one’s possessions

This 15th-century illustrated text of Mahavira shows a monk resisting the attractions of women.

Festivals and Pilgrimages

• Holy days are celebrated with meditation, renunciation, fasting, scriptural study, and hymns

• Celebrate Divali but with a 3-day fast and an entire night of reciting hymns and meditating on Mahavir

• Most important festival is Paryushan Mahaparva, an annual festival of atonement

• Individuals, families, and groups may also go on pilgrimages to sacred sites

Ideally Jains worship without expecting personal response or help.

World Jainism•Has survived as a minority religion in India for most of its history

•Has been carried out of India by several teachers

•Acharya Tulsi initiated new orders of semi-monks and nuns– Also started the Anuvrat (small vow) Movement

Mahavira – last of 24

                                                                             

Mahavira is regarded as the man who gave Jainism its present-day form; although this is true only in the widest sense. He is sometimes wrongly called "the founder of Jainism".

Jain Caves

Considerations…

The virtuous have no need for religion.

Their Ethical Pillars

•Karma – minute particles accumulated due to actions

•Ahimsa – all things deserve to live and evolve

•Aparigraha – possessions possess us; therefore, non-attachment important

Considerations…

If we live simply we will protect the environment. Because we will not need much, we will not need big industries to produce unnecessary things.

Truth has many facets…

Spiritual Practices

•Celibacy, penance, fasting•Non-violence to all life•Usually no clothing•Purification for liberation•No external god

Small vows include…

“…avoid willful killing of any innocent creature, to refrain from attacks and aggression and to work instead for world peace and disarmament, to avoid discrimination on the basis of cast or race, to eschew religions intolerance, to avoid false business and political practices….”

His Holiness Muni Shshil Kimarji

“We believe that Lord Jesus Christ did come to India at a place called Pallipana…where there is a big Jain temple, and he came into contact with Jain monks whose main precepts are non-violence, peace and love.”

Sai Baba

“Jesus attained Christ consciousness at the age of twenty-five while in India. Thereafter, he returned to Palestine through Tibet, Afghanistan, Persia and areas we now know as Russia.”

Rites/Rituals/Ceremonies

•Communion with the Gods/Holy Ones•Birth •Rites of Passage/Puberty Rights•Baptism•Marriage Rites•Death Rites

Communion with the Gods & Holy Ones

• The Jains commune with their deities by worshiping in temples, meditating, and reciting mantras.

• The Jains worship idols of Jinas, or “Spiritual Victors”. The most important of these Jinas are the Tirthankaras, or “Ford-Makers”, the 24 founders of Jainism.

Worship of the Jinas

The Jains worship publicly in stone temples. They worship by meditating, chanting mantras, and by gazing at and anointing the 24 images of the Tirthankaras, the “Ford Makers”. They also pay homage to all Jinas, or “spiritual victors”.

Meditations & Mantras

• Meditation (samayika) is an integral part of Jainism. During meditation and worship, Jains often recite mantras or prayers.

• The most fundamental of the Jain mantras is the Navkar Mantra.

The Navkar Mantra • Namo Arihantanum: I bow down to Arihanta• Namo Siddhanam: I bow down to Siddha • Namo Ayariyanam: I bow down to Acharya• Namo Uvajjhayanam: I bow down to Upadhyaya• Namo Loe Savva-sahunam: I bow down to

Sadhu & Sadhvi.• Eso Panch Namokaro: These five bowing downs,• Savva-pavappanasano: Destroy all the sins,• Manglanach Savvesim: Amongst all that is

auspicious,• Padhamam Havei Mangalam: This Navkar

Mantra is the foremost.

Ahisma •Ahisma is the practice of total non-violence. •A major principle of Jainism is communion with one’s environment, or oneness with one’s surroundings; this is achieved through Ahisma. •Ahisma is usually symbolized by a hand with the palm facing out, which means “stop”.

Vegetarians

• Because of Ahisma, Jains do not believe in harming living beings, which all have souls. This means that they do not eat meat, and many of them do not eat vegetables either.

• The strictest of the Jains eat only fruits, nuts, and milk, which are acceptable because they are the byproducts of livings beings, not the actual beings themselves.

Karma

• Karma is the natural moral law of the universe, in which every good or bad action has a corresponding effect on the person doing that action.

• According to Jainism there are 2 types of Karma . Ghati (destructive) and Aghati (non-destructive), each containing several sub-categories.

• The goal of Jainism is to liberate one’s soul, to become a Jina (spiritual victor). To become a Jina, one must escape Karma by leading an ascetic and intrinsically pure life.

Birth• There are a few simple ritual that are

performed after the birth of a child• Priyodhbhav Sanskar: ten days of cleansing,

during which no rituals are performed, but mantras may be chanted by the priests and offerings received for the child at a temple.

• Namkaranan Sanskar: the ritual of naming the child, performed on the 11th, 13th, or 29th after birth. The name for a boy is selected from the 1008 Jinasahasranam, and for girls chosen from the names of the woman in the Puranas.

Rites of Passage/Puberty Rites

•The rites of passage/puberty rites (concerning the laity) that Jains practice are not strictly practices of Jainism. Rather they are often the local Hindu customs. These customs are acceptable as long as the do not violate the ethics of Jainism.

Monks and Nuns• Monks and nuns must

base their lives on mahavrats, or the “great vows”. These include:

• Not injuring any life forms, Ahisma

• Truthfulness, Satya• Not stealing, Asteya• Celibacy, Brahmachanga • Not accepting personal

possessions, Aparigraha

Water Rituals• The Jains do not practice baptism.

However, they do have rules that must be followed when using water.

• Water should be filtered before use to prevent harm to living creatures that may be in the water

• Some stricter (more spiritual) Jains do not bathe and only use water as necessary

Marriage Rituals

• Marriage is considered a social contract, not a religious practice. The wedding ceremony may be simple or very elaborate.

• The rituals performed around the time of marriage vary from one community to another, but are numerous and may include some of the following:

Marriage Rituals – Pre-Wedding -

• Vagdana: Parents declare intended marriage • Laghana Lekhan: marriage negotiation finalized • Sagai and Lagna Patrika Vachan: engagement

ceremonies/rituals• Matruka and Kulkar Sthapan: gods and goddesses

are invoked to bless the couple– Wedding Ceremony –

• Ghudhchadi: groom’s ritual on the day before the wedding

• Vara Ghoda: the groom’s procession to the wedding• Torana Vidhi: welcoming ceremony at the wedding• Paraspara Mukh Avalokana: bride and groom look

at each other

Marriage Rituals• Hasta Melap: joining ceremony, priest’s words to the

couple• Toran Pratishtha: the goddess Lakshmi is honored • Vedi Pratishtha: the gods of Kshetras are honored• Agni Sthapan: sacred fire ritual; offerings to the fire

god• Abisheka: couple’s heads are anointed with water• Gotrachar: lineages of the couple are pronounced• Granthi Bandhan: ceremonial tying of the couple

together• Agni Pradakshina: the couple circles the sacred fire

four times while reciting a different mantra each time around

• Kanyadaan: before the last stage of Agni Pradakshina, the father presents the bride to the groom

Marriage Rituals • Vakshepa: “Lord Adinath was married with this

ceremony…”• Second Abisheka: priest wishes the couple well• Kar-mochan: couple are released, ceremony is

ended– Post Wedding –

• Ashirvada: the elders bless the couple• Reception: wedding feast• Sva Graha Aagamana: bride goes to her new

home.• Jina Grahe Dhan Arpana: alms are given at a

Jain temple in thankfulness to the gods

Death Rites• When a person dies, he or she is cremated as

soon as possible.• The body is placed on a bier and taken to a

place where it can be burned without harming any living beings.

• The body is taken from the bier and covered with wood. The body is covered with ghee, camphor, and sandalwood powder. The last rites are performed by the son of the deceased.

• The son circles the pyre 3 times while sprinkling water on the body. While chanting the Namokar Mantra, he lights the pyre.

• After a while, milk is poured over the scorched area and the remains are collected in bags.

• The remains are placed in hole and sprinkled with salt. The hole is covered and the rituals are over.

Reincarnation• As soon as a person (or any living being) dies, his

or her soul is immediately reborn in another life form.

• If one’s spirituality is such that it should require punishment, a person may be required to spend time in one of seven hells. Unlike most views of hell, each stage of hell becomes increasingly colder. One’s stay in hell is not eternal; once the punishment is sufficient, a person’s soul will be reborn into another life form.

• If people can escape all karma (good and bad), they will be reborn as a Siddhas, or liberated souls, in the highest level of heaven, where they will be eternally happy and separate from the world.

Major Major TenetsTenets • Everything is eternal; there is no

all-powerful “God” that has created the world.

• When a living being dies, it is reincarnated.

• All living beings have souls.• The 3 gems.• Reverence for the deities (Siddhas,

Jinas, and the 24 Tirthankaras).• Vegetarianism, or Fruitarianism. • The great vows, the Mahavrats.

The Sign of Jainism

• This is the sign of Jainism. Each part of the sign symbolizes an important principle or belief of Jainism.

• This symbol was adopted by all the sects of Jainism in honor of the 2500th anniversary of Lord Mahavira’s spiritual liberation.

How to Become a JainHow to Become a Jain

• Jainism is a distinctly Indian religion, although anyone who is willing to meet their strict requirements can become a Jain.

• The most fundamental belief of Jainism is Ahisma, complete non-violence toward all living beings. No other religion takes the principle of non-violence to the extent that the Jains do.

Requirements

All Jains must:

• Seek peace with their surroundings and be as non-violent as possible, Ahisma.

• Be truthful in everything, Satya. • Deal honestly with people, they must not

steal, Asteya.• Practice the 3 Gems: • Right faith, right conduct, right knowledge.

The most important of these is faith, after it is obtained the others will follow.

• Jainism is more than meeting certain criteria, it is epitomizing certain philosophies.

• Pure Darshan: pure vision• Pure Gyan: pure

reason/knowledge• Pure Charitra: pure

character

Basic Philosophy of Jainism

Jainism: The Indian Religion

Nearly all the people who practice Jainism live in India. The traditions and culture behind Jainism are distinctly Indian. However, there are small groups of followers in the U.S. and U.K.

Age Of Reason

• For Jains, salvation is an ongoing process of asceticism, renewal, and holy living.

• Because Jains do not “get saved” in the way that people of other religions do, they do not have an age of reasoning.

• If a very wise person is reincarnated as a baby person, that child may show wisdom and spirituality far beyond his or her years.

• Instruction in the ways of pure living is begun at an early age, usually as soon as the child is able to comprehend language.

• If a child dies, like any other living being, it is reincarnated immediately.

Is Jainism Growing?

• There are an estimated 4 million Jains in the world.

• Jainism is not a fast growing religion, although there has been a small increase in adherents in the U. S. and U. K. in the last 40 years.

• Jains do not actively seek to convert others to Jainism, rather they are peaceful and accepting towards all peoples and religions.

The life and legend of the Buddha

The Dharma

Buddhism spreads abroad

Buddhism in the West

Socially engaged Buddhism

Chapter 5Buddhism

anatman (Pali: anatta)anitya (Pali: anicca)arhant (Pali: arhat)bhikshu (Pali: bhikkhu;

feminine: bhikshuni, bhikkhuni)bodhisattvadeity yogaDharma (Pali: Dhamma)dukkhakarmakenshokoanlama

Key termsMahayananirvana Pali CanonsamsaraSanghastupasunyataTheravadaTriple GemVajrayanavipassanazazenZen

Ajahn Sumedho, Buddhist monk

“When you open your mind to the truth, then you realize there is nothing to fear. What arises passes away, what is born dies, and is not self--so that our sense of being caught in an identity with this human body fades out. We don’t see ourselves as some isolated, alienated entity lost in a mysterious and frightening universe. We don’t feel overwhelmed by it, trying to find a little piece of it that we can grasp and feel safe with, because we feel at peace with it. Then we have merged with the Truth.

Tiantai ZhiyiThe 4 Great Bodhisattva Vows

Beings are infinite in number, I vow to save them all;

The obstructive passions are endless in number, I vow to end them all;

The teachings for saving others are countless, I vow to learn them all;

Buddhahood is the supreme achievement, I vow to attain it.

c. 5th century BCEc. 258 BCE

c. 200 BCE-200 CEc. 100 BCE-300 CE

c. 80 BCEc. 50 CE

1st century CEc. 150-250

c. 550c. 609-650

8451222-1282

c. 1200-15001959-

TimelineLife of Siddhartha Gautama BuddhaAshoka spreads Buddhism outside IndiaTheravada developsPerfection of Wisdom books developPali Canon written down in Sri LankaBuddhism spreads to China, SE AsiaMahayana developsLife of NagarjunaBuddhism enters JapanSongtsan establishes Tibetan BuddhismChinese persecute BuddhismLife of NichirenBuddhism declines in IndiaChina represses Tibetan Buddhism

The Life and legend of the Buddha

•What we know about him has been passed down through his followers

•Prolific teachings passed down orally; written down hundreds of years after his death

•Followers have recalled his life in sacred biographies

•Siddhartha led a sheltered life of luxury•Left home and say the Four Sights: a bent aged man, a sick person, a corpse, and a monk

•Left home at 29 to wander as an ascetic•Found extreme lifestyles did not answer his questions—led to the Middle Way: neither self-indulgence or self-denial

The life and legend of the Buddha (continued)

•Vowed to site under tree at Gaya until enlightenment

•Experienced 4 states of contemplation and had 3 realizations, he could– Recall all his past lives– See the entire cycle of life and death– See the cause of suffering and the means of ending it

•Siddhartha became the Buddha, the one who woke up

The life and legend of the Buddha (continued)

• Spent the next 45 years teaching• His teaching (dharma) included Four Noble

Truths, the Nobel Eightfold Path, the Three Marks of Existence

• Some followers became monks (bhikshus); women were allowed to become nuns if they followed the 8 special rules

• Disciples (the sangha) accepted people from all castes and levels of society

• When the Buddha died, he told his followers to be responsible for their own spiritual development

The life and legend of the Buddha (continued)

The Dharma

•Buddhism is a non-theistic religion

•There is no personal god nor was Buddha a god or is worshipped

•Buddha was a man who attained enlightenment through meditation and showed the path to freedom

Anatta

•There is no immortal self•A human being is a energy process composed of momentary flashes

•All human beings are interconnected with the universe as energy processes

•Nothing in the world is solid

Reincarnation

•Unlike the Hindu, Buddhism does not believe in an eternal soul

•But the rebirth process is because one changing state of being sets another into motion—karma

•Personality is created moment by moment

Vow of the Bodhisattva

Beings are infinite in numbers, I vow to save them all;

The obstructive passions are endless in number, I vow to end them all;

The teachings for saving others are countless, I vow to learn them all;

Buddhahood is the supreme achievement, I vow to attain it.

The Four Noble Truths

•Life inevitably involves suffering, is imperfect and unsatisfactory

•Suffering originates in our desires•Suffering will cease if all desires

cease•There is a way to realize this

state: the Noble Eightfold Path

The Noble Eightfold Path

to Liberation1. Right Understanding: realize and understand

the Four Noble Truths 2. Right Thought or Motives: uncover any

unwholesome roots in one’s thinking, eliminate self- centeredness

3. Right Speech: abstain from lying, gossiping, speaking harshly, divisive speech

4. Right Action: observe the Five Precepts, namely to avoid destroying life, stealing, sexual misconduct, lying, and intoxicants

The Noble Eightfold Path

to Liberation (continued)5. Right Livelihood: make a living without

violating the Five Precepts 6. Right Effort: eliminate impurities of the

mind and cultivate wholesome actions 7. Right Mindfulness: be aware in every

moment, discipline the mind 8. Right Meditation: quiet the mind

through mental discipline

The Eight Worldly Pre-Occupations

Praise

Blame

Pleasure Pain

Loss

Gain

Disgrace

Fame

The Eight-fold Path

The Wheel of Birth and Death

•No eternal, independently existing soul to be reborn

•Central cause is karma•3 root afflictions: greed, hate, and

delusion•Cultivating non-greed, non-hate,

and non-delusion act as causes to leave the circle of birth and death

Mandalas are pictures of the mind and of the universe. Moving out from the center, this wheel of samsara includes animals representing lust, hatred, and delusion, the fates of beings with good karma (left) and bad karma (right), the six kinds of birth from heaven to hell, the chain of cause and effect, and a monster grasping the wheel representing death and impermanence.

Branches of Buddhism

•Theraveda: way of the elders– Prevalent in Sri Lanka, Myanmar (Burma), Thailand, Cambodia,

Laos

•Mayahana: great vehicle– Prevalent in China, Korea, Mongolia, Vietnam, Japan, Nepal,

Tibet

•Both agree on basic concepts of Four Noble Truths, karma, samsara, nirvan

Approximate distribution of Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism.

Theraveda: The path of mindfulness

•Devotional practices dominate

•Central text is the Pali Canon•Triple Gem

– The Buddha– The Dharma– The Sangha

Mahayana: The path of compassion and

wisdom•Focus on liberation of all beings•Many Buddhas and bodhisattvas•Buddha is an immanent presence in the universe

•Three bodies of Buddha•Emptiness (sunyata)

Our word “zero” comes from the Arabic translation of the Sanskrit sunya, which means “empty.” Buddhists represented sunyata, “emptiness,” by a circle.

Other Branches•Chan and Zen: the great way of enlightenment

•Pure Land: devotion to Amitabha Buddha

•Nichiren: salvation through the Lotus Sutra

•Vajrayana: the indestructible path

Om Mani Padme Hum

(Purity…Jewel…Lotus…Indivisible)

Means something like…

If you practice the path with the complete union of compassion and wisdom, you can transform all impurities to become a Buddha.

The Two Truths: The Question of Inherent

Existence

Ultimate Wisdom

Conventional Wisdom

The Three Jewels

Buddha

Dharma Sangha

Spread of Buddhism

The Kali Yuga period…

•Our life-force is weak•Delusions & emotional sickness prevail

•Violence is rampant•False attitudes pretend to be trueAdvice: In a rotten society, the worst thing

would be to follow the social norm.

Hinayana, Mahayana & Vajrayana

Vajrayana is the use of subtle vital energies to transform the mind. The gross mind is neutralized and the subtle mind “rides” on the clear light of bliss. This inner light is considered the only aspect of existence that is eternal. Once uncovered, one is said to be capable of attaining Buddha-hood.

In the practice of rituals, the diamond sceptre (vajra) symbolizes method and the bell wisdom. With their unification the human being obtains the insight that all dualities derive from Relative Truth and that, in Absolute Truth, subject and object, internal and external world, nirvana and samsara are one and empty.

The Dalai Lama As a Tulku

Wood Valley Temple

Zen

Zen

Development of Zen

•Buddhism spread to China around the time of Christ

•It absorbed elements of the Tao

•Bodhidharma in 5th century first patriarch of Ch’an Buddhism - Zen

Qualities of Zen

•Dismisses all scriptures•Relies on direct experience towards cosmic unity

•Zazen – to sit and gain absolute freedom to not allow any thought to disturb your original nature

Sengtsan

The Great Way is not difficult for thos who have no preferences.

When love and hate are both absent everything becomes clear and undisguised.

6th Patriarch of Zen

Stages of The Path

Satori

“The moon is the same old moon, the flowers exactly as they were,

Yet I’ve become the thingness of all the things I see!”

Pure Land Buddhism

•Modern Japan – needed Amida Buddha to save them rather than save themselves

•Pure Land is similar idea to Christian heaven

Nichiren•13th century Japanese fisherman

•Lotus Sutra•Strive to save self and society

•“Namu myoho rengekyo”

“Civilization has nothing to do with having electric lights, airplanes, or manufacturing atomic bombs. It has nothing to do with killing human beings, destroying things or waging war. Civilization is to hold one another in mutual affection and respect.”

Considerations…

Buddhism in the West

•5 million Tibetan Buddhists in west

•Many vipassana retreats•Thich Nhat Hanh – Vietnamese monk is author of many books

Engaged Buddhism

“Not to respond to the suffering around us is a sign of an insane civilization.”

Dulak Sivaraksa, founder

The Heart Sutra of Profound Illimination

…noble Avalokiteshvara, the bodhisattva mahasattva, said… Form is emptiness; emptiness also is form. Emptiness is no other than form; form is no other than emptiness.

In the same way, feeling, perception, formation, and consciousness are emptiness. Thus, …all dharmas are emptiness. There are no characteristics. There is no birth and no cessation. There is no impurity and no purity. There is no decrease and no increase.

…in emptiness, there is no form, no feeling, no perception, no formation, no consciousness…… no ignorance, no end of ignorance up to no old age and death, no end of old age and death; no suffering, no origin of suffering, no cessation of suffering, no path, no wisdom, no attainment, and no non-attainment.

Summary•You are the source of suffering &

liberation•A soft heart & quiet mind can see the

truth• Ignorance is a mistake in identity•Truth sees the mistake & eliminates

suffering•Compassion & wisdom are the tools•Vow of the Bodhisattva

In this 18th-century painting, Amida Buddha descends to welcome the faithful to his Western Paradise. Pure Land Buddhism taught that Amida saved all who called on his name.

Tibetan prostrates herself with wooden pads and canvas shield.

How does Buddhism differ from Hinduism?

Buddhism rejects…•Authority of the ancient Vedic

texts•The Vedic caste system•The Vedic and Hindu deities•The efficacy of Vedic worship and

ritual•The concept of Brahman

How does Buddhism differ from Jainism?

Buddhism rejects…•The concept of Atman•The practice of strict asceticism and withdrawal from the world (preferring the “middle way”)

•Vegetarianism as required

What do Buddhists believe?• Rebirth (reincarnation) results from attachments

(karma)• Nirvana is a peaceful, detached state of mind• Achieving Nirvana means escape from the cycle

of rebirth

Once Gautama Buddha died, after 80 years of life in this world, having achieved Nirvana and teaching multitudes his way of life, he ceased to exist as a distinct being

• Buddhism is non-theistic: Buddha is not the Buddhist God – he is just a revered teacher

Buddhism in the West• Various forms of Buddhism have spread

to the West– Exodus of thousands of Tibetans

– Efforts of Zen teachers

– Establishment of Theravada vipassana meditation centers

• Difficult to replicate the monastic traditions in a Western setting

• For immigrants maintaining Buddhist practices means maintaining cultural and ethnic traditions

Socially Engaged Buddhism

•Emerging focus on the relevance of Buddhism to social problems