CHAPTER 4: CELLULAR METABOLISM
Transcript of CHAPTER 4: CELLULAR METABOLISM
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CHAPTER 4:
CELLULAR
METABOLISM
BIO 137
HUMAN ANATOMY AND
PHYSIOLOGY I
MARY CATHERINE FLATH, Ph.D.
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CHAPTER 4 TOPICS
DIVISIONS OF METABOLISM
ENZYMES
ATP
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
DNA REPLICATION
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
MUTATIONS
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Cellular Metabolism
Metabolism is the sum of all chemical reactions that
occur in the body
▪ Each reaction is catalyzed by a specific
enzyme
▪ The reactions typically occur in pathways
▪ Two types of metabolic reactions
Anabolism
• large macromolecules
(polymers) are made
• requires energy
Catabolism
• large macro
molecules (polymers)
are broken down
• releases energy
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For each division of metabolism, you
should be able to:
Write a descriptive sentence about the process
Name at least two descriptive terms
State whether bonds are being made or broken
State how water is involved and name the
scientific term
State how energy is involved and name the
scientific term
Write an equation illustrating the process
Provide an example in human metabolism
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Divisions of Metabolism
Copyright 2012 Dr. Mary Cat Flath
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Anabolism
Anabolism is the building of polymers from monomers.
Anabolism involves constructive, synthesis reactions.
Anabolism requires cellular energy to build bonds between
monomers (Endergonic).
Bonds are built through Dehydration Synthesis
Examples (follow arrows to right):
▪ building a triglyceride from glycerol and fatty acids
▪ building glycogen from glucose molecules
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Anabolism (follow arrows to right)
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Catabolism
Catabolism breaks polymers into smaller monomers.
Catabolism involves destructive, digestive reactions.
Energy is released when bonds between monomers are
broken (i.e. Exergonic)
Water is used to break bonds: Hydrolysis
Examples include (follow arrows to left):
▪ Breaking a protein into amino acids
▪ Breaking DNA into nucleotides
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Catabolism (follow arrows to left)
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Control of Metabolic Reactions:
Enzyme Action Enzymes are biological, protein catalysts that increase the rate of
a chemical reaction without being consumed by the reaction.
• (They lower activation energy needed to start reactions).
• Enzymes are globular proteins with specific shapes
• • Enzymes are specific for their substrate (i.e. the substance
they act upon) • The enzyme’s active site fits with the substrate like a lock & key
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Enzyme Substrate Interaction
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Control of Metabolic Reactions:
Enzyme Action The active site on the enzyme may not be exposed and a cofactor
or coenzyme may be required.
Cofactors are ions of metals (Fe++, Cu++, Zn++)
Coenzymes are vitamins (primarily B vitamins)
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Control of Metabolic Reactions:
Enzyme Action Enzyme names are often derived from the substrate they act on
▪ The root of the enzyme name comes from the substrate
▪ The enzyme name typically ends in the suffix –ase
▪ Examples include:
The enzyme lactase that breaks down the substrate lactose
The enzyme lipase that breaks down a (substrate) lipid.
The enzyme DNA Polymerase is used to build DNA from
nucleotide substrates.
▪ Enzymes are unchanged by the reaction they catalyze and are
recycled.
▪ Enzymes can be denatured in extreme conditions.
▪ Metabolic pathways involve several reactions in a row, each
requiring a different, specific enzyme.
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Control of Metabolic Reactions
Metabolic pathways
• series of enzyme-controlled reactions
leading to formation of a product
• each new substrate is the product of the
previous reaction
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Energy for Metabolic Reactions
Energy
• Energy is the ability to do work or change
something.
• Common forms include heat, light, sound,
electricity, mechanical energy, chemical energy
• Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but it
changes from one form to another.
• All metabolic reactions involve some form of
energy.
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Energy for Metabolic Reactions
Release of chemical energy
Most metabolic processes depend on chemical
energy
Energy is held within the covalent bonds
between atoms (as potential energy).
When the bond breaks, free (kinetic) energy is
released.
Cellular respiration releases chemical energy from
nutrients and makes it available for cellular use.
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ATP Molecules
• each ATP molecule has three parts
• an adenine molecule
• a ribose molecule
• three phosphate molecules in a chain
• third phosphate attached by high-energy bond
• when the bond is broken, energy is transferred
• when the bond is broken, ATP becomes ADP,
•but ADP can be recycled back to ATP, if a phosphate is
added back to ADP during catabolic reactions
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CELLULAR RESPIRATION (CR) Cellular respiration is the way in which animal
cells use oxygen to release energy (ATP) from nutrients
CR reactions occur in two major series of reactions (with each requiring a specific enzyme): Anaerobic Steps do not require oxygen
Occur in cytoplasm
Glycolysis
Aerobic steps do require oxygen
Occur in mitochondrion
(Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle) and Electron transport chain [ETC])
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OVERVIEW OF
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
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OVERVIEW OF
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
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COENZYMES REQUIRED FOR
CELLUAR REPSIRATION
NADH (NIACIN)
FADH2 (RIBOFLAVIN)
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For each major series of reactions in
Cellular Respiration, you should be able
to:
State whether the reactions are aerobic
or anaerobic
Locate the reactions in the cell
Name starting products
Name end products
Including ATP
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CELLULAR
RESPIRATION
ANAEROBIC
REACTIONS
AEROBIC
REACTIONS
Is oxygen
required?
Where do the
reactions occur
in the cell?
Starting
Products?
End-Products?
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CELLULAR
RESPIRATION
ANAEROBIC
REACTIONS
AEROBIC
REACTIONS
Is oxygen
required?
NO YES
Where do the
reactions occur
in the cell?
CYTOPLASM
MITO-
CHONDRION
Starting
Products?
GLUCOSE
TWO PYRUVIC
ACIDS
End-Products? TWO PYRUVIC
ACIDS
2 ATP
36 ATP
WATER
CO2
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ANAEROBIC GLYCOLYSIS:
(FERMENTATION)
If oxygen is not available, pyruvic
acid is fermented under anaerobic
conditions:
In animals, pyruvic acid is
converted to lactic acid
Accumulates and causes
muscle fatigue and soreness
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ANAEROBIC GLYCOLYSIS:
(FERMENTATION)
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Let’s review objectives 1-14
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Regulation of Metabolic Pathways
• limited number of regulatory enzymes
• negative feedback whereby the end-product comes
back and inhibits the first enzyme in the
pathway
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NUCLEIC ACIDS AND
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
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NUCLEIC ACIDS AND
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
ENZYMES ARE PROTEINS THAT
REGULATE METABOLIC REACTIONS
CELLS MUST HAVE THE INFORMATION
FOR MAKING THESE SPECIAL PROTEINS
THAT INFORMATION IS CARRIED IN THE DNA
IN OUR CELLS
INFORMATION IS CARRIED BY GENES ON OUR
CHROMOSOMES
DNA DIRECTS PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
RNA ASSISTS DNA IN THAT EFFORT
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GENETIC INFORMATION
DNA HOLDS THE GENETIC INFORMATION WHICH IS INHERITED FROM PARENTS TO OFFSPRING
DNA IS LOCATED IN NUCLEUS
DNA INSTRUCTS CELLS IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF PROTEINS
PROTEINS ARE SYNTHESIZED AT RIBOSOMES (RER OR IN CYTOPLASM)
THE PORTION OF A DNA MOLECULE THAT CODES FOR ONE PARTICULAR PROTEIN IS CALLED A GENE
ALL OF THE DNA IN A CELL CONSTITUTES ITS GENOME HUMAN GENOME PROJECT
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HOW DOES DNA WHICH IS
CONFINED TO THE NUCLEUS,
DIRECT PROTEIN SYNTHESIS AT
RIBOSOMES?
WITH THE HELP OF RNA
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NUCLEIC ACID
STRUCTURE
DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA)
RIBONUCLEIC ACID (RNA)
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DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC
ACID
DNA
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DNA STRUCTURE
DNA IS COMPOSED
OF NUCLEOTIDES
EACH NUCLEOTIDE
IS COMPOSED OF:
SUGAR DEOXYRIBOSE
PHOSPHATE GROUP
NITROGEN BASE
PURINE
ADENINE (A)
GUANINE (G)
PYRIMIDINE
CYTOSINE (C)
THYMINE (T)
D
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DNA STRUCTURE
EACH DNA STRAND
IS COMPOSED OF
ALTERNATING
DEOXYRIBOSE
SUGARS AND
PHOSPHATES
EACH DEOXYRIBOSE
SUGAR IS LINKED TO
ONE OF FOUR
BASES
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DNA STRUCTURE
EACH DNA MOLECULE
CONSISTS OF TWO
STRANDS OF
NUCLEOTIDES
STRANDS ARE HELD
TOGETHER BY
HYDROGEN BONDS
BETWEEN
COMPLEMENTARY
BASES
A::T (2 H-bonds)
G:::C (3 H-bonds)
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DNA STRUCTURE
THE DNA
MOLECULE IS
TWISTED INTO A
DOUBLE HELIX
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SEM of chromosomes prior to cell
division
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DNA REPLICATION
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DNA Replication: Occurs in the nucleus
during interphase of cell cycle • DNA unwinds and hydrogen
bonds break between
complementary bases pairs
• DNA polymerase positions
DNA nucleotides with
exposed bases and
backbones of strands are
formed
• two identical DNA molecules
result
•Semi-conservative
replication
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RIBONUCLEIC ACID
RNA
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RNA STRUCTURE
RNA IS COMPOSED
OF NUCLEOTIDES
SUGAR IS RIBOSE
BASES:
A, URACIL (U)
C, G
PHOSPHATE
GROUP
R
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RNA STRUCTURE
EACH RNA STRAND
IS COMPOSED OF A
BACKBONE OF
ALTERNATING
RIBOSE SUGARS
AND PHOSPHATES
EACH RIBOSE IS
BONDED TO A BASE
RNA IN SINGLE
STRANDED
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TYPES OF RNA
MESSENGER RNA (mRNA)
Carries code for protein to be synthesized
from nucleus to ribosome
TRANSFER RNA (tRNA)
Carries appropriate amino acid to ribosome to
be incorporated into protein
RIBOSOMAL RNA (rRNA)
The RNA component of the ribosome (recall
that a ribosome is composed of RNA plus
protein)
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DNA AND RNA COMPARISON
DNA RNA
PENTOSE
SUGAR
BASES
STRUCTURE
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DNA AND RNA COMPARISON
DNA RNA
PENTOSE
SUGAR
DEOXYRIBOSE RIBOSE
BASES A, T, G, C A, U, G, C
STRUCTURE DOUBLE
STRANDED
SINGLE
STRANDED
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PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
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For each step in Protein Synthesis, you
should be able to:
Name the step
Give the location of the step in the cell
Name molecules involved in the
process
Name the overall result of each step
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PROTEIN SYNTHESIS:
TWO MAJOR STEPS TRANSCRIPTION
OCCURS IN NUCLEUS
RNA POLYMERASE ALLOWS FOR THE MAKING OF
A STRAND OF MESSENGER RNA
mRNA IS COMPLEMENTARY TO THE DNA GENE (and
now carries code for protein to be synthesized)
TRANSLATION
OCCURS AT RIBOSOME
TRANSFER RNA BRINGS AMINO ACIDS TO
RIBOSOME
mRNA IS TRANSLATED INTO A PROTEIN
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TRANSCRIPTION
OCCURS IN NUCLEUS
DNA UNWINDS AND UNZIPS (HYDROGEN BONDS ARE BROKEN)
RNA POLYMERASE POSITIONS RNA NUCLEOTIDES ALONG THE GENE AND BONDS BACKBONE TOGETHER FORMING A STRAND OF MESSENGER RNA
mRNA IS COMPLEMENTARY TO THE DNA GENE (and now carries code for protein to be synthesized)
IF GENE IS: TACGATTGCCAA
THEN mRNA is: AUGCUAACGGUU
THE mRNA IS READ IN THREE BASE CODONS
AUG CUA ACG GUU
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Figure 04.22
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TRANSLATION
mRNA IS TRANSLATED INTO A PROTEIN
OCCURS AT RIBOSOMES FREE IN CYTOPLASM
ON ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
TRANSFER RNA BRINGS AMINO ACIDS TO RIBOSOME
tRNA HAS ANTICODON WHICH IS COMPLEMENTARY TO mRNA codon
IF mRNA CODON IS AUG, THEN tRNA ANTICODON IS UAC
TWO CODONS ARE READ IN RIBOSOME AT A TIME PEPTIDE BOND IS FORMED BETWEEN TWO AMINO ACIDS
RIBOSOME MOVES AND POSITIONS NEXT CODON
CODONS ARE READ UNTIL STOP CODON IS REACHED
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For each step in Protein Synthesis, you
should be able to:
Name the step
Give the location of the step in the cell
Name molecules involved in the
process
Name the overall result of each step
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Protein Synthesis Overview
Step 1
_______________
_______________
_______________
_______________
_______________
_______________
_______________
_______________
Step 2
______________
______________
______________
______________
______________
______________
______________
______________
Copyright 2012 Dr. Mary Cat Flath
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Protein Synthesis Overview
Step 1
TRANSCRIPTION
NUCLEUS
DNA IS COPIED
INTO A STRAND OF
MESSENGER RNA
(mRNA) BY RNA
POLYMERASE; RNA
NUCLEOTIDES
A STRAND OF
mRNA
Step 2
TRANSLATION
RIBOSOME (free or
on RER)
mRNA IS
TRANSLATED INTO
A PROTEIN;
TRANFER RNAs;
AMINO ACIDS
A PROTEIN
Copyright 2012 Dr. Mary Cat Flath
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Protein Synthesis
4-28
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PROTEIN SYNTHESIS WORKSHEET
GENE mRNA AMINO ACIDS
(PROTEIN)
tRNA anticodon
SEQUENCE
T
A
C
T
T
G
C
A
A
T
C
G
A
T
T
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PROTEIN SYNTHESIS WORKSHEET
GENE mRNA AMINO ACIDS
(PROTEIN)
tRNA anticodon
SEQUENCE
T
A
C
A
U
G
T
T
G
A
A
C
C
A
A
G
U
U
T
C
G
A
G
C
A
T
T
U
A
A
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PROTEIN SYNTHESIS WORKSHEET
GENE mRNA AMINO ACIDS
(PROTEIN)
tRNA anticodon
SEQUENCE
T
A
C
A
U
G
MET (METHIONINE)
START
T
T
G
A
A
C
C
A
A
G
U
U
T
C
G
A
G
C
A
T
T
U
A
A
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Copyright 2012 Dr. Mary Cat Flath
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS WORKSHEET
GENE mRNA AMINO ACIDS
(PROTEIN)
tRNA anticodon
SEQUENCE
T
A
C
A
U
G
MET (METHIONINE)
START
T
T
G
A
A
C
ASN (ASPARGINE)
C
A
A
G
U
U
T
C
G
A
G
C
A
T
T
U
A
A
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Copyright 2012 Dr. Mary Cat Flath
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS WORKSHEET
GENE mRNA AMINO ACIDS
(PROTEIN)
tRNA anticodon
SEQUENCE
T
A
C
A
U
G
MET (METHIONINE)
START
T
T
G
A
A
C
ASN (ASPARGINE)
C
A
A
G
U
U
VAL (VALINE)
T
C
G
A
G
C
A
T
T
U
A
A
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Copyright 2012 Dr. Mary Cat Flath
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS WORKSHEET
GENE mRNA AMINO ACIDS
(PROTEIN)
tRNA anticodon
SEQUENCE
T
A
C
A
U
G
MET (METHIONINE)
START
T
T
G
A
A
C
ASN (ASPARGINE)
C
A
A
G
U
U
VAL (VALINE)
T
C
G
A
G
C
SER (SERINE)
A
T
T
U
A
A
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Copyright 2012 Dr. Mary Cat Flath
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS WORKSHEET
GENE mRNA AMINO ACIDS
(PROTEIN)
tRNA anticodon
SEQUENCE
T
A
C
A
U
G
MET (METHIONINE)
START
T
T
G
A
A
C
ASN (ASPARGINE)
C
A
A
G
U
U
VAL (VALINE)
T
C
G
A
G
C
SER (SERINE)
A
T
T
U
A
A
STOP
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Copyright 2012 Dr. Mary Cat Flath
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS WORKSHEET
GENE mRNA AMINO ACIDS
(PROTEIN)
tRNA anticodon
SEQUENCE
T
A
C
A
U
G
MET (METHIONINE)
START
U
A
C
T
T
G
A
A
C
ASN (ASPARGINE) U
U
G
C
A
A
G
U
U
VAL (VALINE) C
A
A
T
C
G
A
G
C
SER (SERINE) U
C
G
A
T
T
U
A
A
STOP A
U
U
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For each step in Protein Synthesis, you
should be able to:
Name the step
Give the location of the step in the cell
Name molecules involved in the
process
Name the overall result of each step
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Protein Synthesis Overview
Step 1
_______________
_______________
_______________
_______________
_______________
_______________
_______________
_______________
Step 2
______________
______________
______________
______________
______________
______________
______________
______________
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PROTEIN SYNTHESIS SUMMARY
TRANSCRIPTION NUCLEUS
RNA POLYMERASE
MESSENGER RNA IS MADE
COMPLEMETARY TO GENE
THREE BASE CODONS
TRANSLATION RIBOSOME
MESSENGER RNA IS TRANSLATED INTO A PROTEIN
TRANSFER RNA BRINGS AMINO ACID
ANTICODON
TWO CODONS READ AT ONE TIME
PEPTIDE BOND
STOP CODON ENDS TRANSLATION
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MUTATIONS
CAUSED BY ERROR IN DNA CODE (GENE)
ARE CAUSED BY A VARIETY OF SOURCES
MUTATIONS IN GENES, CAUSE THE END-PRODUCT, THE PROTEIN TO BE ALTERED OR ABSENT
AN ENZYME MAY NOT BE MADE AT ALL
A PROTEIN MAY HAVE ALTERED FUNCTION
A PROTEIN MAY BE MADE IN EXCESS
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Table 04.04
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MUTATIONS IN GENES CAUSE THE END-
PRODUCT, PROTEIN TO BE ALTERED OR
ABSENT
AN ENZYME MAY NOT BE MADE AT ALL
CHILDHOOD STORAGE DISEASES
PKU
A PROTEIN MAY HAVE ALTERED FUNCTION
ALTERED CHLORIDE PUMP IN CYSTIC
FIBROSIS
ALTERED HEMOGLOBIN IN SICKLE CELL
ANEMIA
A PROTEIN MAY BE MADE IN EXCESS.
EXCESS GABA AND EPINEPHRINE IN EPILEPSY
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Clinical Application
Phenylketonuria
PKU
• enzyme that breaks down the amino
acid phenylalanine is missing
• build up of phenylalanine causes
mental retardation
• treated by diets very low in
phenylalanine 4-32
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A genetic order albinism, results in
lack of melanin in skin, hair, and irises
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Fig. 4.26 STARTING MATERIALS
INTERMEDIATE #1
Enzyme #1
Enzyme #2
Enzyme #3
Enzyme #4
Enzyme #5
Enzyme #6
Enzyme #8
HEME
Enzyme #7
ALA dehydratase deficiency
acute intermittent porphyria
congenital erythropoietic
porphyria
porphyria cutanea tarda
coproporphyria
erythropoietic protoporphyria
porphyria variegata
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
INTERMEDIATE #2
INTERMEDIATE #3
INTERMEDIATE #4
INTERMEDIATE #5
INTERMEDIATE #6
INTERMEDIATE #7
Copyright 2012 Dr. Mary Cat Flath
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MUTATIONS IN GENES CAUSE THE END-
PRODUCT, PROTEIN TO BE ALTERED OR
ABSENT
AN ENZYME MAY NOT BE MADE AT ALL
CHILDHOOD STORAGE DISEASES
PKU
A PROTEIN MAY HAVE ALTERED FUNCTION
ALTERED CHLORIDE PUMP IN CYSTIC
FIBROSIS
ALTERED HEMOGLOBIN IN SICKLE CELL
ANEMIA
A PROTEIN MAY BE MADE IN EXCESS.
EXCESS GABA AND EPINEPHRINE IN EPILEPSY
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MUTATIONS IN GENES CAUSE THE END-
PRODUCT, PROTEIN TO BE ALTERED OR
ABSENT
AN ENZYME MAY NOT BE MADE AT ALL
CHILDHOOD STORAGE DISEASES
PKU
A PROTEIN MAY HAVE ALTERED FUNCTION
ALTERED CHLORIDE PUMP IN CYSTIC
FIBROSIS
ALTERED HEMOGLOBIN IN SICKLE CELL
ANEMIA
A PROTEIN MAY BE MADE IN EXCESS.
EXCESS GABA AND EPINEPHRINE IN EPILEPSY
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CHAPTER 4 TOPICS DIVISIONS OF METABOLISM
Catabolism and Anabolism
ENZYMES
ATP
CELLULAR RESPIRATION Anaerobic reactions vs. Aerobic reactions
DNA REPLICATION
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS Transcription vs. Translation
MUTATIONS
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Let’s review objectives 15-
26
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