Chapter 3 The Play 後半 授課教師:段馨君 副教授 國立交通大學...
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Transcript of Chapter 3 The Play 後半 授課教師:段馨君 副教授 國立交通大學...
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Chapter 3 The Play 後半
授課教師:段馨君 副教授國立交通大學
人社系暨族文所
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Aristotle’s poetics
• Aristotle (384-322 B.C)
• Tutor to the future Alexander the Great.
• Poetics (c 335-323 B.C), the oldest surviving treatise on drama.
• The Poetics came to considered authoritative on drama, especially tragedy.
• The cause-to –effect arrangement of incidents, progressing through complications and resolution
• Internal consistency to be the basis of believability.
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Method of organizing dramatic action
• The most common sources of unit
• cause-to –effect arrangement of events
• Character
• thought
• Sophocles’ Oedipus the King, Henrik Lbsen’s A Doll’s House, and Samuel Beckett’s Happy Days.
• The majority of plays from the past are organized through cause-too-effect arrangement of events. This is the organizational principle used in A Doll’s House.
Viedo link of A Doll’s House
Viedo link of Oedipus the
King
Viedo link of Happy Days
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Method of organizing dramatic action
• Attempts to surmount the obstacle make up the substance of the play, each scene growing logically out of those that precede it.
• Less often, a dramatist use a character as the source of unity.
• They must also either tell a connected story or embody a theme.
• Beckett’s Happy Days is unified in part because Winnie creates the action, but ultimately the play’s unity comes from its theme.
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Method of organizing dramatic action (cont’d)
• Similarly, A Doll’s House gains much of its sense of purpose from Nora Helmer, but the play is organized mainly through the structure of its incidents.
• Many 20th – century dramatics organize play around thought, with scenes linked through a central theme or set of ideas.
• Beckett’s Happy Days.
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Method of organizing dramatic action (cont’d)
• The contemporary drama of Beckett’s is nonlinear
• composed more of fragments than of causally related incidents.
• Although a play usually has one major source of unity, it also uses secondary sources.
• Other sources of unity
• a dominant mood
• visual style
• distinctive use of language.
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Method of organizing dramatic action (cont’d)
• The part of drama, according to Aristotle
• 1. plot
• 2. character
• 3. thought
• 4. diction
• 5. music
• 6. spectacle
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Plot• Plot
• the overall structure of a play.
• The beginning of a play establishes some or all of these:
• the place, the occasion, the characters, the mood, the theme, and the internal logic (the rules of the game) that will be followed.
• The beginning of a play involves
• exposition, or the setting forth of information – about earlier events, the identity and relationship of the characters, and the present situation.
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Plot (cont’d)• The amount of exposition required about past
events is partly determined by the point of attack.
• The moment at which the story is taken up.
• Shakespeare typically used an early point of attack.
• For example, the King Lear.
• Greek tragic dramatists use late points, which require that many previous events be summarized for the audience’s benefit.
• For example, In Oedipus the King.
Viedo link of King Lear
Viedo link of In Oedipus the
King
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Plot (cont’d)• Events that begin before Oedipus’ birth
• Arthur Miller’s Death of a Salesman is unusual in having a late point of attack (beginning only one day before Willy’s death) but still showing, in flashbacks, events that range through many years.
• The point of attack in Happy Days can be called middle
• because Winnie’s situation in Act Ⅰhas long existed but in ActⅡis far more advanced;
• the implication is that her situation would be similar no matter the moment in time.
Viedo link of Miller’s Death
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Plot (cont’d)
• Playwrights motivate the giving of exposition in many years.
• In a musical play
• exposition may be given in song and dance.
• In most plays
• attention is focused early on a question, potential conflict, or theme.
• An inciting incident, an occurrence that sets the main action in motion.
• The inciting incident usually leads directly to a major dramatic question around which the play is organized
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Plot (cont’d)
• Not all plays include inciting incidents or clearly identifiable major dramatic questions.
• The middle of a play
• normally consists of rising action composed of a series of complications.
• The substance of most complications is discovery.
• Each complication normally has a beginning, middle, and end
• its own development, climax, and resolution – just as the play as a whole does.
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Plot (cont’d)
• The series of complications culminates in the climax, the highest point of interest or suspense.
• Accompanied by the crisis, that discovery or event that determines the outcome of the action.
• Not all plays have a clear-cut series of complication leading to climax and crisis.
• The final portion of a play, the resolution or denouement
• extends from the crisis to the final curtain.
• Plays may also have subplots
• events or actions of secondary interest are developed, often providing contrast to or commentary on the main plot.
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Character & characterization
• Characterization
• anything that delineates a person or differentiates that person from others.
• The 1st level of characterization
• physical or biological, defining gender, age, size, coloration, and general appearance.
• The 2nd level of characterization
• societal
• It includes a character’s economic status, profession or trade, religion, family relationship
• all of the factors that place a character in a particular social environment.
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Character & characterization (cont’d)
• The 3rd level
• psychological.
• It reveals a character’s habitual responses, desires, motivation, likes,
and dislikes – the inner working of the mind.
• The 4th level
• moral.
• It reveals what characters are willing to do to get what they want.
• Dramatic characters are usually both typified and individualized.
• A playwright
• Be concerned with making characters sympathetic or unsympathetic.
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thought
• The 3rd basic element of a play is thought.
• Include the themes, argument, and overall meaning of the action.
• Meaning in drama is usually implied rather than stated directly.
• Greek playwrights made extensive use of the chorus, a group representing some segments of society
• just as those of later periods employed such devices as soliloquies, asides, and other forms of statement made directly to the audience.
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Thought (cont’d)
• Other tools for projecting meaning are allegory and symbol.
• A symbol is an object, event, or image
• also suggests a concept or set of relationship.
• Plays imply or state meaning
• we should not conclude that there is a single correct interpretation for each play.
• Most plays permit multiple interpretations
• as different productions of, and critical essays about, the same play clearly indicates that.
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diction
• Plot, character, and thought are the basic subjects of drama.
• To convey these to an audience, playwrights have at their disposal 2 means
• sound and spectacle.
• Language is the playwright’s primary means of expression.
• Language (diction) is the playwright’s primary tool.
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Diction (cont’d)
• Diction serves many purposes.
• It is used to impart information
• to characterize, to direct attention to important plot elements, to reveal the themes and ideas of a play, to establish tone or mood and internal logic, and to establish tempo and rhythm.
• The diction of every play, no matter how realistic, is more abstract and formal than that of normal conversation.
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Diction (cont’d)
• The dialogue of nonrealistic plays deviates markedly from everyday speech.
• The basic criterion for judging diction
• its appropriateness to characters, situation, internal logic, and type of play.
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Music
• In addition to the sound of the actors’ voices, a play may also use music in the form of incidental songs and background music
• as in musical comedy and opera
• it may utilize song and instrumental accompaniment as integral structural means.
• Music may serve many functions.
• it may compress characterization or exposition, it may lend variety, and it may be pleasurable in itself.
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spectacle
• Spectacle encompasses all visual elements of a production:
• the movement and spatial relations of characters,
• the lighting
• settings
• costumes
• properties.
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Form in drama
• Scripts are frequently classified according to form:
• tragedy, comedy, tragicomedy, melodrama, farce, and so on.
• Form means the shape given to something for a particular purpose.
• Tragedy and comedy have been considered the 2 basic forms.
• Tragedy is a form associated especially with ancient Greece and Elizabethan England.
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Form in drama (cont’d)
• Henri Bergson argues that comedy requires “an anesthesia of the heart,”
• It is difficult to laugh at anything about which we feel deeply.
• Not all plays are wholly serious or comic.
• The two are often intermingled to create mixed effects, as in tragicomedy, as serious play that ends happily.
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Form in drama (cont’d)
• Perhaps the best known of the mixed types is melodrama, the favorite form of the 19th century and still the dominant form among television dramas dealing with crime and danger.
• Since World War Ⅱ, plays have been labeled “tragic farce,” “anti-play,” “tragedy for the music hall,”
• a variety of other terms that suggest how elements from earlier categories and from popular culture have been intermingled.
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Style in drama
• Even plays of the same form vary considerably. One reason for this variety is style.
• The drama written by neoclassicists have qualities that distinguish them from those written by romantics, expressionists, or absurdists.
• Style in theatre result from 3 basic influences
• it is grounded in assumptions about what is truthful and valuable.
• style results from the manner in which a playwright manipulates the means of expression
• style results from the manner in which the play is presented in the theatre.
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Style in drama (cont’d)
+Typically, unity is a primary artistic goal.
+ In recent times, postmodernism has intermingled different styles
+ although this intermingling may itself be considered a style.
• Part one has introduced and discussed several basic issues
• to the nature of theatre, to the role of audiences, to varied criteria for judging theatrical performances, and to dramatic structure, form, and style.
• The chapters that follow explore how these issues have been manifested in the theatrical practices of diverse times and places, both past and present.