CHAPTER- 3 METHODS AND PROCEDURES -...

37
CHAPTER- 3 METHODS AND PROCEDURES

Transcript of CHAPTER- 3 METHODS AND PROCEDURES -...

  • CHAPTER- 3

    METHODS AND PROCEDURES

  • CHAPTER-3

    METHODS AND PROCEDURES

    In this chapter, the details of Methods used, Procedures followed and Techniques

    of analysis of the data are presented.

    3.1. POPULATION AND SAMPLE

    3.1.1 ASSAM: A SOCIO-ECONOMIC PROFILE

    Assam is a northeastern state of India with its capital at Dispur located in the city

    of Guwahati. Located south of the eastern Himalayas, Assam comprises the

    Brahmaputra and the Barak river valleys along with the Karbi Anglong and the

    North Cachar Hills with a total area of 30,285 square miles (78,438 km^). The

    state is surrounded by six of the other Seven Sister States: Arunachal Pradesh,

    Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura and Meghalaya. These states are

    connected to the rest of India via a narrow strip in West Bengal called the Siliguri

    Corridor or "Chicken's Neck". Assam also shares international borders with

    Bhutan and Bangladesh; and cultures, peoples and climate with South-East Asia -

    important elements in India's Look East policy.

    Assam became a part of India after the British occupied the region following the

    Treaty of Yandaboo of 1826. it is known for Assam tea, large and old petroleum

    resources, Assam silk and for its rich biodiversity. Assam has successfully

    conserved the one-horned Indian rhinoceros from near extinction, along with the

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  • tiger and numerous species of birds, and it provides one of the last wild habitats

    for. the Asian elephant. It is becoming an increasingly popular destination for

    wild-life tourism, and Kaziranga and Manas are both World Heritage Sites.

    Assam was also known for its Sal tree forests and forest products, much depleted

    now. A land of high rainfall, Assam is endowed with lush greenery and the

    mighty river Brahmaputra, whose tributaries and oxbow lakes provide the region

    with a unique hydro-geomorphic and aesthetic environment. Assam was known

    as Pragjyolisha in the Mahabharata; and Kamarupa in the 1st millennium. Assam

    gets it name from the Ahom kingdom (1228-1826), then known as Kingdom of

    Assam. The British province after 1838 and the Indian state after 1947 came to be

    known as Assam.

    In Pre- History period, Assam and adjoining regions have evidences of human

    settlements from all the periods of the Stone ages. The hills at the height of 1500-

    2000 feet (460 to 615 m) were popular habitats probably due to availability of

    exposed doleritic basalt useful for tool-making. According to the Kalika Purana

    (c. 17th-18th AD), written in Assam, the earliest ruler of Assam was Mahiranga

    followed by Hatak, Sambar, Ratna and Ghatak; Naraka removed this line of rulers

    and established his own dynasty. It mentions that the last of the Naraka-bhauma

    rulers, Narak, was slain by Krishna. Naraka's son Bhagadatta, mentioned in the

    Mahabharata, fought for the Kauravas in the battle of Kurushetra with an army of

    Kiratas, Chinas and dwellers of the eastern coast. Later rulers of Kamarupa

    frequently drew their lineage from the Naraka rulers. However, there are lots of

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  • evidences to say that Mahayana Buddhism was prominent in ancient Assam.

    After Huen Shang's visit Mahayana Buddhism came to Assam. Relics of Tezpur,

    Malini Than, Kamakhya and Madan Kam Dev Temple are the evidences of

    Mahayana Buddhism.

    In Ancient and Medieval period, Ancient Assam, known as Kamarupa was ruled

    by powerful dynasties: the Varmanas (c.350-650 A.D.), the Salstambhas

    (Xalostombho, c.655-900 A.D.) and the Kamarupa-Palas (c.900-IIOO A.D.). In

    the reign of the Varman king, Bhaskaravarman (c.600-650 A.D.), the Chinese

    traveler Xuan Zang visited the region and recorded his travels. Later, after

    weakening and disintegration (after the Kamarupa-Palas), the Kamarupa tradition

    was somewhat extended till c. 1255 A.D. by the Lunar I (c. 1120-1185 A.D.) and

    Lunar II (c.l 155-1255 A.D.) dynasties. Two later dynasties, the Ahoms and the

    Koch left larger impacts. The Ahoms, a Tai group, ruled Assam for nearly 600

    years (1228-1826 A.D.) and the Koch, a Tibeto-Burmese, established sovereignty

    in c.l510 A.D. The Koch kingdom in western Assam and present North Bengal

    was at its zenith in the early reign of Naranarayana (c. 1540-1587 A.D.). It split

    into two in c. 1581 A.D., the western part as a Moghul vassal and the eastern as an

    Ahom satellite state. Since c. 13th A.D., the nerve centre of Ahom polity was

    upper Assam; the kingdom was gradually extended till Karatoya river in the

    c.l7th-18th A.D. it was at its zenith during the reign of Sukhrungpha or

    Sworgodeu Rudra Simha (c. 1696-1714 A.D.). Among other dynasties, the

    Chutiyas ruled north-eastern Assam and parts of present Arunachal Pradesh and

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  • the Kacharis ruled from Dikhow river to central and southern Assam. With

    expansion of Ahom kingdom, by c.1520 A.D. the Chutiya areas were annexed

    and since c.1536 A.D. Kacharis remained only in Cachar and North Cachar more

    as an Ahom ally than a competing force. Despite numerous invasions, mostly by

    the Muslim rulers, no western power ruled Assam until the arrival of the British.

    The most successful invader Mir Jumla, a governor of Aurangzeb, briefly

    occupied Garhgaon (c. 1662-63 A.D.), the then capital, but found it difficult to

    control people making guerrilla attacks on his forces, forcing them to leave. The

    decisive victory of the Assamese led by the great general Lachit Borphukan on

    the Mughais, then under command of Raja Ram Singha at Saraighat (1671) had

    almost ended Mughal ambitions in this region. Mughais were finally expelled in

    c. 1682 A.D. from lower Assam.

    In British ruling period, Ahom palace intrigue and political turmoil due to the

    Moamoria rebellion aided the expansionist Burmese ruler of Ava to invade

    Assam and install a puppet king in 1821. With the Burmese having reached the

    East India Company's borders, the First Anglo-Burmese War ensued. The war

    ended under the Treaty of Yandaboo in 1826, with the Company taking control of

    Lower Assam and installing Purander Singh as king of Upper Assam in 1833. The

    arrangement lasted till 1838 and thereafter the British gradually annexed the

    entire region. Initially Assam was made a part of the Bengal Presidency, then in

    1906 it was a part of Eastern Bengal and Assam province, and in 1912 it was

    reconstituted into a Chief Commissioners' province. In 1913, a Legislative

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  • Council and in 1937 the Assam Legislative Assembly was formed in Shillong, the

    erstwhile capital of the region. The British tea planters imported labour from

    central India adding to the demographic canvas. After a few initial unsuccessful

    attempts to free Assam during the 1850s, the Assamese since early 20th century

    joined and actively supported the Indian National Congress against the British. In

    1947, Assam including the present Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Mizoram and

    Meghalaya became a state of the Union of India (princely states, Manipur and

    Tripura became Group C provinces) and a district of Assam, Sylhet chose to join

    Pakistan.

    In the Post British period ie., Since 1947, with increasing economic problems in

    the region, separatist groups began forming along ethnic lines, and demands for

    autonomy and sovereignty grew, resulting into fragmentation of Assam. Since the

    mid-20th century, people from present Bangladesh have been migrating to

    Assam. In 1961, the Government of Assam passed a legislation making use of

    Assamese language compulsory. It had to be withdrawn later under pressure from

    Bengali speaking people in Cachar (Present Barak Valley). In the 1980s the

    Brahmaputra valley saw a six-year Assam Agitation triggered by the discovery of

    a sudden rise in registered voters on electoral rolls. It tried to force the

    government to identify and deport foreigners illegally migrating from

    neighbouring Bangladesh and changing the demographics. The agitation ended

    after an accord between its leaders and the Union Government, which remained

    unimplemented, causing simmering discontent.

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  • The post 1970s experienced the growth of armed separatist groups lii

  • 1,178 miles billion cubic feet (3.34x1010 m )̂ of gas and 67 million barrels

    (10,700,000 m )̂ of natural gas liquids in the Assam Geologic Province. With the

    "Tropical Monsoon Rainforest Climate", Assam is temperate (summer max. at

    95-100°F or 35-38°C and winter min. at 43-46 °F or 6-8 °C) and experiences

    heavy rainfall and high humidity. The climate is characterised by heavy monsoon

    downpours reducing summer temperatures and affecting foggy nights and

    mornings in winters. Thunderstorms known as Bordoicila are frequent during the

    afternoons. Spring (Mar-Apr) and Autumn (Sept-Oct) are usually pleasant with

    moderate rainfall and temperature. Assam is one of the richest biodiversity zones

    in the world and consists of tropical rainforests, deciduous forests, riverine

    grasslands, bamboo orchards and numerous wetland ecosystems; many are now

    protected as national parks and reserved forests. The Kaziranga, home of the rare

    Indian Rhinoceros, and Manas are two UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Assam.

    The state is the last refuge for numerous other endangered species such as the

    Golden I.angur (Presbetis geei), White-winged Wood Duck or Deohanh (Cairina

    scutulata), Bengal Florican, Black-breasted Parrotbill, Pygmy Hog, Greater

    Adjutant and so on. Some other endangered species with significant population in

    Assam are the Tiger, Elephant, Hoolock Gibbon, Jerdon's Babbler and so on to

    name a few. Assam is also known for orchids. The region is prone to natural

    disasters with annual floods and frequent mild earthquakes. Strong earthquakes

    are rare; three of which were recorded in 1869, 1897 (8.1 on the Richter scale);

    and in 1950(8.6).

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  • District-wise Demographic Characteristics in 2001, total population of Assam

    was 26.66 million with 4.91 million households in 2001. Higher population

    concentration was recorded in the districts of Kamrup, Nagaon, Sonitpur, Barpeta,

    Dhubri, Darang and Cachar. Assam's population was estimated at 28.67 million in

    2006 and at 30.57 million by 2011, 34.18 million by 2021 and 35.60 million by

    2026.

    In 2001, the census recorded literacy in Assam at 63.25 percent with male literacy

    at 71.28 and female at 54.61 percents. Urbanisation rate was recorded at 12.90

    percent. Growth of population in Assam has experienced a very high trajectory

    since the mid-decades of the 20th century. Population grew steadily from 3.29

    million in 1901 to 6.70 million in 1941, while it has increased unprecedentedly to

    14.63 million in 1971 and 22.41 million in 1991 to reach the present level. The

    growth in the western and southern districts was of extreme high in nature mostly

    attributable to rapid influx of population from the then East Pakistan or

    Bangladesh.

    Assam has many ethnic groups and the People of India project has studied 115 of

    these. Out of which 79 (69%) identify themselves regionally, 22 (19%) locally,

    and 3 trans-nationally. The earliest settlers were Austroasiatic, followed by

    Tibeto-Burman, Indo-Aryan speakers, and Kradai speakers. Forty-five languages

    are spoken by different communities, including three major language families:

    Austroasiatic (5), Sino-Tibetan (24) and Indo-European (12). Three of the spoken

    languages do not fall in these families. There is a high degree of bilingualism.

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  • Major religions are Hinduism (64.89%) and Islam (30.92%). Others include

    Christianity (3.7%), Sikhism, Animism, Buddhism (Khamti, Phake, Alton etc.

    communities).

    The Hindus of Assam perform several dances to practice their devotion to their

    Gods. One category of them is the Sattriya Dances. Kamakhya, dedicated to

    Goddess Durga is the eastern-most pilgrimage of Hinduism. Popular forms of

    God in Assam are Durga, Shiva, Krishna and Narayana, although several tribes

    practice devotion to local deities as well. Muslims constitute the second largest

    religious group in Assam. Muslims make up 30.92% of the population, a

    percentage second only to Jammu & Kashmir amongst the Indian states.

    In 1827 an attempt was made to start a Baptist Church in Guwahati, but it made

    no permanent converts in the area. Later the American Baptist Foreign

    Missionary Society was able to make some headway in Guwahati. Although these

    earliest Christian missionary endevros were focused in the north-east of India

    were in Modern Assam, the great success of Protestant missionaries in North-East

    India in the late 19th and the 20th Centuries was primarily in areas such as

    Nagaland, Mizoram and Meghalaya which are not today part of Assam. As of

    1991 only Tripura of the seven eastern states of India had a lower percentage of

    Christians than Assam. The 3.32% Christians in Assam was well below even

    Arunchal Pradesh's 10% Christians. Despite this there were more Christians in

    Assam than in Mizoram even though Mizoram was the second most Christian

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  • state in India at the time. Besides the Protestants there are also CathoHcs. There is

    a Roman CathoHc Archdiocese in Shiilong.

    Assam is the home of Kalicharan Mech, a Bodo Hindu who stopped the British

    Christian missionaries and spread ahimsa and vegetarianism. He was deeply

    influenced by the Brahmo Samaj. He later became known as "Gurudev

    Kalicharan Brahmachari" or "Guru Brahma". His principles were established as

    the Brahma Dharma. Perhaps his teachings can be summarized by his given

    phrase, "Chandrama Surya Narayans Jyoti", meaning, "the light (jyoU) from the

    sun is capable from dispelling darkness and taking people to Brahma (Narayans)."

    From the teachings of Guru Brahma, the "Bodo-Brahmas" (the Bodos of this sect)

    have boycotted alcohol and heavy dowry as well as meat-eating. This sect is

    written by scholars to be Vedic and Upanishadic. As per Vedic rituals, the priests

    perform Horn Yajna, which was begun by Guru Brahma to organize the Bodos.

    While the Bodo Christians today are laying stress on adopting a Roman script for

    the Bodo community, the Bodo-Brahmas prefer the traditional Bengali-Ahomi

    script.

    Assamese culture developed due to assimilation of ethno-cultural groups under

    various politico-economic systems in different time. The roots go back to three

    thousand years when the first assimilation took place between the Austro-Asiatic

    and Tibeto-Burman cultures. Thereafter, western migrations such as those of

    various branches of Mediterraneans, Indo-scythians /Irano-scythians and Nordics

    along with the people from northern Indian states such as Magadha have enriched

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  • the aboriginal culture and under stronger politico-economic systems,

    Sanskritisation and Hinduisation intensified. Migration and assimilation of Tai

    people in the past millennium provided another dimension to its hybridity.

    Assamese culture is traditionally a hybrid one developed due to assimilation of

    ethno-cultural groups in the past. Therefore, both local elements or the local

    elements in Sanskritised forms are distinctly found. The major milestones in

    evolution of Assamese culture are

    • Assimilation in the Kamarupa Kingdom for almost 700 years (under the

    Varmans for 300 years, Salastambhas and Palas for each 200 years).

    • Establishment of the Ahom dynasty in the 13th century AD and

    assimilation for next 600 years.

    • Assimilation in the Koch Kingdom (15th-16th century AD) of western

    Assam and Kachari Kingdom (I2th-I8th century AD) of central and southern

    Assam.

    • Vaishnava Movement led by Srimanta Sankardeva (Xonkordeu) and its

    contribution and cultural changes.

    With rich traditions, the modern culture is greatly influenced by events in the

    British and the Post-British Era. The language was standardised by the American

    Baptist Missionaries such as Nathan Brown, Dr. Miles Bronson and local pundits

    such as Hemchandra Barua with the form available in the Sibsagar (Xiwoxagor)

    District (the ex-nerve centre of the Ahom Kingdom). A renewed Sanskritisation

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  • was increasingly adopted for developing Assamese language and grammar. A

    new wave of Western and northern Indian influence was apparent in the

    performing arts and literature.

    Increasing efforts of standardisation in the 20th century alienated the localised

    forms present in different areas and with the less-assimilated ethno-cultural

    groups (many source-cultures). However, Assamese culture in its hybrid form and

    nature is one of the richest, still developing and in true sense is a 'cultural system'

    with sub-systems. It is interesting that many source-cultures of Assamese

    cultural-system are still surviving either as sub-systems or as sister entities, for

    e.g. Bodo or Khasi or Mishing. Today it is important to keep the broader system

    closer to its roots and at the same time to focus on development of the sub-

    systems.

    Some of the common and unique cultural traits in the region are peoples' respect

    towards areca-nut and betel leaves, symbolic clothes (Gamosa, Arnai, etc),

    traditional silk garments and towards forefathers and elderly. Moreover, great

    hospitality and Bamboo culture are common.

    Symbolism is an ancient cultural practice in Assam and is still a very important

    part of Assamese way of life. Various elements are being used to represent

    beliefs, feelings, pride, identity, etc. Tamulpan, Xorai and Gamosa are three

    important symbolic elements in Assamese culture. Tamulpan (the areca nut and

    betel leaves) or guapan (gua from kwa) are considered along with the Gamosa (a

    typical woven cotton or silk cloth with embroidery) as the offers of devotion,

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  • respect and friendship. The Tamulpan-tradition is an ancient one and is being

    followed since time-immemorial with roots in the aboriginal Austro-Asiatic

    culture. Xorai is a traditionally manufactured bell-metal article of great respect

    and is used as a container-medium while performing respectful offers. Moreover,

    symbolically many ethno-cultural groups use specific clothes to portray respect

    and pride.

    There were many other symbolic elements and designs, but are now only found in

    literature, art, sculpture, architecture, etc or in use today for only religious

    purposes. The typical designs of assamese-lion, dragon, flying-lion, etc were used

    for symbolising various purposes and occasions. The archaeological sites such as

    the Madan Kamdev ( 9'*̂ -10'̂ A.D.) exhibits mass-scale use of lions, dragon-lions

    and many other figures of demons to show case power and prosperity. The

    Vaishnava monasteries and many other architectural sites of late medieval period

    also showcase use of lions and dragons for symbolic effects.

    Assamese and Bodo are the major indigenous and official languages while

    Bengali holds official status in the three districts in the Barak Valley and is the

    second most spoken language of the state (24%).

    Traditionally Assamese was the language of the commons (of mixed origin -

    Austroasiatic, Tibeto-Burman, Magadhan Prakrit) in the ancient Kamarupa and in

    the medieval kingdoms of Kamatapur, Kachari, Cuteeya, Borahi, Ahom and

    Koch. Traces of the language are found in many poems by Luipa, Sarahapa, etc in

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  • Charyapada (c.7th-8th AD). Modern dialects Kamrupi, Goalpariya, etc are the

    remnant of this language. Moreover, Assamese in its traditional form was used by

    the ethno-cultural groups in the region as lingua-franca, which spread during the

    stronger kingdoms and was required for needed economic integration. Localised

    forms of the language still exist in Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh. The form used

    in the upper Assam was enriched by the advent of Tai-Shans in the 13th century.

    Linguistically modern Assamese traces its roots to the version developed by the

    American Missionaries based on the local form in practice near Sibsagar

    (Xiwoxagor) district. Assamese (Oxomeeya) is a rich language due to its hybrid

    nature with its unique characteristics of pronunciation and softness. Assamese

    literature is one of the richest. Bodo is an ancient language of Assam. Spatial

    distribution patterns of the ethno-cuitural groups, cultural traits and the

    phenomenon of naming all the major rivers in the North East Region with Bodo-

    Kachari words (e.g. Dihing, Dibru, Dihong, D/Tista, Dikrai, etc) reveal that it was

    the most important language in the ancient times. Bodo is presently spoken

    largely in the Lower Assam (Bodo Territorial Council area). After years of

    neglect, now Bodo language is getting attention and its literature is developing.

    Other native languages of Tibeto-Burman origin and related to Bodo-Kachari are

    Mishing, Karbi, Dimaca, Rabha, Tiwa, etc. Rajbongshi also known as

    kamatapuri/Goalpariya is also widely spoken by the people of western Assam.

    Nepali is also spoken in almost all parts of the state.

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  • There are smaller groups of people speaking Tai-Phake, Tai-Aiton, Tai-Khamti,

    Tai-Khamyang etc., some of the Tai languages. The Tai-Ahom language (brought

    by Sukaphaa and his followers), which is no more a spoken language today is

    getting attentions for research after centuries long care and preservation by the

    Bailungs (traditional priests). There are also small groups of people speaking

    Manipuri, Khasi, Garo, Hmar, Kuki, etc in different parts.

    Bengali is the official language in Barak Valley, although the widely spoken

    language is Sylheti, a dialect of Bengali. Bengali is also largely spoken in the

    western districts of Dhubri, Barpeta, and Goalpara. Bishnupriya Manipuri

    language is also spoken by a small minority of people in Barak Valley.

    Assam has a rich tradition of crafts; presently. Cane and bamboo craft, bell metal

    and brass craft, silk and cotton weaving, toy and mask making, pottery and

    terracotta work, wood craft, jewellery making, musical instruments making, etc

    remained as major traditions. Historically, Assam also excelled in making boats,

    traditional guns and gunpowder, ivory crafts, colours and paints, articles of lac,

    agarwood products, traditional building materials, utilities from iron, etc.

    Cane and bamboo craft provide the most commonly used utilities in daily life,

    ranging from household utilities, weaving accessories, fishing accessories,

    furniture, musical instruments, construction materials, etc. Utilities and symbolic

    articles such as Xorai and Bota made from bell metal and brass are found in every

    Assamese household. Hajo and Sarthebari (Xorthebaary) are the most important

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  • centres of traditional bell-metal and brass crafts. Assam is the home of several

    types of silks, the most prestigious are: Muga - the natural golden silk, Pat - a

    creamy-bright-silver coloured silk and Eri - a variety used for manufacturing

    warm clothes for winter. Apart from Sualkuchi (Xualkuchi), the centre for the

    traditional silk industry, in almost every parts of the Brahmaputra Valley, rural

    households produce silk and silk garments with excellent embroidery designs.

    Moreover, various ethno-cultural groups in Assam make different types of cotton

    garments with unique embroidery designs and wonderful colour combinations.

    Moreover, Assam possesses unique crafts of toy and mask making mostly

    concentrated in the Vaishnav Monasteries, pottery and terracotta work in lower

    Assam districts and wood craft, iron craft, jewellery, etc in many places across the

    region.

    The archaic Mauryan Stupas discovered in and around Goalpara district are the

    earliest examples (c. 300 BC to c. 100 AD) of ancient art and architectural works.

    The remains discovered in Daparvatiya (Doporboteeya) archaeological site with a

    beautiful doorframe in Tezpur are identified as the best examples of art works in

    ancient Assam with influence of Sarnath School of Art of the late Gupta period.

    Many other sites also exhibit development of local art forms with local motifs and

    sometimes with similarities with those in the Southeast Asia. There are currently

    more than forty discovered ancient archaeological sites across Assam with

    numerous sculptural and architectural remains. Moreover, there are examples of

    several Late-Middle Age art and architectural works including hundreds of.

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  • sculptures and motifs along with many remaining temples, palaces and other

    buildings. The motifs available on the walls of the buildings such as Rang Ghar,

    Joydoul, etc are remarkable examples of art works.

    Painting is an ancient tradition of Assam. Xuanzang (7th century AD) mentions

    that among the Kamarupa king Bhaskaravarma's gifts to Harshavardhana there

    were paintings and painted objects, some of which were on Assamese silk. Many

    of the manuscripts such as Hastividyamava (A Treatise on Elephants), the Chitra

    Bhagawata and in the Gita Govinda from the Middle Ages bear excellent

    examples of traditional paintings. The medieval Assamese literature also refers to

    chitrakars and patuas.

    There are several renowned contemporary artists in Assam. The Guwahati Art

    College in Guwahati is a government institution for tertiary education. Moreover,

    there are several art-societies and non-government initiatives across the state and

    the Guwahati Artists Guild is a front-runner organisation based in Guwahati.

    in the 1950s, per capita income in Assam was little higher than that in India. In

    2000-01, in Assam it was Rs. 6,157 at constant prices (1993-94) and Rs 24195 at

    current prices (2008-09); almost 40 percent lower than that in India. According to

    the recent estimates, per capita income in Assam has reached Rs 30413 in 2010-

    1 1, which is still much lower than India's.

    Economy of Assam today represents a unique juxtaposition of backwardness

    amidst plenty. Despite its rich natural resources, and supplying of up to 25% of

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  • India's petroleum needs, growth rate of Assam's income has not kept pace with

    that of India's; differences increased rapidly since i970s. Indian economy grew at

    6 percent per annum over the period of 1981 to 2000, the same of Assam was

    only 3.3 percent. In the Sixth Plan period Assam experienced a negative growth

    rate of 3.78 percent when India's was positive at 6 percent. In the post-liberalised

    era (after 1991), the differences widened further.

    According to recent analysis, Assam's economy is showing signs of

    improvement. In 2001-02, the economy grew (at 1993-94 constant prices) at 4.5

    percent, to fall to 3.4 percent in the next financial year. During 2003-04 and

    2004-05, the economy grew (at 1993-94 constant prices) more satisfactorily at

    5.5 and 5.3 percent respectively. The advanced estimates placed the growth rate

    for 2005-06 at above 6 percent. Assam's GDP in 2004 is estimated at $13 billion

    in current prices. Sectoral analysis again exhibits a dismal picture. The average

    annual growth rate of agriculture, which was only 2.6 percent per annum over

    1980s, has unfortunately fallen to 1.6 percent in the 1990s. Manufacturing sector

    has shown some improvement in the 1990s with a growth rate of 3.4 percent per

    annum than 2.4 percent in the 1980s. Since past five decades, the tertiary sector

    has registered the highest growth rates than the other sectors, which even has

    slowed down in the 1990s than in 1980s.

    Accounts for more than a third of Assam's income and employs 69 percent of

    workforce. Assam's biggest contribution to the world is tea. It produces some of

    the finest and expensive teas and has its own variety Camellia assamica. Assam

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  • also accounts for fair share of India's production of rice, rapeseed, mustard seed,

    jute, potato, sweet potato, banana, papaya, areca nut and turmeric. It is also a

    home of large varieties of citrus fruits, leaf vegetables, vegetables, useful grasses,

    herbs, spices, etc.

    Assam's agriculture yet to experience modernisation in real sense. With

    implications to food security, per capita food grain production has declined in

    past five decades. Productivity has increased marginally; but still lower

    comparing to highly productive regions. For instance, yield of rice (staple food of

    Assam) was just 1531 kg per hectare against India's 1927 kg per hectare in 2000-

    01 (which itself is much lower than Egypt's 9283, USA's 7279, South Korea's

    6838, Japan's 6635 and China's 6131 kg per hectare in 2001). On the other hand,

    after having strong domestic demand, 1.5 million hectares of inland water bodies,

    numerous rivers and 165 varieties of fishes, fishing is still in its traditional form

    and production is not self-sufficient.

    The Assam Agriculture University is located at Jorhat, Assam. It is the only

    agricultural university for the Seven Sisters.

    Apart from tea and petroleum refineries, Assam has few industries of

    significance. Industrial development is inhibited by its physical and political

    isolation from neighbouring countries such as Myanmar, China and Bangladesh

    and from other growing Southeast Asian economies; ultimately leading to neglect

    by the federal government in regards to development - a key motivation for

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  • separatist groups. The region is landlocked, situated in the eastern periphery of

    India and is linked to the mainland by a flood and cyclone prone narrow corridor,

    known as the Siliguri Corridor or Chicken's Neck, with weak transport

    infrastructure that have remained undeveloped since independence. The-

    international airport in Guwahati is yet to find airlines providing direct

    international flights. The Brahmaputra suitable for navigation does not possess

    sufficient infrastructure for international trade and success of such a navigable

    trade route will be dependent on proper channel maintenance and diplomatic and

    trade relationships with Bangladesh.

    Assam is a major producer of crude oil, exploited by the Assam Oil Company

    Ltd., and natural gas in India and is the second place in the world (after Titusville

    in the United States) where petroleum was discovered. Asia's first successful

    mechanically drilled oil well was drilled in Makum (Assam) way back in 1867.

    Most of the oilfields are located in the Upper Assam region. Assam has four oil

    refineries located in Guwahati, Digboi, Golaghat (Numaligarh) and Bongaigaon

    with a total capacity of 7 Million metric tonnes (7.7 million short tons) per

    annum. Despite its richness in natural resources, the benefits have yet to improve

    the lives of the people of Assam.

    Although having a poor overall industrial performance, several other industries

    have nevertheless been started, including a chemical fertiliser plan at Namrup,

    petrochemical industries at Namrup and Bongaigaon, paper mills at Jagiroad,

    Panchgram and Jogighopa, sugar mills at Barua Bamun Gaon, Chargola, Kampur,

    104

  • cement plant at Bokajan & Badarpur, cosmetics plant (HLL) at Doom Dooma,

    etc. Moreover, there are other industries such as jute mil l , textile and yarn mills,

    silk mil l , etc. Unfortunately many of these industries are facing loss and closer

    due to lack of infrastructure and improper management practices.

    Cotton College in Guwahati initiated modern tertiary education and research in

    Assam and has been continuing classical and high-educational standards for more

    than hundred years; many of the buildings in the college are excellent examples

    of Assamese architecture with colonial flavours.

    Assam has several institutions for tertiary education and research. The major

    institutions are: Gauhali University-Guwahati, Dibrugarh University-Dibrugarh,

    Assam University-Silchar, Tezpur University-Tezpur ,Assam Agricultural

    University-Jorhat, Indian Institute of Technology-Guwahati, National Institute of

    Technology-Silchar, Assam Engineering College-Guwahati, Jorhat Engineering

    College-Jorhat, Central Institute of Technology-Bodoland Territorial Council,

    Kokrajhar, Jorhat Medical College-Jorhat etc..

    As per Al l India Educational Survey 2007, there were 765 senior secondary

    schools - 46 schools for boys, 44 schools for girls and 675 co-educational

    schools among them 563 schools are in rural area - 17 schools for boys , 12

    schools for girls and 534 schools for co-education schools and 202 are in urban -

    29 schools for boys, 32 schools for girls and 141 co-educational schools were

    functioning in Assam .

    105

  • It is after the Independence in 1947, that a rapid expansion took place in the field

    of education. In the post Independence period the major concern of Government

    of India and of the states was to give increasing attention to education as a factor,

    vital to national progress and security. Problem of educational reforms and

    reconstruction were reviewed by various commissions and committees. In the

    later part of the last century Policy on Education (1986) has been adopted at the

    national level.

    In Assam, government has been quite alive to the requirement, improvement and

    expansion of education in the state. The state government has followed policies

    and decisions taken at the national level for implementation in the state. As such

    it follows the mandate of National Policy on Education (1986) and Programme of

    Action (1986, revised in 1992) in terms of intervention in Higher Education. The

    University Grants Commission and National Assessment and Accreditation

    Council (NAAC) play a major role in the quality aspect of it.

    The post of Director of Public Instruction (DPI) had been created way back in

    1874. Officiating from Shillong, the then capital of undivided Assam, DPI's office

    catered to all aspects of education viz. Elementary, Secondary, Higher, Adult,

    Technical etc. of the entire state that included the present day Meghalaya,

    Mizoram and Nagaland. It remained in Shillong, even after all these states shot

    off for their independent existence as states, till 1973 when the capital of Assam

    finally shifted to Guwahati.

    106

  • 3.1.2. THE BARAK VALLEY

    Barak valley is the Valley along the river Barak that covers the three southern

    most districts of Assam, viz., Cachar, Karimganj and Hailakandi. This populous

    tract lies between longitude 92°I5' and 93° 15' East and Latitude 24° 8' and 25° 8'

    North and covers an area of 6922 sq.kms. Cachar district alone accounts for

    54.7% of the total area of the valley; the shares of Hailakandi and Karimganj

    districts in the total area are 19.2% and 26.1% respectively. The main city of the

    valley is Silchar in Cachar district. Being a peaceful place in the North-East the

    valley earned the bon mot of "Island of Peace" from India's Prime Minister Indira

    Gandhi. Karimganj, the district headquarters of Karimganj district, is the second

    largest town in the valley. It is considered as the cultural centre of Barak valley.

    The three constituent districts of Barak valley are subdivided into a total of four

    sub Divisions, 27 blocks, and 321 Gaon Panchayats. Among the 2244 inhabited

    villages in the Valley, 1024 (i.e. 46% of the total) are in Cachar district ; 327

    (14.57%) are in Hailakandi and 893 (39.79%) are in the district of Karimganj.

    Cachar district is located in the southernmost part of Assam. It is bounded on the

    north by Barail and Jayantia hill ranges, on the south by the State of Mizoram and

    on the east by the districts of Hailakandi and Karimganj. The district was created

    in 1830 after annexation of Kachari Kingdom by the British. In 1854, North

    Cachar was annexed and made a part of the district. In 1951 the North Cachar

    Sub-Division was taken out of Cachar and made a separate district. In 1983

    Karimganj Sub-Division was made a separate district and finally in 1989,

    107

  • Ilailakandi Sub-Divisions was culled out to form a new district. The district lies

    between 92° 24' E and 93° 15' E longitude and 24° 22' N and 25° 8' N latitude.

    The total geographical area of the district is 3,786 Sq. Km. Administratively the

    district is now divided into two subdivisions viz. Silchar (Sadar) and Lakhipur.

    There are five revenue circles and fifteen Community Development blocks (CD)

    in the district.

    ilailakandi District is located between longitude 92.25 and 92.46 east and latitude

    24°8' and 24°53' North. The total Geographical area of the District is 1327.00 Sq.

    Km. of which Rural area is 1316.47 and Urban area is 10.53 Sq. Km. It is situated

    in the middle of Barak Valley & bounded by Cachar District in the North and

    East, Mizoram state in the South and Karimganj District in the West. The District

    consists of both plain and hilly areas. The Hailakandi District consists of only one

    sub-division with 4 (four) revenue Circle and 5 (five) Development blocks. There

    are three towns viz. Ilailakandi , Lala and Panchgram 11.P.C. township in the

    district.

    Karimganj district is one of the southernmost districts of Assam located in the

    valley of Barak. The total area of the district is 1809 square km. The terrain of the

    district consists of Hood plains, wetlands, hills and forests. The district is

    surrounded by Bangladesh and Cachar district of Assam in the north, Mizoram in

    the south, Bangladesh and Tripura in the west and Hailakandi district of Assam in

    the cast. The district comprises of just one sub division which is also named

    Karimganj. The district has five revenue circles namely Karimganj, Badarpur,

    108

  • Nilambazar, Patherkandi and Ramkrishnanagar and seven development blocks.

    There are three census towns and 915 inhabited villages in the district.

    While as through the British Days, the economy of Barak Valley had been a

    periphery to the economic mainstream of Bengal. Although the latter itself was a

    periphery (and hence Barak valley was, at best, a periphery's periphery) within

    the colonizers' global scheme of exploitation, a number of factors, nevertherless,

    had been operative enabling the valley's economy to capture the limited 'spread

    effects' that used to originate from Bengal's core. The partition of the country in

    the wake of independence and the consequent emergence of East Pakistan (now

    Bangladesh) not only had shattered the traditional cheapest and quickest lines of

    transport and communication, but also had snapped the age-old channels of trade,

    commerce and transactions. The new arrangement worked out during the

    post-independence phase did not adequately compensate the valley for all the loss

    inflicted on it by partition. Meanwhile, following the partition, much of the

    political leverage of the valley was ajso lost. Within the framework of planned

    development, the loss of political leverage at the decision-making levels had a

    definite bearing on the pattern and pace of growth of Barak Valley's economy.

    The topography of Barak Valley is heterogenous composed of high hills, low

    lands and level plains. Vast tracts in the southern part of the valley are covered

    with forests. On the north, east and also on the south, it is almost shut in by ranges

    of hills which in many cases occupy considerable parts of the valley's land-area.

    Within its frontiers, nearly the whole of the valley is dotted sporadically with low

    109

  • range isolated hills called "tillahs". The river Barak flows through the plains

    portion. High lands within the valley are generally planted with tea, while the

    lower levels are covered with rice crops. Rice and Tea together occupy more than

    90% of Barak Valley's gross cropped area.

    The climate of Barak Valley is characterised by excessive humidity. Heat

    sometimes is oppressive, particularly during the months of May to September.

    Rainy season also normally starts in May and continues till October. During the

    rainy season, air remains surcharged with moisture and the rainfall is extremely

    heavy. The period from November to February is normally cool, January being

    the coolest month of the year. The high summer temperature coupled with

    relatively high humidity levels, although irritating, offers an ideal condition in the

    valley for cultivation of rice, tea and a variety of other crops.

    An important sector in Barak Valley's economy is the tea industry. Tea occupies

    about 13.5% of the total cropped area in the valley. During the period 1981-1995,

    tea production in Barak Valley increased by a total of 46.6%.This was higher than

    the growth recorded during the same period by the industry either in the

    Brahmaputra Valley or at the national level. Besides Tea, the valley has other

    usable natural resources also.

    Minerals (like-Oil or Gas) and the vast water resources of Barak Valley have

    drawn the attention of many government agencies as well of observers. Even

    then, these resources are yet to be fully explored and assessed and would require

    no

  • investment of a gigantic scale before being commercially usable. Nor, do the

    forest resources of the valley offer much promise at the moment. The rapid

    depletion of the valley's forest products have been already highlighted in the

    preceding section. In the given situation, it would be worthwhile at this stage to

    limit our focus to some specific components of the useable research- base that are

    relatively less emphasized but judged by potentialities, warrant immediate

    attention.

    Forests cover more than one third of Barak Valley's total reported land area. Of

    course, ceaseless deforestation during the last few decades has led to rapid

    depletion of the forest resources. The forest cover in the valley has come down

    from 44.4 percent in 1951 to 34.9 per cent in 1994-95. There has been a

    concomitant decline in the annual out-turn of forest products. The annual out-turn

    of timber from Barak Valley's forests was around 10000 cubic metres till the

    early sixties; but the same declined sharply in later years and by the early

    Nineties, the out-turn per year was as low as only 1000 to 2000 cubic metres of

    timber.

    Besides forests, substantial parts of the valley's total reported area are occupied

    by barren tracts, permanent pastures and otherwise uncultivable lands. The net

    area available for cultivation, that one obtains after deducting from Total

    Reported Area the forests and all uncultivable lands, is relatively small. In 1981-

    82, cultivable lands constituted only 43.4 percent of the valley's Total Reported

  • Area (at All India Level, the proportion of cultivable lands, then, was 64 percent

    of the total reported area).

    The inadequacy of cultivable lands on top of a rapidly rising population and then

    continuation of agrarian bias of the occupational structures have meant

    progressively heavier pressure on available agricultural lands, the resultant

    excessive fragmentation of holdings and widespread disguised unemployment in

    Barak Valley's rural areas. In 1991, the population per thousand hectares of

    cultivable land in Barak Valley was 8277 persons. The ratio in that year was 6445

    persons in case of Brahmaputra Valley, 6567 persons in case of total Assam and

    only 4305 persons for the whole of India.

    Other symptoms of a subsistence and peripheral economy are equally manifest.

    For instance, around 70 per cent of the working population are engaged in

    agriculture and other primary sector activity. Work participation rale is low

    (30.8% in 1991), and the same is lower than both the state's and nation's average

    work participation rate. Dependency Ratio (i.e., the proportion of non- workers in

    total population) is high and unemployment - both disguised and recorded - is

    widespread and intense.

    In 1927 there were 3 high schools and in 1935 the first college was founded in

    Barak Valley namely Guru Charan College at Silchar. It was the first step to

    higher education in Barak valley. It was affiliated to Calcutta University.

    Guwahati University was established at Guwahati in 1948. Its jurisdiction was the

    112

  • entire North-Eastem region. Then a number of Colleges were established in this

    valley and were affiliated to Guwahati University.

    in 1994, Assam University (a Central University) was established in the valley at

    Silchar. This University has jurisdiction over five districts of South Assam,

    namely, Cachar, Hailakandi, Karimganj, Karbi Anglong and North Cachar Hills.

    52 Colleges which include 42 colleges of liberal arts, one Medical College, three

    law colleges and six teachers training colleges are affiliated to this University

    were functioning in 2008-09. Out of the 42 liberal Arts Colleges, 30 are in Barak

    Valley, out of the six teachers training colleges, five are in Barak Valley and out

    of the three law colleges, two are in Barak Valley. The only Medical College in

    this Valley is situated in Silchar, the district Head Quarters of Cachar. Silchar has

    one National Institute of Technology also Assam University offers Post Graduate

    Education in 27 subjects organized into eight schools of studies. The University

    offers, five year integrated under-.graduate and Post Graduate courses in

    Computer Science, Fine Arts, Social Work and Law.

    In this valley there were total of 100 institutions providing education at the senior

    secondary (+2) stage in the academic year 2008-09, among which are 6 Kendriya

    Vidyalayas, 3 Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalayas, 4 Government Higher Secondary

    schools, 57 Provincialised Higher Secondary and M.P. Schools and 30 Affiliated/

    Permitted General Colleges.

    13

  • Barak Valley is more populous than at least five out of the seven states in North-

    Eastern region. This valley had a population of about 3 million which constitutes

    11.24% of Assam population.

    The Table 3 given below gives the distribution of population of the Barak Valley

    by its districts.

    TABLE 3: POPULATION OF BARAK VALLEY BY DISTRICT IN 2001

    India

    Assam

    Barak Valley

    Cachar

    Hailakandi

    Karimganj

    Population 1,028,737,436

    (100.00) 26,655,528

    (100.00) 2,995,769 (100.00) 1,444,921 (100.00) 542,872 (100.00) 1,007,976 (100.00)

    Male 532,223.090

    (51.74) 13,777,037

    (51.69) 1,541,235 (51.45) 743,042 (51.42) 280,513 (51.67) 517,680 (51.36)

    Female 496,514,346

    (48.26) 12,878,491

    (48.31) 1,454,534 (48.55) 701,879 (48.58) 262,359 (48.33) 490,296 (48.64)

    Source: Census of India 2001. Note: Figures in parentheses are percentages

    This table shows that out of 1,028,737,436 persons in India - 532,223,090

    (51.74%) were male and 496,514,346 (48.26%) were female ; 26,655,528 persons

    - 3,777,037 (51.69%) were male and 12,878,491 (48.31%) were female -

    belonged to Assam; 2,995,769 - 1,541,235 (51.45%) were male and 1,454,534

    (48.55%) were female - belonged to Barak valley ; 1,444,921 - 743,042 (51.42%)

    were male and 701,879 (48.58%) were female - belonged to Cachar district;

    542,872 - 280,513 (51.67%) were male and 262,359 (48.33%) were female -

    114

  • belonged to Hailakandi district and 1,007,976 - 517,680 (51.36%) were male and

    490,296 (48.64%) were female - belonged to Karimganj district.

    It can be inferred from the data that all the three districts viz., Cachar, Hailakandi

    and Karimganj have the similar male - female sex ratio in the country as a whole

    and Assam state have but in all the districts females form a little greater

    proportion than their male counterparts.

    Table 4 shows that out of 1,028,737,436 persons in India, - 742,490,639

    (72.17%) were in rural area and 286,246,797 (27.83%) were in urban area ;

    26,6555,528 persons - 23,216,288 (87.10%) were in rural area and 3,439,240

    (12.90%) were in urban area - belonged to Assam; 2,995,769 - 2,676,447

    (89.34%) were in rural area and 319,322 (10.66%) were in urban area - belonged

    to Barak valley ; 1,444,921 -1,243,534 (86.06%) were male and 201,387 (13.94%)

    Table-4: Population of Barak Valley by rural - urban in 2001

    India

    Assam

    Barak Valley

    Cachar

    Hailakandi

    Karimganj

    Population 1,028,737,436

    (100.00) 26,655,528

    (100.00) 2,995,769 (100.00) 1,444,921 (100.00) 542,872 (100.00) 1,007,976 (100.00)

    Rural 742,490,639

    (72.17) 23,216,288

    (87.10) 2,676,447

    (89.34) 1,243,534 (86.06) 498,787 (91.88) 934,126 (92.67)

    Urban 286,246,797

    (27.83) 3,439,240

    (12.90) 319,322 (10.66) 201,387 (13.94) 44,085 (8.12) 73,850 (7.33)

    Source: Census of India 2001. Note: Figures in parentheses are percentages

    115

  • were in urban area - belonged to Cachar district; 542,872 - 498, 787(91.88%)

    were in rural area and 44,085 (8.12%) were in urban area - belonged to

    Hailakandi district and 1,007,976 - 934,126 (92.67%) were in rural area and

    73,850 (7.33%)) were in urban area - belonged to Karimganj district.

    Table-5 shows that out of 1,028,737,436 population in India - 828,133,636

    (80.50%) belonged to Hindu , 137,850,816 (13.40%) belonged to Muslim,

    19,546,011(1.90%) belonged to Sikhs, 4,114,950 (0.40%) belonged to Jain,

    23,660,961 (2.30%) belonged to Christian and 15,431,062(1.50%) belonged to

    others ; 26,655,528 - 17,296,455 (64.89%) Hindu, 8,240,611(30.92%) Muslim,

    22,519 (0.08%) Sikh, 23,957 (0.09%) Jain, 986,589 (3.70%) Christian and

    85,397 (0.32%)) other communities- were in Assam; 22,995,769 - 1,580,660

    (52.76%) Hindu, 1,362,114 (45.47%) Muslim , 765 (0.03%) Sikh, 1,970 (0.07%)

    Jain, 45,476 (1.52%) Christian and 4,784 (0.16%>) other communities - were in

    Barak valley; 1,444,921 - 886,761 (61.37%) Hindu, 522,051 (36.13%) Muslim ,

    628 (0.04%) Sikh, 1385 (0.10%) Jain, 31,306 (2.17%)) Christian and 2,790

    (0.19%)) other communities - were in Cachar district; 542,872 - 223,191

    (41.1 1%) Hindu, 312,849 (57.63%) Muslim , 9 (almost 0.00%) Sikh, 82 (0.02%)

    Jain, 5,424 (1.00%) Christian and 1,317 (0.24%) other communities - were in

    Hailakandi district and 1,007,976 - 470,708 (46.70%) Hindu, 527,214 (52.30%)

    Muslim , 128 (0.01%) Sikh, 503 (0.05%) Jain, 8,746(0.87%) Christian and 677

    (0.07%)) other communities - were in Karimganj district;

    116

  • Table-5: Population of Barak Valley by religion in 2001

    India

    Assam

    Barak Valley

    Cachar

    Hailakandi

    Karimganj

    Population

    1.028.737,436

    (100.00) 26,655,528 (100.00) 2,995,769 (100.00) 1,444,921 (100.00) 542,872 (100.00) 1,007,976 (100.00)

    Hindu

    828,133.636

    (80.50) 17,296,455 (64.89)

    1,580,660 (52.76) 886,761 (61.37) 223,191 (41.11) 470,708 (46.70)

    Muslim

    137,850,816 (13.40) 8,240,611 (30.92)

    1,362,114 (45.47) 522,051 (36.13) 312,849 (57.63) 527,214 (52.30)

    Sikh

    19,546,011 (1.90) 22,519 (0.08) 765

    (0.03) 628

    (0.04) 9

    (0.00) 128

    (0.01)

    Jain

    4,114,950 (0.40) 23,957 (0.09) 1,970 (0.07) 1.385 (0.10)

    82 (0.02) 503

    (0.05)

    Christian

    23,660,961 (2.30)

    986,589 (3.70) 45,476 (1.52) 31,306 (2.17) 5,424 (1.00) 8,746 (0.87)

    Other

    15,431,062 (1.50) 85,397 (0.32) 4.784 (0.16) 2,790 (0.19) 1,317 (0.24) 677

    (0.07) Source: Census of India 2001 and www.wikipedia.org Note: Figures in parentheses are percentages.

    This data shows that in the population of Barak valley Hindus were the largest

    majority (52.76%) followed by Muslims (45.47%) and small minorities of

    Christians (1.52%) and others formed 0.26% which includes Sikhs and Jains etc..

    Thus Hindus and Muslims together form almost 98% of the population in this

    valley while Cachar district is dominated by Hindus and Hailakandi and

    Karimganj districts had larger Muslim population than Hindu.

    Table-6 shows that out of 26,655,528 population in Assam - 14,324,016 (53.74)

    belonged to General category, 7,196,993(27.00) belonged to OBC category,

    1,825,949 (6.85%) belonged to SC category and 3,308,570 (12.41%)) belonged to

    ST category; 2,995,769 - 1,786,115 (59.62%) General, 808,858 (27.00%) OBC ,

    378,443 (12.63%) belonged to SC and 22,353 (0.75) belonged ST - in Barak

    valley; 1,444,921 - 827,926 (57.30%) General, 390,129 (27.00%) OBC , 208,235

    117

    http://www.wikipedia.org

  • (14.41%) belonged to SC and 18,631 (1.29) belonged ST - in Cachar districrt;

    542,872 - 336,225 (61.93%) General, 146,575 (27.00%) OBC , 59,251 (10.91%)

    belonged to SC and 821 (0.15) belonged ST - in Hailakandi districrt and

    1,007,976 - 601,964 (59.72%) General, 272,154 (27.00%) OBC , 130,957

    (12.99%) belonged to SC and 2,901 (0.29) belonged S T - in Hailakandi districrt.

    Table-6: Population of Barak Valley by Category in 2001

    India

    Assam

    Barak Valley

    Cachar

    Hailakandi

    Karimganj

    Population 1,028,737,436

    (100.00) 26,655,528

    (100.00) 2,995,769 (100.00) 1,444,921 (100.00) 542,872 (100.00) 1,007,976 (100.00)

    Gen 499,966,394

    (48.60) 14,324,016

    (53.74) 1,786,115 (59.62) 827,926 (57.30) 336,225 (61.93) 601,964 (59.72)

    OBC* 277,759,108

    (27.00) 7,196,993

    (27.00) 808,858 (27.00) 390,129 (27.00) 146,575 (27.00) 272,154 (27.00)

    SC 166,655,465 (16.20)

    1,825,949 (6.85)

    378,443 (12.63) 208,235 (14.41) 59,251 (10.91) 130,957 (12.99)

    ST 84,356,470

    (8.20) 3,308,570

    (12.41) 22,353 (0.75) 18,631 (1.29) 821

    (0.15) 2,901 (0.29)

    Source: Census of India 2001. Note:l. Figures in parentheses are percentages.

    2.* Presumed to be 27% as accepted by reservations.

    Government of India for purpose of

    This data shows that Barak valley had largest proportion of General category

    (59.62%) followed by OBC (27.00%) , SC (12.63%) and ST (0.75%) categories.

    The same trend had been noticed in all three districts.

    3.1.3. THE SAMPLE

    The students on the rolls of class Xll in Senior secondary (+2) schools i.e.,

    Kendriya Vidyalayas, Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalayas, State Government Higher

    118

  • Schools , Provincialised Higher Secondary and M.P. Schools and Affiliated/

    Permitted General Colleges in the Barak valley form the Universe for this study.

    A 25% sample of the institutions offering this level of education was selected for

    the collection of data. The sampling procedure was essentially random but some

    institutions were deliberately included in addition to the sample selected through

    the random procedure. This was done to include all types of institutions in all

    areas of the region such as Kendriya Vidyalayas, Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalayas

    and Girls Higher Secondary Schools. A census of the students in class XI1 in the

    sample institutions was taken for the collection of data. The distribution of the

    respondents by sample schools is given in Appendix I. The survey for the study ,

    to collect the requisite data was made during 2008-2009.

    3.2. TOOLS USED

    Data was collected through the use of a schedule, developed by the investigator

    which has items to collect information on the respondents' socio-economic back

    ground and their educational and occupational aspirations and reasons for their

    choice of the streams that the students were in. A copy of the schedule is attached

    as Appendix 2.

    The information collected through the schedules was supplemented with a

    personal interview with the respondents, administration and teaching staff of the

    institutions in the sample.

    19

  • 3.3. TECHNIQUES OF DATA ANALYSIS

    Data was tabulated according to requirements of the research questions.

    Standardized proportions, measures of central tendency and dispersion were used

    to analyse the data and to draw inferences from it. income data was subjected to

    difference of means analysis to compare the different subgroups.

    120