CHAPTER 3

IMPACT OF CYCLONES

Tropical cyclone is regarded as the most destructive meteorologicalphenomenon that ravages life and property, especially over the coastalbelt, through storm surges and extremely strong winds at the time oflandfall. It has been evident that mortality associated with tropicalcyclones is considerably high especially in the Bay of Bengal region partlydue to socio-economic conditions of bordering countries.

Variations in the atmospheric circulation manifest themselves asmeteorological, hydrological and oceanographical phenomena.

CHART: 1 1ST TO NTH - ORDER EFFECTS OF CLIMATE ON THEENVIRONMENT AND SOCIETY

(Source: Climate and History p.p.21)

These may have a direct (first-order) effect on biophysical processesimportant to man, including crop and animal survival growth, marine andother aquatic life, and the activity of micro - organisms capable of causingdisease in plants, animals and man. In addition, they may have effects onaspects of the purely physical environment which is of importance to

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human societies - for example, causing rivers to flood. These directbiological and physical effects may have economic or social (second-order)significance, affecting food and raw material supplies derived fromagriculture or animal husbandry; human health; the performance ofmachines (such as industrial and food processing mills) driven by windand water; transport and communications; and military and navaloperations. Depending on their magnitude, these effects may ramify intothe wider economy and society (third to nth-order). For example, foodshortages may (in association with other factors) lead to disturbances inthe society which in turn may help to undermine political systems1.

Damages depend on the size and intensity of the storm, thepopulation, coastal topography, and character of the economy of the areaaffected. Some of the very densest human settlement has taken place incoastal areas which lie in the general paths of tropical cyclones and thestorms rank high among the natural forces in the amount of destructioncaused to human activities and to ecosystems.2 Certainly the mostsignificant factor is the strength of the storm itself.3 The effects of tropicalcyclones are the impacts that tropical cyclones have on the areas theymove to. The main destructive impacts include heavy rain, strong wind,large storm, surges and at landfall. The most significant effects of a tropicalcyclone occur when it crosses the coastlines, making landfall. After thecyclone has passed, devastation continues in the area. Damages caused byhurricanes can be divided into three categories:

i) Wind damageii) Storm surgeiii) Inland freshwater flooding.

1 M. J.Ingram, G.Farmer, T. M. L Wigley, Past Climate and their Impact onman:a review, Climate and History,( New York: University of Cambridge,1981,)p.21.

2 F. White Gilbert, Natural Hazards – Local, National – Global( London: OxfordUni Press. 1974.) p. 256.

3 K.Lutgens Fredrick, J. Turbuk Edward, The atmosphere an introduction tometeorology II Ed.( London.:Prentice, Hall International, 1979.) p.54

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TABLE: 5 CLASSIFICATIONS OF CYCLONIC STORM ANDCORRESPONDING WIND SPEED AND STORM SURGE

Scale no.Category

Central Pressure(millibars)

Winds(km/hr)

Storm surge(meters)

Damage

1. 980 119-153 1.2 – 1.5 Minimal

2. 925 – 979 154-177 1.6 – 2.4 Moderate

3. 945 – 964 178 – 209 2.5 – 3.6 Extensive

4. 920 – 944 210 – 250 3.7 – 5.4 Extreme

5. < 920 > 250 75.4 Catastrophic(Source: India Meteorological Department)

Impact of Wind damages

Wind damage to structure is approximately proportional to thesquare of the wind speed. Although wind damage is perhaps the mostobvious of the categories, it is not directly responsible for the greatestamount of destruction. This is not to say, however, the wind damagecannot be significant. Wind pressure, or the dynamic forces caused bystrong winds moves over or around an irregular portion of a building likea roof. This may cause roof fracture and at times, the outward collapse ofcertain walls and glass openings. Strong winds can damage or destroyvehicles, buildings, bridges, and other outside objects, complicating effortsto transport food, clean water, and medicine to the areas that need it.Tropical cyclones often knock out power to the people, preventing vitalcommunication and hampering rescue efforts4. Furthermore, the damagecaused by tropical cyclones to buildings and dwellings can result ineconomic damage to a region, and to a Diaspora of the population of theregion. In addition, the strong winds can create a danger of flying debris.The storm of 24th September 1818 had materially injured the southwardside of the Government Bank; all the windows had been blown out andbroken to pieces and other damages also were done to the windows.5

4 Guide lines for Design and Construction of Buildings and structures in Cycloneprone Areas, Structural Engineering Research Centre, CSIR campus, Taramani,Chennai.p.p.8-11

5 Public consultation, dated 17/11/1818, Vol No. 459 No.56, 57, p.p 3532-3534.

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TABLE: 6 CYCLONE SEVERITY OR DAMAGE POTENTIAL SCALE FORINDIAN SEAS:

Category

MaximumWind Velocitymeasured in

knots

Details of possible damages and associatedsurge and Central pressure

1. Less than 35 Little damage to pucca structure, slight damage to thatchedhuts, roofing, No surge, or minimum surge less than 0.5 metreCentral pressure greater than 990 hpa.

2. 36 to 75 Slight damage to pucca structure, Branches of trees fall offthatched huts damaged. No damage to structure and surgeheight has than 1.5 metres and inundation only less than 1k.m. central pressure between 990-980 hpa.

3. 76 to 115 Considerable damage. Roofs blown off in thatched huts andtitled houses. Big trees uprooted and tall iron towers twisted.Tidal waves may range between 1.5 to 3 metres. Coastalinundation up to 5 km Central pressure between 980-960hpa.

4. 116 to 155 Severe damage to very strong structure. Building collapse orget damaged. Huge avenue trees uprooted and big girderstwisted. Surge height greater than 3 metres and inundation inthe Coastal area can extent upto 10 kms. Central pressurenormally between 960 – 940 hpa.

5. More than 155 Near total destruction, total chaos with possibility of nosurvivors. Surge height greater than 6 metres. Coastalinundation can reach up to 20 kms. Central pressure less than940 hpa.

(Source: Vayu Mandel, July-December 1998 P.P.116)

Impact of surge damages: A heart rending impact of the AndhraCyclone is depicted thus:

“A wave twenty feet high…And our future grounded….Heapes and heaps of corpses, the rest-all living-deadEach face of a silt of sorrowsEvery cell a cell of painEvery village is a violent seaEvery heart is in flames.”

ANDHRA JOTHI - 4 December 1977,(After the Andhra cyclone of 1977)

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Since storm surge is defined as the rise of water beyond what wouldbe expected by the normal movement due to tides, storm surge ismeasured using tidal datum, with the assumption that the tide predictionis well-known and only slowly varying in the region, subject to the surge.Since tides are a localized phenomenon, storm surge can only be measuredin relationship to a nearby tidal station. Topography of the land surface isanother important element in storm surge extent. The land lies less than afew meters above the sea level and are at a particular risk from stormsurge inundation. Surge can be measured directly at coastal tidal stationsas the difference between the forecasted tide and the observed rise ofwater. The waves at Madras have been measured 10 feet in the 1877cyclone. The storm surge, or the increase in sea level due to the cyclone istypically the worst effect from land falling tropical cyclones, historicallyresulting in 90% of tropical cyclone deaths. The relatively quick surge insea level can move miles/kilometers inland, flooding homes, drowninghumans and livestock, eroding beaches and embankments, destroying,increasing salinity, reducing soil fertility, polluting drinking water, andcutting off escape routes. The storm surges and winds of hurricanes maybe destructive to human-made structures, but they also stir up the watersof coastal estuaries, which are typically important fish breeding locales.

Impact of floods

Floods are the results of the disturbances in nature’s equilibriumwith regard to hydrological cycle by the acts of human interference in thecatchments of the rivers.

In India every year there are floods in some part of the country.It causes extensive damage to crops, houses, public utilities, humans, andother living creatures. Floods lead to extensive soil erosion causingsecondary soil resource degradation. There were many occasions in whichflood damage was significant with respect to loss of resources and life inthe country. The total area affected and the population affected hasrapidly increased compared to the early years, due to two reasons

(i) rapid increase and increased total population and

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(ii) utilization of extensive land area for different purposes,including agriculture. Apart from these reasons, the nature ofclimate system itself is varying in its behavior. 6

Floods are conformed mostly to the valley of the rivers. Forexample, Tambraparani has been frequently flooded, the most serioushaving occurred in the years 1810, 1827, 1867, 1874, 1877, 1880 and 18957.The storm which occurred on the 20th and 21st October 1846 at Madras as aresult of flooding commenced about midnight on the 20th and began tosubside about 3 am at Popham’s Broadway and the Beach, up to the Northwall. On the 21st the water rose in some parts to nearly knee deep inAdakall street. It is said to have been up to a man’s hip. At 10’o clock onWednesday morning the water rose above the road over the bridge atMarine Vella. The bridge was carried away. In Chepauk, Allee Bagh andChitty were flooded on 11 October 1846, at night about knee deep nearMeeran Shahil Garden, the water rose nearly 4 feet. The Mount road wasflooded near Waller’s stables. In Meersaibpettah, it was about 3 feet deep,in other parts the flood was less. The flooding commenced on the burstingof the bund of long tank near Teynampett about 4’0 clock on Wednesdaymorning at Royapet near Saitpett, Noochee Koopum and in the vicinity thewater was knee deep. The vicinity along the Ellumboor or Spur Tankburst between 2 and 6’o clock in the morning at the lower part of thePoonamallee Road, Ellumboor and all about the Scotsh Church and bottomof Pantesm road. The Hospital was flooded and all the patients wereendangered and removed by the police. The flooding commenced duringthe night of Tuesday at 11’o clock; Mudayvakkam Tank burst in two placesand soon after, the water rose in some places, breast high. VeeasurpadyTank burst in several places at about 11’o clock in the night. ThePeramboor Tank burst about the same time and the water rose about5 feet.

6 P.M.Thiyagarajan, “Impact of cyclone disaster on soil Resource andmanagement strategies” Proceedings of National Interactive workshop onCyclone Disaster Management. (Coimbatore :Tamil Nadu AgriculturalUniversity,2002) p. 92.

7 H.R. Pate, Tinnevelly District Gazetteer, Part II (Madras: Government Press1917 ) p.254

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In Karaikal, the flood waters encroached the agricultural lands anddisrupt agricultural operations, besides causing considerable damage tocrops. Pondicherry and Karaikal faced torrential rains which gave rise tofloods on two occasions on 6th November 1884 and 16th to 19th December1884.

The cyclone of December 1884 proved to be the worst. The rainwhich came in a heavy down pour on 16th December did not stop for threedays. Flood water entered many houses in the town, and stored foodgrains were lost. Even Pondicherry town, it was feared, would besubmerged. For three days no assistance could be sent to Villiyanur wherethe people had taken refuge in the Sri Thirukameshwarar Temple 8. Theresidents of the town were forced to drink well water. Repeated attemptswere made by the Governor to proceed to Villiyanur. The Mayors ofVilliyanur made splendid efforts in the face of insurmountable difficultiesto save life and property as much as possible. But still there were a fewinstances of loss of life, especially of those residents living on the banks ofriver Gingee. The loss of crops was colossal. The governor sent an urgentmessage to Paris asking for immediate and massive aid for the floodravaged colony. The bridges over Chunnambu river and Ariyankuppamriver on the Pondicherry-Cuddalore road collapsed. Ferry service was,therefore, operated across these rivers until the bridges were repaired. InKaraikal, floods encroached upon agricultural land preventing it fromgrowing full crops. The occurrence of such floods year after year points tothe necessity to provide for permanent flood control. The emergences ofresidential colonies in many low lying areas around Pondicherry havebeen instrumental in raising the level of those areas. Many of the fieldchannels and drains which existed in these areas have lost all their traces.The outlets of channel like Uppar, carrying the flood waters to the sea,were not always open. The channels and drains did not receive muchattention resulting in accumulation of silt. The rain floods emanating fromSaram, Sittankudisai, Dhanvantarinagar, Orlayanpet, Venkatanagar,Kamarajnagar, and Tattanchavadi were also called for properchannelisation..9

8 C.A. Francis, ed.Gazetteer of India –Union territory of Pondicherry Vol. 1 ,1982p.532

9 Ibid. p.534

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In the south Arcot district, unexpected fresh water came down fromthe Vellaur river on the 22nd March 1887 and carried away three courses ofthe body wall of the Pelandorai anicut, which was being rebuild, as it hadbreached in December 1884. This flood also caused a good deal of damageat the Shatiatope anicut in the way of carrying away ring bunds andstopping the work. This flood caused much inconvenience and delay in theprogress of the restoration works. At Tiruvadi, Vanamadevi,Tiruvendipuram anicuts were considerably damaged..10

The principle event of the year was the heavy floods of Septemberand October 1874. At first sight it appeared that the injury done by thesefloods was universal, but on closer examination it transpired that therewas a considerable variation in their extent, and consequently the damagesustained in the various districts, and in fact that it was only in Kistna,Nellore, Cuddapa, Chingleput, North and South Arcot, and Tinnevellydistricts that extraordinary effects resulted in the damage done herehowever, was almost unprecedented. The disasters which almost alloriginated from the overflowing of rivers, whose banks, natural orartificial proved insufficient or strong to retain them.

Flooding causes water logging in coastal and flood plain areas. Theterm water logging refers to a condition of short or long term waterstagnation caused due to changes in landscape, developmental activitiesand silting up of riverbeds. The factors leading to water logging inirrigation are inadequate drainage, seepage and leaking, excess water,poor maintenance of drainage system, change in cropping pattern, ofwater logging crops and poor on-farm water management. Water loggingis also caused as a result of canal irrigation in areas adjoining agriculturallands, where subsoil water table steadily rises. Water logging conditionsare also caused in depressions. In most major cyclones the greatest loss oflife occurs from the flooding which follows cyclone rains. Damage tobuildings particularly in areas which are normally flood prone will usuallybe not as high as that caused by wind. Unusually high flood levels result in

10 Report on the administration of the Madras Presidency, during the year 1886-87, p. 137

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widespread property damage, damage to road and bridge works, cropsand drowning of livestock apart from the loss of human lives. Theirregular and high flooding in the river system results in major propertydamage and disruption to community activities. The channels and drainshave not received much attention, resulting in accumulation of silt.

Inundation

Standing water can cause the spread of diseases and destruction oftransportation or communications, infrastructure, hampering clean-up andrescue efforts.

The most serious drawback from which Tanjore suffers was the riskof damage from floods and cyclones. It has always been liable toinundations. In the earliest times, the Chola country was called the ‘land offloods’ (puyal nadu).11 The great king Karikala Chola busied himself inbanking up the rivers to prevent these disasters12. The devastation of atropical cyclone depends mainly on its intensity, size, and its impacts. TheTinnevelly district has been visited with heavy inundation with the rainsof 6th December 1810. The river valley was inundated, most of the mainchannels, many large tanks were breached, many lives were lost, morethan thousand houses were swept away. 13 For 3 nights and 3 days, thewhole country was under water. The loss of revenue must have been verygreat.14 The towns of Tinnevelly are always liable to such inundation,when in addition to full supplies from high freshes in the river, thechannels are swollen by extensive surface drainage. The disaster of 1827exceeded any that had occurred within people’s memory. In theSrivaikuntam and Tiruchendur taluks, the work of devastation was evenmore complete. The Assistant Engineer, who was at the time inSrivaikuntam, was marooned for three days in the gopuram of the local

11 Appendix (this inscription belong to first kulothunga chola A.D.1110-1114,taken from Mannadipattu kombiyun, Thirukanchi GangaivarashwararTemple,ARE No. 215, 1919)

12 Op.cit.,J.R.Hemmingway, Tanjore District Gazeetteer, Vol.I. 1906,p. 14913 Op.cit.,H.R. Pate, Tinnevelly District Gazetteer, Part II, p.25314 Board of Revenue Consultation, dated 7/1/1811,Vol.No.533, p.p 49-52.

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temple.15 On the occasion of the really high floods in 1869, the town wasflooded in the same way and until Tinnevelly and Kodagan Channels areprovided with head sluices, the danger is always liable to recur. On thepresent occasion it was increased by the bursting of tanks. The estimate forsupplying the Kadagon Channel with a head sluice has been sanctionedand an estimate for a head sluice for Tinnevelly Channel went in for nextyear’s Budget, When these head sluices are constructed, the town wouldordinarily be from the danger of flooding, for the sluices being closedagainst the river water, the channels could be able to carry off surfacedrainage.16 In March 1853 Tanjore was visited by a cyclone and heavyfloods. The Cauvery brought immense quantities of water, which swelledstill further by the heavy local rainfall which burst her banks in manyplaces. For someday water stood four to five feet over the high roads,destroyed all paddy that had just been reaped, drowned 175,000 people ,damaged over 41,000 houses and ruined over three million fruit trees.17OnMay 2, 1872, a cyclone visited the district and caused after the fall of 13.80inches of rains, an overflow of the tanks above the town of Vellore. Severalhundred lives were lost in the inundation which resulted and one suburbwas entirely swept away.

The cyclone of November 1869 exceeded all its predecessors inviolence. At Tuticorin the sea rose to the level of the road, damaging itconsiderably.18 On the other side of the river the floods carried away apart of the road to Tuticorin near Vallanad and a portion of the new AnicutChannel between Eral and Arumugamangalam suffered and the bankswere washed away. Breaches also occurred in 6 river fed tanks namelyKorkai, Nedungulam, Tambaneri, Pottukulam, Kalvoikulam, Viralperi,and Appenkulam.

Very heavy rainfall occurred all over the Arcot district on the nightof the 23rd on the 24th November 1874, and extraordinary floods camedown the Palar, the Poiney, the Cheyar and other rivers on the 25th and

15 Guide to the records of the Tinnevelly District 1796-1835. 27/11/27, Vol.4365,p.p.68-70.

16 Op.cit. H.R. Pate Tinnevelly District Gazetteer, p.25417 Op.cit. F.R. Hemingway, Tanjore District Gazeteer ,Vol.I , p. 15018 Board of Revenue ,dated 14/12/ 1874, No.3618, p.9624

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26th October 1874. In Palar, the flood commenced during the night of the24th November. The floods were at an unprecedented magnitude, at thePalar Anicut.

The water rose nine inches above the previously recordedmaximum, and at the Cheyar, the water was not less than 3ft above thehighest level previously recorded. 19 All the tanks in the district receivedan abundant supply of water. So much water was wasted from some of thelarger ones, such as Red Hill, Sholavaram, Chembrumbakum andMadurantakum tanks, etc. were discharging a large volume of water formany days together. The Palar, the Cheyar, the Corlittar and Nanavermrivers were in freshes frequently during the year 1874. The floods of thePalar extended to more than half a mile either side of the banks, and didconsiderable damage to crops in the villages bordering the river in thetaluqs of Madurantakam, Conjeveram and Chinglepet, necessitating togrant of large remissions under the head “Partial Crops” and “Cropsdestroyed by the floods’. Similar remission was also to be given inTrivellore, but on a smaller scale on account of the damage done by floodwaters of the Cortilliar river. The flood in the Coovam was very great, atKarotur 12.09 inches of rain were gauged on the 24th 1869 the water rose to108.94 or 3.24 ft. over the crest of the dam, it breached the new bankbeyond the North wing20.

The lower parts of the town of Tanjore were flooded to a depth of 3ft. by surplus of water from the Vadavar and many houses were washedaway. The Vadavar, a very dangerous river and a river unsatisfactory oneis regarded as a source of irrigation. It is dangerous because, in addition tothe supply it receives from Vennar, it has to carry the sudden and veryheavy floods to which the Mudallai Mulli “vari” (or Jungle river) thepublic works department had not yet succeeded in preventing theaccumulation of silt at its head. Many villages in Kumbakonam taluk weresubmerged by the floods in Tanjore and the water overflowing thedrainage channel Poyigaiyar was doing much damage to crops anddwelling. Going eastwards, there are fewer breaches to record the waterlevel. Thus in Mayavaram there was one breach of great consequence, and

19 Proceeding of Board of Revenue, 5/12 /1874, No.3538, p.p.9329-3520 Settlement of the land Revenue in the Madras Presidency, 1869, p.p. 3,4.

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this by the strenuous efforts of the Tahsildar, was finally closed on the 6th

December 1880. There has been 18 breaches in Negapatnam Taluk,distributed between Vetar, Kudivayar, and Yedayar, and the completedestruction of a village called “Muttam” by floods from the Vetar. All thepeople were however rescued in boats.

In Nannilam, 19 breaches occurred in the Vetar and the interruptionof communication between Thiruvorur and Mayavaram took place.67 breaches in the Mannargudi Taluk viz 17 in the Pamaniyar, 15 in theKoraiyar, 1 in the Vennar, and 1 in the Vellayai, 17 in other rivers, and16 in various tanks 12 breaches have been reported from TiruturaipudiTaluk. 21

Floods and inundation have been frequent. It occurs chiefly in thevalley of the Ponnainur, Vellaur, and Guddilam, the most notable years ofinundation being 1853, 1858, 1871, 1874, and 1880. The floods in theColeroon were unusually heavy in 1882. It breached its bank; and landsupwards of 100 villages in the Chidambaram taluk were submerged.Violent storms caused the rivers to rise rapidly and overflow its banks onboth sides, in consequence of which great damage was done to houses,property, roads and communication.

Effect of cyclone on social activities

The societal impacts are numerous and depend upon factors such ascyclone intensity, the impacted (topography and bathymetry), the localand regional economy, the state of development, communitydemographics, the status and integrity of physical and social infrastructureand household and community wealth, to list but a few. Second orderimpacts from disaster response actions and medical problems can occurdays to weeks after the event. The third order impacts from changes in taxrevenue and land use can occur months to years later. The deltas formed atthe mouth of the various river systems are heavily cultivated and denselypopulated. These people are poor and their housing and other buildingsare generally flimsy, un-engineered and thus are highly vulnerable. Whenconfronted with the treat of a tropical cyclone they are very resistant to

21 Board of Revenue, dated, 23/12/1880, No.1973, 22 p.p. 8582-85

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evacuation because they do not want to flee and leave behind their hardearned belongings.

The concept of vulnerability therefore leads to calculation of risk.Vulnerability and risks associated with hurricanes are related to threebroad factors: vulnerable locations and population pressures; poverty andaffluence; and environmental degradation. Large numbers of people livein the areas that are increasingly vulnerable. However, generally, the poorlive in the most marginal locations in disaster prone areas such asriverbanks, unstable hillsides, deforested lands, or fragile watercatchments. The societal infrastructure is becoming more sensitive toweather and climate extremes, which would be exacerbated by climatechange. The cyclone caused great devastation destroying buildings,making thousands of people homeless. There were health issues becausethe sewerage system was damaged, and sewer lines blocked andoverflowed, plus there was a lot of rotting garbage that caused diseases.Depending on the severity of the cyclone, social impacts vary. They caninclude:

The destruction of buildings, resulting in any number of peoplesuddenly finding themselves homeless

Loss of life and death. Financial trauma because of loss of homes and people becoming

worried that another cyclone will come and further damage. Loss of food supplies can lead to malnutrition, water contamination

could occur affecting the health of the people. People often have to leave the area which means they suffer the loss

of everything they have ever known - home, their possessions,sometimes pets, even some family members. This causesimmeasurable grief.

Livelihoods can be lost. The wiping out of businesses or agriculturalcrops means some families may be left without an income withwhich to even rebuild.

Human Adaptation to Climatic Stress

The relationship between climatic stress, economic and social lifeshould not be conceived as a one-way process. Man is a highly adaptiveanimal, capable of devising and deploying a wide range of technologiesand social strategies to cope with a wide variety of environmentalconditions.

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In view of this fact, and given the comparatively small range ofclimatic variations in historic times, it may be assumed that past humansocieties have to a considerable extent, had the potential to adaptsuccessfully to changes in climate. In the future, the scope of suchpotential may be increased by the development of sophisticated climatemodification technologies.

Conceptual model of the impact of climate on man and society,shows possible feedbacks through adaptive strategies. Uncontrolled effectsrefer to inadvertent or unplanned modifications of the biosphere and theclimate as a result of climatic stress or otherwise.

Thus the inter-relationships between climate and human societymay be conceived in terms of a two-way model involving elaboratefeedback mechanisms. Uncontrolled effects refer to inadvertent orunplanned modifications of the biosphere and the climate as a result ofclimatic stress or otherwise22.

CHART: 2 CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF THE IMPACT OF CLIMATE ON MANAND SOCIETY, SHOWING POSSIBLE FEEDBACKS VIA ADAPTIVESTRATEGIES

(Source: Climate and History, p.36.)

22 M.J. Ingram, G. Farmer, and T.M.L. Wigley, Past climates and their impactson Man: a review, Climate and History, (Newyork: Cambridge UniversityPress, 1981), p.36

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Human perception of climate

The study of human adaptations to climatic variations inevitablyraises questions about human perceptions of climatic phenomena. It is truethat adaptations or other responses may occur in the absence of any clearperception of the climate stimulus. It is sufficient that the effect of climaticchange, such as variations in the performance of crops, should be noted inorder for some adaptation or response to occur, whether in the form of acarefully thought out course of action or a more or less blind trial and errorresponse. It may be assumed that most adaptations to long-term climaticchanges (unless such changes manifested themselves in the form ofincreased variability on short time scales) must have occurred in theabsence of any clear perception of the peculiar change, since without theaid of systematic instrumented records such changes cannot be observed.However, short term climatic variations are more readily open to humanperception, and in the short run the accuracy of such perceptions and offuture predictions based on them will partly condition the degree ofsuccess achieved by attempted adaptations.23

Adaptation and Adjustment

This typology distinguishes between cumulative long-termresponses to natural hazards, called adaptations, and short-term responses,described as adjustments. Adaptation can be biological or cultural. Thereare a few well understood biological adaptations to climate (for example,body heat and evaporation control). But it is primarily through culture thathuman societies adapt to the many different climates that human beingsinhabit. Designing a house to resist a storm surge would be an adjustment;locating and organizing a community over a long period of time so that itshouses are beyond the reach of storm surge would be an adaptation.

An individual or group may, however, choose to apply as anadjustment a practice that long has been an adaptation elsewhere, as whena home owner builds a house flood-proofed with a design imported from adistant place. Adjustments are both incidental and purposeful. Incidentaladjustments are those actions that functionally serve to reduce

23 Ibid p.37

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vulnerability, although their origin is for a non-hazard-related purpose.Thus a community that restricts mobile home usage for taxation, socialclass or amenity purposes also lowers its vulnerability to tornadoes andwindstorms. Purposeful adjustments take three general forms: acceptinglosses and distributing their impacts in various ways; reducing losses bytrying to modify events or preventing their effects; and basic changes inlocation or livelihood systems. In actual practice, this range may not beavailable, especially to marginal social groups or areas. The problems ofstudying adaptation and adjustment are not those arising from differentterminology or categories. Rather they involve basic problems ofperception, function analysis, and social theory24

Psychology of the People and Frequency of Threat

Naturally, people who live in areas frequently threatened bycyclones develop different attitudes to those who live in areas threatenedonly occasionally. At one end of the scale, some frequently-threatenedcommunities develop a “We can take whatever comes” social attitude,which is usually based on soundly organized local emergency services anda better comprehension of the potential danger and interpretation ofwarnings. These weather changes and the fear aroused in these individualswho notice the approach of a cyclone of unknown severity, are the sourceof appreciable psychological effects. A disastrous storm may causeprofound economic and social demoralization in the damaged tracts andassociated areas. Many of the storms travel for thousands of miles,carrying vast amounts of latent energy from the lower latitudes intosomewhat higher latitudes, sometimes debris and many livingorganisms25.

The lives of many families in rural communities are entirelyassociated with the safety of stock, farming implements or fishing gearswhich receive first priority when cyclones threaten. Attention to personalsafety becomes secondary. In such communities there is a naturalreluctance to evacuate in order to attend to safety of animals and theirbelongings. The falling of the houses, although it occurred about 3’o clock

24 Climate Impact Assessment - Studies of the Interaction of Climate and Society,scope 27 p. 45

25 I.V. Tannehil, Hurricanes, Princeton University Press, 1956, p. 130

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in the morning, on 24th October 1818 the cutcherry servants with theirfamilies were under the necessity of abandoning them so suddenly thatthey could save nothing but the clothes they wore and they suffered muchdistress from the want of habitations. People not only lost their houses butalso food, clothing, utensils and other belongings which were swept awayby tidal waves.26

Prostitution

After a cyclone on 2nd May 1872 some four to five hundredunemployed Europeans and native sailors wandered into the town andwithin fifteen days the wards of the Lock Hospital in Black Town werefilled with infected European and East Indian common prostitutes27.

Coastal vulnerability

“Now when neither sun nor stars appeared for many days, and no smalltempest beat on us, all hope that we would be saved was finally given up.”

Acts 27:20 (Bible)

Cyclones can cause severe damage to the population living in andaround coastal areas. The most destructive force of a cyclone comes fromfierce winds. Many people are killed and injured when cyclonic windscause buildings to collapse and house roofs to completely blow away.Most common injuries are crushing injuries, spinal injuries, head injuries,fractures, lacerations, and contusions and abrasions. Cyclones also result inheavy flooding which may lead to drowning, diarrhoea and relateddiseases, vector-borne and rodent-borne diseases like malaria,leptospirosis, and skin and eye infections. There is heightened risk of thespread of epidemics in the post-cyclone phase. Human experiences ofcoping with disasters are best exemplified in the way the poor people copewith vulnerability. It may be stated here that though vulnerability is notthe same as poverty, the poor people are more prone to vulnerability due

26 Public consultation, dated,27/10/ 1818, Vol. No. 459. No. 47, 48. p. 3185.27 M. Sundara Raj, Prostitution in Madras, A study in Historical perspective,

(Delhi: Konark Publilshers Pvt. Ltd. 1993) ,p. 45.

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to external shocks like disasters. Poverty is the overriding issue, whichdepicts the interrelationship between socio-economic factors and disastershighlighting social phenomenon and individual-collective behavior inmitigating effects of disasters on the poor should be looked unto. As thecyclone is one of the most major types of disasters, risk assessment andvulnerability analysis both become important.

In this context, it is worth pointing out that the coastal people arevulnerable because they live in an extremely dynamic estuaryenvironment facing threats such as: cyclone, storm surge, land erosion,flood drainage congestion, salinity intrusion, drought, tectonic process anddeteriorating coastal ecosystems. Besides, there are also threats of climatechange and upstream land and water uses. These threats affect everyaspect of life and limit livelihood choices of the people. Thesevulnerabilities create a context of insecurity, which in turn, discouragesinvestments, limit economic activities and cause employment.

However, the socio-economic and environmental situations are thetwo most important factors, which are closely related in explainingpoverty. The very fact survival of the poor people over the centuries is atestimony to the adaptive behavior and survival contingent strategies. It isno doubt that cyclones are the greatest natural enemy of the coastal people.The risk hazard to disasters is deeply ingrained in the population of thecountry and they are aware that sooner or later disasters like flood, rivererosion and cyclone may affect their lives. Studies have consistently shownthat human experiences of surviving in disasters are best exemplified inthe way the poor people survive with vulnerability. In the absence ofmodern facilities it was deemed that islanders have certain indigenoussurvival strategies of their own. It was gathered that tactics like holdingand binding themselves to trees, looking for comparatively more safe anddependable places like embankments and polders, using floating itemssuch as timbers, roofs of thatched houses, straw piles and branches of

coconuts are the spontaneous survival strategies.

93

TABLE: 7 VULNERABILITY PARAMETERS

SCALE VULNERABILITYPARAMETERS (VP)

EXPECTED DAMAGE

1

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temple and a thousand yards of the big embankment there; and thenrushed across country, breaching nearly every tank in the south-west ofthe Zamindari; until the whole of that side of the district was covered withone wide sheet of water. The entire paddy crop was ruined during thecyclone of 1878. In many parts, they had to wade a foot deep feeling forthe road way with their sticks. The flood had three quarter of it in ruins,and the streets full of rubbish and filth and a pestilential stink all over theplace. The main road was cut to bits. If the road had not breached in somany places at the lower part of the town, the whole place would havebeen swept away. There were no beggars in the streets, but there wasmuch silent misery and people were sleeping where they could find a dryplace.32

The loss by way of damage to the population consists largely ofboatmen, fishermen, traders, and coastal people connected with them.People refused to evacuate because for two reasons, theft and property.The loss of human life caused by the fall of trees and houses were verygreat during cyclones. In general, the cyclone creates havoc throughoutthe coastal belt. During the cyclone, people not only lost their houses butalso food, clothing, utensils and other belongings, which were swept awayby tidal waves. In that situation drinking water also became scarce asponds and canals were submerged under saline water while hand tubewells became inoperative.

Consequently, diarrhea and jaundice broke out on a large scalethroughout the coastal area affected by the tidal surge and most of thevictims of the disease were infants and children. Besides these, farmersalso suffered heavily due to loss of standing crops, deaths of livestock andpoultry and intrusion of saline water into their lands. Loss of livestockresulted in the deficiency of ploughing animals, which badly affected riceand other vegetable cultivation. The suffering of the fishing communitywas severe. The fishermen were among the worst sufferers and had one ofthe highest death rates due to the cyclone. It was gathered that in everysevere cyclone, a large percentage of them lost their fishing boats andequipments and became totally dependent on relief. In general, poorpeople, especially the marginal farmers and landless labourers suffered

32 Revenue department, dated,23/12/1878, G.O. No2061

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more heavily than the non-poor. They were the ones who were unable tobuild houses, which could withstand the fury of the cyclones and tidalsurge. The marginal farmers and landless labourers not only lost theirhouses and belongings but also their jobs as farming, salt manufacturingand various other activities in which they were engaged came to a halt dueto the disaster. All these losses had an adverse impact on the nationaleconomy, which has been quite extensive and all these widespreaddamages occurred in all sectors of the economy and the Government.

One of the most ravaging natural disasters that mankind hasexperienced in modern times is cyclones. The death and destruction that itleft in its trail was not only an appalling shock to the whole world, but wasalso a traumatic experience, that will continue to haunt the people forgenerations to come.

A poisoned state of atmosphere

Where the inundation was of salt water, the effects were much moredisastrous. These consequences, the most serious of which were the almostentire destruction of the crops by the action of the salt water, theprolonged contamination of the atmosphere due to the slowness ofdecomposition in salt water, the temporary deterioration of the land bysaline absorption and the subsequent origin and rapid spread of epidemicsamongst the surviving population. The water of all the tanks on the seacoast was rendered either salt or brackish, while all vegetation in them wasdestroyed by the admission of salt water, and the accumulation ofcarcasses and debris in them made the water more impure than ever. Apoisoned state of atmosphere was added to bad drinking water, for thestorm-wave swept away everything before it, and the whole sea coast wasstrewn with the carcasses of cattle and human bodies. The tanks, the sea-shore were full of carcasses and corpses. No vultures were to be seen atfirst and the people, who have suffered a great shock from the cyclone,could not be persuaded to bury the dead bodies. The local authorities triedtheir best, with the small agency at their disposal, to bury or float away thecarcasses, but long before it could be accomplished the atmosphere wastainted, and so great was the smell that travelers passing along the road,kept their nostrils and mouth covered with their hands or dress. Salt water,

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too, accumulated in innumerable ditches and other low places from whichit was impossible to drain, and this added to the evil. A poisoned state ofatmosphere was added to bad drinking water, for the storm-wave sweptaway everything before it and the whole sea-coast towards the north wasstrewn with the carcasses of cattle and human bodies. The people, whohave suffered a great shock from the cyclone, could not be persuaded tobury the dead bodies.33 The water in tanks in many places was spoilt, andthe use of this water tended to decrease. Imperfect clothing, imperfect foodand imperfect shelter have in all probability added to the virulence of thedisease. The tanks for drinking water were only cleaned; the others werefilled with debris left by the storm wave.

In any post-cyclone situation, the immediate requirement is of food,water, shelter, sanitation and health care. Making unpolluted drinkingwater available to the people was therefore a priority concern. Unless thiswas done, diarrhea diseases, including cholera could be widespread. Thewater of almost all the tanks on the sea coast was rendered either salty orbrackish, Water sources including tube wells, open wells and villageponds were contaminated by sea water, animal and human carcasses.

Epidemics

Cyclones contribute to mosquito borne illness, and the floods causedby cyclones can lead to infection.

In the cyclone aftermath, three kinds of epidemics are possible-diarrhea (cholera, bacillary dysentery and gastro- enteritis), measles(among young children) and malaria. Since it was bound to occur almostimmediately, given the large- scale contamination of drinking water, thedisplacement of thousands of people. Action taken to control diarrheaconsisted of disinfection of water sources and distribution of waterpurification tablets among the public. However malaria cases occurs inlarge numbers only after two or three weeks of the cyclone, sinceanopheline breeding would be checked to a certain extent by thetemporary increase in the salinity of the water due to tidal waves polluting

33 Papers on the subject of the Bengal cyclone and storm wave of the 31st October-1stNovember 1876; and The subsequent cholera,(London, 1877),p.83

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inland steams and other water bodies. In the post-relief phase,reconstruction was obviously the important concern. This was so for alldepartments of government but more pressingly so for the healthdepartment which got no breathing time whatsoever between the disasterand the demand for health services. The large number of institutions thatthe department had in the area, including residential accommodation forthe staff, meant that it suffered greater damage. Repair and reconstructionof these building will obviously take time.

Another important issue was post-trauma disorders in thepopulation. The cyclone has been such a shattering experience for mostpeople and brought such tremendous loot of life and property thatpsychological disorders were only to be expected. Assessing the extent ofthis trauma and drawing up a plan to treat such disorders is an importantpart of the government’s responsibility. A daily list of death fromspasmodic cholera in the Northern Division of Arcot was reported to theGovernment..34

A cholera hospital was opened, and the distribution of medicines,and house to house visitation were organized for the treatment ofpremonitory diseases. The epidemic was traced southward into SouthArcot via Chingleput, but did not seem to have become violent till thearrival of the north–east monsoon, with which the cholera season usuallybegins in the Southern districts. Whether due to importation or endemic(the sanitary Commissioner inclines to the latter opinion), cholera, whichhad existed in the district throughout the year, broke out with great fury inTanjore in October, and at the close of the year the epidemic was stillincreasing, 2226 deaths being reported in December. The deaths fromcholera in the Tanjore District for four years were: in 1866—8978, 1867—8394, 1868—2508, 1869—4563.35 The new system of registration of vitalstatistics, and the arrangements for early and daily reports by the police onthe occurrence of outbreaks of cholera, which have been enforced sinceJanuary 1870 will, it is hoped, furnish in future trustworthy materials for

34 Board of Revenue Consultation dated 15/10/1818, Vol No. 805.A, p.p.11323-24

35 Report on the settlement of the Land revenue of the provinces under the MadrasPresidency, 1869-70, p.p.2,19.

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tracing the origin and progress of epidemics. New dispensaries have beenopened during the year, viz at Tritrapundi (Tanjore) and Edeyengoody(Tinnevelly).36 At this period where disease was so prevalent the fatalepidemic for some time appeared in the district.5636 When fever wasprevalent in Madurai and Dindigal , the collector under the advice ofMedical Board and the Governor in Council, employed eight nativemedical practioners to look after the sick, with an allowance to each of fivepogogus per mensem. The Governor in Council was pleased to grant theusual allowance to the assistant surgeon of the Zillah. Not less than 57,000persons had obtained relief by means of medical arrangements directedunder the authority of Government.

Tinnevelly District was suffering under the dreadful visitation of anepidemic disease. In the vicinity of the sea coast, a great deal of stagnantwater had accumulated upon the salt marshes, the exhalation of whichgenerates diseases.37 The diseases were at first prevalent in theSrivilliputur taluk later it travelled southwards, when it prevaileduniversally and spread to the sea coast. It committed great ravages in thePunjamahal and Calacaud taluks. “The people state that about 34 yearsago a similar unhealthy season prevailed but the effects were neither sogeneral nor so fatal.”

The North East monsoon was heavy and caused damage to a largenumber of tanks. The floods in the Palar were very high for a long time.Cholera broke out in Chidembaram, as is generally the case every year andthe deaths were numerous. There were a few cases in Virdachallam andother parts of the Sub-division, but not to any great extent. On the circuit,the vaccination service was rendered.

The latter part of 1858 cold unhealthy easterly winds, with a veryheavy monsoon, at one time, coming down in such torrents as to sweepaway bridges and breeching bunds of tanks, causing in several places, agreat inundation, and thus destroying crops just coming to maturity,

36 Report on the administration of the Madras Presidency, during the year. 1869-70 p.p152-153

37 Guide to the records of the Tinnevelly District 1796-1835, 6/4/ 11,Vol.3587, p.p122-8,

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thereby resulted in the rise of the price of grain, and also a vast number ofsicknesses. Cholera, dysentery, diarrhea, fever, and small box, wasprevalent nearly the whole year through. The more effectual spread ofvaccination was to make it compulsory: but natives were too apathetic andindifferent, to avail themselves of the protective power of vaccination anda great many of them were superstitious and prejudiced. Pamphlet onvaccination were circulated in Tamil, Telugu, and Hindustani all over thedistrict, with the hope of which it was hoped to convey to the nativeminds, a more correct idea of the objects of vaccination, and the greatbenefit to be derived from the protective power of this prophylactic. Thetotal number of persons vaccinated during the year was 16,531. Therewere 15,800 cases, reported to have been successful, 731 unsuccessful. 38

The subjoined statement exhibits the number of deaths thatoccurred during the year from the three principal causes- Cholera, Small-pox and Fever, as compared with its predecessor. The eight cases enteredunder the head “Cholera” has been ascertained to have been in reality. Thelarge increase in the number of deaths from fever is due to the unusualdampness of the country owing to heavy and constant rains. The feverstricken parts of the district were visited by the Hospital assistantsattached to the several divisional revenue officers and dispensaries, andmedicines were freely distributed to the patients with great benefit. Thetown of Vellore especially suffered from fever, no less than ten per mile ofthe inhabitants dying from that disease in the months of January,February, March and April of 1869. Medicines were distributed to all, andthe most active steps were taken to improve the public health

TABLE: 8 DISEASES CAUSED BY HURRICANE IN MADRAS ON 1869

Disease Fusly(1283) Fusly 1284 IncreaseCholeraFever

217,566

826,359

68,793

(Source: Settlement Report of North Arcot-1869)

38 Report of Vaccination , (Madras: Government Press, 1858.) p.p. 22-23

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During December 1895 the weather was considerably affected bytwo Cyclonic disturbances in the Bay. The increase in the number of bowelcomplaints in August, September and October may partly be attributed tothe damp and cloudy weather experienced during these months. Thegreatest number of Cholera attacks of the second outbreak also took placein August and September. During the year, 122 deaths from Choleraoccurred against 77 in the previous year. 82 deaths were registered duringthe first quarter, of these 68 occurred in January. The increase in thenumber of deaths over the previous quarter was owing to the outbreak ofCholera in the Government Lunatic Asylum at the close of the previousquarter, and to the occurrence of some fresh cases in and near Perambore,Cheklipalliam. There were 48 attacks and 36 deaths.39

The death from fevers numbered 6,265 or 13.8 per 1000 against 6128or 13.5 per 1000 in the preceding year. The largest number of deathsoccurred in August and September being 696 and 769 respectively. BowelComplaints, death from dysentery and diarrhea numbered 2204, against2392 in the preceding year, being 1536 from the former and 668 from thelatter which give the ratios of 3.3 and 1.4 per 1,000 respectively or 4.7together.

It was the report given by several local committee that thedisastrous effects of the Hurricane of 1846 had nearly undone all theiroperations in aid of the sufferers by the storm of 1846 and flood of October21st and as the weather continued wet and unsettled for sometime afterhurricane and much sickness prevailed in several districts, the work ofrelief beyond that which was offered to individuals was much retardeduntil the early part of January. From November to April the subcommitteehad been most active throughout their respective localities and statements.The native doctors treated a considerable number of cases of bowelcomplaints, fractures, wounds, contused wounds and a few of Cholera.The storm caused immense damage. In less than 3 months 8,000 personssuccumbed to the epidemic of cholera.

39 Administrative report of Madras Municipality 1895-1896. (Madras:Government Press, 1896), p.p.49-56

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The following guidelines were issued for observance - Anti cholerainoculations.

Cholorination of water sources Anti- typhoid vaccination Improvement of Environment Sanitation Chlorination of drinking water sources Avoidance of pollution of drinking water sources Fly and mosquito control Disposal of dead

Impact on cattle

On 6th December 1810, the rain began very heavily and continuedwith unprecedented violence. In Shermadevi taluk, one cow herd alonelost 300 sheep.40 In November 1814 a terrific storm from the south-eastswept over the neighbourhood of Madura town and destroyed nearly3,000 cattle and some 50 herdsmen41. Number of cattle belonging to Ryots,travellers and merchants had perished and a great proportion of themwere swept away by the waters of the tank, which bursting their banks,flooded the country in their vicinity during the cyclone of 1836.42 29 cattledied from the violence of the storm near Fort St.George and part of BlackTown. 22 cattle died in government houses, Chepauk, up to Mount Roadand down the Ice House road to the sea.

TABLE: 9 CATTLE DAMAGES

Divisions IDivision

IIDivision

IIIDivision

IVDivision

VDivision

VIDivision

VIIDivision

Total

1826 1 43 7 7 84 10 1521846 29 22 139 21 241 22 485

139 cattle died in Royapettah, Veenauagum pettah, Teynampet andAlwarpet from the sea along the Tea House Road and Nuksha Tannahalong Mount Road to boundary and along the boundary to the sea. 11cattle died in Chintadrypettah, Narasingapooram, Nungambakkam,

40 Guide to the Records of the Tinnevelly District, 18/12/1810,Vol.3586,p.p.286-70.

41 W.Francis Madurai District Gazetteer Vol.1, Madras, 1907,p.p.16642 Board of Revenue Consultation, 17/11/ 1836, Vol. No. 1540, No. 57, 58,

p.16654.

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Hurkottahkovil and Chetpet from the General Hospital gate of thePoonamalee road to Government House Bridge, 261 cattle died in fromthe Bridge near General Hospital Gate up to Poonamallee road toAmjeekarray and along the boundary to Cochran’s Canal and thence alongthe canal to Bridge, 22 cattle died in Koorkapettah, Washermenpetta,Vateran Battatian lines Royapuram, Sinjeeveroyanpettah, Tondiarpettahan immense number of cattle and sheep were destroyed during 1853.Over 75,000 cattle and nearly 100,000 sheep and goats were drowned. 43

Four hundred bullocks were carried away by the channels intoChembarambakkam. In Chingleput District the irrigation works sufferedconsiderable damage from the cyclone of 1872 and from the heavy floods.The mortality among cattle was great during 1874-75. Exposure to theinclemency of the weather in North Arcot, and South Arcot, and lossesduring the cyclone of May 1874 seem to have been the causes of the greatincrease of mortality in the district.44 50,000 cattles died in Salem.45

Following measures have to be taken as soon as warning for impendingcyclones is received. The shifting of the animals to a safer place. The levelof the mound has to be higher than the ground level. Once the location of acattle mound is identified, efforts should have made to raise the groundlevel appropriately. Dismantled building materials and excavated materialcan be dumped at the cattle mound. The primary requirement is a highground level for the cattle and if possible a suitable roof may be provided.Deaths numbered 710,153 in 1873-74, showing an increase of 202,850against the 1872 cyclone. Exposure to the inclemency of the weather inArcot and loses during the cyclone of May 1874 in Coimbatore and Salemseem to have been the causes of the great increase of mortality in thedistricts. In North Arcot-9312, South Arcot-36372, Tinnevelly-20392,Coimbatore-16296, Salem- 103988.46

43 F.R. Hemingway, Tanjore District Gazeteer ,Vol.I ,1906, p. 15044 Report on the administration of the Madras Presidency, during the year. 1874-75,

p.22745 Report on the administration of the Madras Presidency, during the year. 1872-73,

p. 139.46 Report on the administration of the Madras Presidency, during the year 1874-

1875, p.227

103

A disaster will affect various parts of the community in differentways. For example, disasters have a greater financial impact on people oflower socio economic status. Although a household on a lower incomemay spend less in total terms than a wealthier household, they are likely tospend a higher proportion of their income on recovery. Therefore,disasters may impose a greater social impact on those with lower incomes.Similarly, a small business is likely to feel the impact of a disaster muchmore than a multi-million dollar company.

Impact on infrastructure

Seldom has a cyclone occurred without inflicting damage and otherstructures. The damage ranges from blowing off of roofs in low-riseresidential and industrial building to complete collapse of tall structures.

Semi engineered structures suffer moderate to severe damage whichessentially depends on the maintenance of the building. Tiles are blown offduring heavy gale winds. Marginally engineered structures also suffermoderate to heavy damage as the detailing at various locations is notsatisfactory. The types of materials used and methods of constructionadopted also play an important role. Engineered structures, particularlythe industrial structures, covered with asbestos metal sheet roofing sufferdamage due to improper anchorage, and consequent deficiencies in thebuilding develop. Well engineered structures such as lattice towers andtransmission lines collapse due to under-estimation of the cyclonic windspeeds, improper joint detailing, local defects, accidental overloading,foundation failures, and design inadequacies. Wind loading on buildingand structures are dependent not only on the wind characteristic, but alsoon the flow pattern around them. Hence the shape of the building and itslayout also play an important role in determining the vulnerable locationsand mechanism of failiure.47 On the 6th December 1810, the rain began tofall very heavily and continued with unprecedented violence.

47 Guide lines for Design and Construction of Buildings and structures in Cycloneprone Areas, Structural Engineering Research Centre, CSIR CAMPUS,Taramani, Chennai.p.p.8-11

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The calamity had caused the loss of life of many lives and more than1000 house are reported to have been destroyed. Considerable damage hadbeen sustained by the court House during the cyclone of 24th September181848. The Court houses were not provided for the use of the Judges till1836. More than a thousand houses swept away, 500 being destroyed inAlvartirunagiri alone. Many of the inhabitants suffered severely for wantof habitation, their house having been entirely washed away. Most of themain channals, many large tanks including Srivikuntam, were breached,and for miles the river –valley was an unbroken sea of water.49 In theyear 1827, nearly 7,370 houses were destroyed in Tinnevelly by thecyclone.50 During the hurricane of 30th October 1836, the town sufferedconsiderably, the houses unroofed in a great deal, the house of masterattendant of police, which belongs to the Government suffered much, thewindow frames of the rooms torn off, and storm waves have brought theout break in other ways too. Houses everywhere were blown down andwashed away, and people built up temporary sheds, suffered fromexposure in the cold reason. St. Thomas Mount cantonment and VelloreCantonment were damaged by the storm.

TABLE: 10 ABSTRACT OF CASUALTIES CAUSED THE HURRICANE INMADRAS ON 25 NOVEMBER 1826 AND 21ST OCT 1846

Divisions

InjuredBridges Houses

1826 1846 1826 1846I Division - - 31 121

II Division - - 388 176III Division - - 301 284IV Division 3 5 1 459V Division - - 87 152VI Division 1 1 35 884VII Division 2 - 227 349Total 6 6 1183 2425

(Source: Public Department Consultation Vol.No.802, 17 Nov.1846 )

48 Board of Revenue Consultation, dated,21/9/ 1818 , Vol. 803, No. 53, 54.p.p.10377-78

49 Op.cit, Pate H.R., Tinnevelly District Gazetteer, Part II, p.53.50 Guide to the records of Tinnevelly, 5th Feb 1828 ,Vol. No. 4365, p.p.112-21.

105

The cyclone of 1846 had a great impact on building in Madras.51

The destruction of the property was considerable during the Hurricane of1853. Most of the labourers huts and other thatched buildings were blowndown. At Tranquebar, two houses were destroyed and the Custom housewas destroyed by the rising of the sea. The houses of the paper makerswere destroyed and all their property entirely lost. The violent hurricanedestroyed more than 41,000 houses in Tanjore.52

On the 6th November 1871, a cyclone swept over the eastern portionof the Tanjore District causing damage to the company’s workshops andother building at Negapatam. May 1872 cyclone had its impact in all theareas, many huts sank into the mud in Madras.53

Four persons died in the villages of Metatangal in the WandiwashTaluk when a house collapsed during the cyclone of 1874.54 In the town ofGudiattum 39 houses situated on the banks of the rivers, and some housesin the villages of Pungodu and Tokkancolam in the Arcot Taluk situatedclose by the Palar, were washed away by the flood. The loss of privateproperty on the whole appears to have been very great.55 The policeInspector reported that 200 houses suffered. But from subsequent reportsreceived from the Tahsildar it appears that 245 fell ill while 172 were moreor less injured.

Over 200 houses, mostly of the more unsubstantial dwellings of thepoor, were destroyed in the town. In 1877, 5th December hundreds ofpersons Tinnevelly were rendered homeless in the night and the Collectorwas confined helpless to his bungalow with the flood very nearly up to thebasement floor. 56

During the storm of 23th and 24th November 1880, Vadavur River inTanjore District flowing eastwards inundated pukolam and levelled to theground a whole street of thatched houses. Seven breaches in the Ananda

51 Public Department Consultation, dated, 17/11/1846 ,Vol. No. 80252 F.R. Hemingway, W.Francis, ed.,Tanjore District Gazetteer,Vol. I. 1906,

p.15053 Report on the administration of the Madras Presidency, during the year 1872 –

73. p. 13954 Board of Revenue, dated 26/11/ 1874, 9188.55 Board of Revenue, dated 5/12 1874, G.O No. 3.532., p.p.9329-3556 Op.cit. H.R.Pate, Tinnevelly District Gazetteer, Part II, p.254

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Cauvery and another breach on the same day in the Vadavar, entirelyswept away the houses of the cultivators and all pariah huts inSunguntidal. 700 houses and huts had been destroyed in the town ofTanjore. In Nagapattanam taluk the whole village of Muttam was sweptaway, though the inhabitants managed to save themselves in boats. Thecollector described the disaster as a ‘complete and utter collapse of thewhole delta. Kumbakonam was flooded on the 26th November 1880 andmany huts were destroyed.57

The floods have caused sad havoc in Cuddalore. Many houses havebeen washed down and there are many in a very tottering condition.In Bandipoliem, many huts had come down.58 In Pulicat, more than one-third of the houses were totally wrecked, while more than one-fifth werepartially destroyed; thus more than one half of the houses suffered. InPulicat lake and sea coast, most of the houses are mere mud hovels thatany strong wind was bound to wreck, and as was to be expected the tiledhouses had been damaged, the miserable mud dwellings fell in largenumbers 483 being totally and 238 partially destroyed out of a total of1,125. Fifteen villages, houses, more or less, suffered. 1000 housesincluding huts had been destroyed during the cyclone of 1884.59 In thecyclone of 1899 of Nagapattnam, the town was wrecked. Most of the treeshaving been leveled or destroyed, hundreds of native huts and houses hadcollapsed, or unroofed. Most of the houses of the Europeans had beenmore or less damaged, but as they have tiled roof, they were not in quitesuch a dangerous state.

The Acting Chief magistrate and Superintendent of Policesuggested the authorities to take measures to prohibit the poorer classesfrom building their huts in low and unhealthy condition and order thepeople to rebuild their houses in regular streets-sufficiently broad toensure proper ventilation and cleanliness. Many of their situations werelow, swampy, and liable to be flooded. “The huts, which previous to thishurricane, had been rebuilt were almost all on their former confusion andmany of them were actually flooded a second time, while nearly all have

57 Op.cit J.R. Hemmingway, Tanjore District Gazeetteer. Vol. I. 1906,p. 15158 I.bid. p.15359 Proceeding of the Madras Government, Board of Revenue,dated 20/11/1884,

No.3956. p. 3.

107

been thrown down by the Hurricane, and the swampy nature of theground on which they stood.”60

The roofing materials used commonly in coastal regions of India arethatch, clay tiles, asbestos cement sheets or metal sheets, and reinforcedcement concrete. Roof thatching was widely used in India to covermajority of rural houses, and temporary and simple structures in urbanareas. They are readily available, low in cost, easily laid and do not requirespecial tools or skills. Generally thatched roofs will be blown away duringthe cyclone. This is due to their low dead weight, poor strength andinadequate fixing of the cladding materials to rafters. The fixingrequirements should be based on the magnitude of uplift forces which arelikely to be experienced by the roof cladding. Failure of roof cladding dueto uplift is one of the common failures and hence the value of weightdensity of the roof cladding material plays a significant role in resisting theuplift forces. Clay tiles are extensively used in public buildings as well asin the residential buildings. Heavy damages were caused to tiled roofing.Mud walls are mostly used for houses and small sheds with thatchedroofs. Mud walls have very poor strength, several damage to mud wallsoccurs due to erosion and loss of strength of saturated mud walls by waterdue to the accompanying rains under cyclonic weather conditions. Severaltypes and method of construction are adopted in different parts of SouthIndia depending upon the local conditions such as type of dwelling,characteristic of soil, extent of erosion from rainfall and vulnerability tofloods and cyclones. Owing to their poor material strength particularlywhen exposed to moisture/ water, they are severely battered by cyclonicwind forces which are accompanied by torrential rains. Failure of a largenumber of brick masonry walls has been observed during all the cyclones.Collapse of masonry walls in many of the industrial structures has led toprogressive collapse of the roof and other components of the building,when adequate connections between the wall and the roof system are notprovided. The damage caused by tropical cyclone to building anddwellings resulted in economic damage to the region.

60 Public department consultation 8/12/1846, Vol. No. 804, No.22.

108

Communication

It is close proximities of the borders of Coromandel coast that isserved well by a network of roads, railways, canals, waterways andthrough a comprehensive network of post and telegraphs and telecomsystem. Power communication and transport systems are the worst hitafter the occurrence of any cyclone. These include damages to life-linestructures such as roads, culverts, bridges, electric and telephone poles andtransmission line towers. The failure of roads and bridges are due to theerosion of pier foundation.

Roads

Madras really began to grow in the last years of the 18th century,after the defeat of Tipu Sultan. One of the chief roads making organizationin the Madras Presidency during the early days was the Corps of Pioneersattached to the army. In 1845 a Trunk road department was set up underthe charge of a Superintendent of roads. Roads were little developed in thewhole of south India during the first 200 years of Madras. During 1856there were only 3,400 miles of road in the Presidency. A great extension ofroads in the Presidency took place in the second half of the 19th century. Inthe early days British maintained the roads through military department.The total length of roads in the city is over 350 miles; two-third of themmetal led; one-third is tarred or asphalt – painted and small bits cement –concreted. The monsoon also caused considerable damages to roads.

The destruction of so many bridges has, seriously interrupted thecommunication of the district, but the roads damaged during the Cycloneof 1869, Trinnevelly were especially Trunk road No.2 and the line betweenPalamcottah and Tuticorin recently completed. These are so seriouslydamaged that all heavy traffic was interrupted. The destruction of avenue-trees on these two lines has been considerable.

The rain continued from the night of the 15th to the night of the 17th,causing breaches to several tanks and channels; a portion of road (No. XV),between Streevilliputur and Sautoor, was damaged, and also a portion ofthe road between Streevilliputur and Rajapalium to the South. During thestorm the sea rose over the narrow strip of the Island and caused the fall ofthe building. On the road from Palamcottah to Tuticorin, the three miles,

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26 to 28, were much damaged, and again at the edge of theTambrapoorney, the road has been completely swept away, between theKeelakal Channal (taken off the Murdoor Anicut) and the left bank of theriver. At Satoor, on the main Southern Road (No.II), between Madras andTinnevelly six out of the seventeen arches of the bridges across Vypaur aregone. The destruction of the Shunmooganadi bridges of seven arches inthe Pulney talook, Madras District were destroyed. The road leading fromDindigal to the Coimbatore District was destroyed. 61

Almost every road in the Arcot district has been more or lessdamaged by Arcot cyclone 24th November 1874.62 In the storm of 22nd

December 1880, 19 breaches occurred in the Vetar and interruption ofcommunication between Tiruvarur and Mayavaram and an importantroad running to Tiruvadi was widely breached in several places. Thedestruction of roads all over Tanjore District has been very great.

Avenues have suffered a good deal due to the Cyclone of 23November 1884, the road leading from the North Trunk Road toSunnambukkam was almost entirely destroyed. The road betweenChidambaram and Ammapet was breached, and water was everywhere,due to 10th November 1884 storm. Two breaches had been reported in theShevalai road up to date, that is one near Mudalur and another nearAnevari. The floods caused serious damage to road leading to Ulunderpetfrom Tirennunallur road between the factory and Thruvennanallur village.For about 150 yards in length the road were cut off. Bandy (vehicle) trafficwas also stopped.63

Roads play a vital part in economic development, opening upremote areas, stimulating the growth of agriculture as well as industry,besides facilitating communication. As an essential element of thetransport infrastructure, they contribute along with the railways, thenation’s life line. The destruction of avenue-trees on these roads has beenconsiderable. The destruction of so many bridges had, seriouslyinterrupted the communication of the district. The roads and bridges weredamaged very badly due to heavy rain.

61 Public Works Department,dated, 10/12/ 1869, G.O.No.387962 Proceedings of Board of Revenue,,dated, 5/12/1874, No.9329-3563 Proceedings of Board of Revenue, dated,14/12/1874 , No.3618, p.9772

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Bridges

In the early times, smooth movement of traffic was hindered by anumber of unabridged streams that intersected the roads at several place.During monsoon, they were in torrents and in summer, they weretreacherous sand heaps. In both ways hindrance to traffic was created.To overcome this, bridges and culverts were constructed, across the roadsto facilitate fast movement of traffic.

Some bridges were constructed with the help of the funds raised bythe local citizens. The seven arched bridge was constructed across the riverchittar near Gangaikondan in 1844.The cost of construction was borne bythe zamindar of Ettayapuram. In 1867 funds were collected from the publicfor the construction of a bridge across the river Tamiraparani. CertainBridges in the vicinity of Madras sustained serious injuries during thestorm of 1846. The Cossapettah Bridge was of 3, built on the road leadingfrom Cossapettah to Vepary. The Munroa’s Bridge has 5 arches in goodcondition but the parapet wall at the west side of the North end wasseriously injured and fell down to the length of about 60ft, part of the roadat that part was cut up to the depth of about 7 or 8 feet, and a draintowards the end of that parapet wall of 2 arches was partly washed awayto the length of about 8 or 9 feet. The Subscription Bridge at the mouth ofthe Coovum River was destroyed during the heavy fall of rain64.

The Bridges and roads in Kilpauk were destroyed by the storm of1846 and inundation. The torrent at that place from the bursting of the longTank and other causes was extremely violent. Some of the Bridges alongthe beach Road between St. Thome and the Fort required immediateattention. The Road from Adyar to Royapettah was impossible from fallentrees 65

The bursting of tank of the Nungambakam tank as it was at the timewith the long tank forming a lake several miles in circumference, muchhave occasioned a sudden and enormous rush of water into the Coovamriver causing a torrent. The Military Board will be pleased to reportwhether the Bar at the mouth of the Coovum River will be opened at theproper time to admit of the discharge of the water into the sea.

64 Public consultation, dated 27 /10/1846,Vol. No. 802, No. 543.65 Public consultation, dated 10/11/1846, Vol. No. 803, No.36 Microfilm 468

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The Masonury Bridge and the road near Kilpauk had been greatlydamaged during the hurricane of October and November of 1846. Theconstruction of road work between Trichinopoly to Salem, from theColeroon Bridge to Moosery, and a bridge across the Iyaur River weredestroyed by the storm of March 1853. The bridge across the Trimulrajenriver on the Road from Combaconum to Tanjore, was destroyed by thehurricane of March 1853, a new one was built with estimation of Rs. 2,794consisting of 3 arches of 30 feet.66 The Bridge across the Codamoorty riveron the road from Trichinopoly to Coimbatore was destroyed by thehurricane of 1853, when the arches were blocked with stacks of strawcarried down by the flood.

Five arch bridges at Tirukurangudi, in the Nunguneri Talook, havebeen swept away. Tirukurangudi bridge was submerged and destroyed,and the town itself under water. Unusual heavy rain, especially from the16th to the 18th November1869 crossed several villages near theTambrapoorney to be flooded, and considerable damage was done tochannels, tanks and roads. On the night of the 16th the river rose above theparapet walls of the bridges between Ambasamudram and Kalladacurichi,when five out of the nine arches were carried away. This bridge wascompleted in the year 1840, the funds having been subscribed by the nativecommunity. At Madura there was steady rain for two days the 16th and17th, but with no violence, the fall in twenty four hours being 2¾ inches.On the 18th Vaygay river rose very rapidly, and attained a height that hasnot been known for many years. The tappal (post) did not cross the riverfor four days; and there being no ferry boats, traffic was entirelysuspended. Unprecedented storm and destructive rains on the night of 16th

caused immense loss of public and private property. The bridges inPalamcottah, Ambasamoodrum, Satur and Trikurangudi were severelydamaged. There have been terrific breaches in all the irrigation channelsand tanks. Peshanam crop in danger, roads breached and communicationimpeded throughout the district.67

66 Selection from the Records of the Madras Govt. Report on Public Works 1854,No.XXV (Madras: Government Press, 1855) P.P.132.

67 Public Works Department, dated,4 /12/1869, G.NO.3821.

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The most important bridge in the Tuticorin district, which spans theTambraparani between Tinnevelly and Palamcottah, built in 1842 by thelast Soolachanam Moodellier, is a perfect wreck; four of the middlearches were completely swept away and two others in imminent danger.The destruction of this fine work was a public calamity; all heavy trafficwas stopped, and the continuous streams of travellers were ferried acrossthe river in boats procured from Tuticorin. Nine arches of the seventeenarch bridges over the Vypur, on road No.2 at Sattur, was swept away,four arches out of eleven of the bridge at Ambasamudram over theTambrapurni had gone, and not a vestige remained of the small bridgeover the Nambiar at Tirukurungudi. It was only completed in June.68

The status of saline embankments and Roads are always associatedwith culverts and bridges, as the terrain demands, to make them fit for usethroughout the year. While selecting a bridge site, factors like

(i) permanency of the channel,(ii) presence of high and stable banks(iii) narrowness of the channel and average depth compared to

maximum depth, straight reach of the stream (both upstreamand downstream) of the proposed site, freedom from islandsboth (both upstream and downstream), possibility of right-angled crossings, good approaches, etc., are to be givenadequate attention so as to keep them functional in the eventof damage to coastal areas of the country.

Railways

Railways are the most important means of inland transport. Itcontinue to be the backbone of the transport system, carrying most of thetraffic in heavy goods like coal, food grains and ores and the passengertraffic over long and medium distances. The first concrete proposals forconstructing railways in India were made in 1845. In the same year acompany named ‘The Madras Railway Company ‘was formed to buildrailways in this Presidency. In Madras there was no natural watercommunications. Railway communication was superior to these methods,and the Government itself urged to establish Railway in India.69

68 Public Works Department, dated 16 /12/ 1869, G.O.No. 3939.69 Edward Davidson, The Railways of India, (London, 1868), p.326

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On 8th July 1845 a Madras Railway Company was formed in Londonto construct a Railway line from Madras to Arcot otherwise known asWallajahnagar in 1849 .The line was laid in the south in 1853, linking Arcotwith Royapuram. In 1873 the original Central station was opened forpublic. The cyclone of May, did great damages in Chingleput, South Arcot,North Arcot and Salem. A portion of the line of railway was swept awayin North Arcot. The year 1874 was memorable for the occurrence ofnumerous and very extensive damages caused by cyclones. The damagedone was widespread, but the floods from which the railways suffered thegreatest injury seemed to have been caused by extraordinarily heavy rains.In some instances the disastrous effects of heavy rainfall were aggravatedby the bursting of large reservoirs.70

Considerable damage was caused the part of the south-west linebetween the 133rd and 145th miles, by the breaching of several tanks nearTripatore in consequence of the cyclone of 1872and heavy rains. The floorsof a 15 feet arch in the 135th mile, and of a 20 ft arch in the 144th mile, werecarried away.A considerable damage was caused to the short line betweenAraconum and Coojeveram, forming part of the South Indian Railwaysystem.71

The force of the wind was powerful enough in the southernquadrant to overturn a train on the South Madras Railway at theChingleput Tank, about 27 miles south of Madras. The accident occurredat 9-50 pm. According to the guard’s statement, the carriages were turnedover very slowly, and none of the passengers were seriously injured. Fromthe time of the accident up to 1-30 am it blew so hard that it wasimpossible for the guard and passengers to leave the shelter of thecarriages.

The flood caused much damage to the different lines of railways.With regard to the Madras Railway the western limit area affected thesouth west line between the Tripatore and Samulputty stations; on theBanglore branch the 204th mile near the Cadgoody station; and on the

70 S.R.N. Badri Rao, Road Rail Transport, Annamalai University, 1941,p.241.

71 Report on the administration of the Madras Presidency, during the year1872-73, part I, p. 139.

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north-west line the 234th mile midway between the Tadputri and RoyalCherro stations. Upon the South Indian Railway the only portion of theopen line which suffered the same branch between Arconum andCongeveram, but the works under the constructions on the Madras andCuddalore were considerably retarded by the rains. Over this area therainfall during September and October seems to have averaged more than30 inches, and this was after unusually severe rains during the earliermonths; in most places the soil was saturated and the reservoirs filledbefore the September rains began to fall. It has been calculated that thecost repairing the damages was of great value.

On the night of the 6th May 1874 a bridge near the VaniembadyStation, South-West Lane, Madras Railway, was carried away by thebursting of tanks On the same date a bridge of four 15 feet arches near theMailputty Station, South-west Line, was so seriously damaged as to needreconstruction. The Palar river runs close to the line at this point and thebridge spans an irrigation channel which was unprovided with aregulating head, the consequence being that in heavy floods it is chargedwith a large quantity of water. The immediate cause of the injury was alarge stack of straw which was lodged against the bridge. On the 17th

September 1874, a 6 feet culverts in the 204th mile, near the Cadgoodystation on the Bangalore Branch, was washed away and the bridge of five30 feet girder openings was constructed, and traffic resumed within twelvedays. On the 28th September 1874 considerable damage was caused to theSouth-West Line between Jollarpett and Samulputty Stations by thebreaching of overlying tanks. The floors of several minor bridges werewashed out, but the works themselves stood. On the 24th, 25th, and 26th

October 1874 the large bridges over the Cheyaur, and Pennaair rivers onthe North-West Line, and over the Gooriattum River on the South-WestLine, sustained very extensive damages. Several minor breaches occurredon the North-West Line between the 71st and 108th miles, but no masonryworks were seriously injured, and this portion of the line was made goodwithin three days, and traffic resumed as far as Rajampett, 130 miles. Uponthe 24th October 1874 considerable damage was caused to the line betweenArakonum and Conjeveram, on the South India Railway by heavy floods.In the 3rd mile the wing walls and flooring of a bridge of two 14 feet girderopenings were carried away, and at the Cortilliar Bridge, where the water

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rose to the bottom of girders, the approaches sustained some injury. In the6th and 7th the bank was breached in many places, and the 14th mile abridge of three 14 feet girder openings was entirely destroyed. Thedamaged works were repaired temporarily, and traffic resumed on the 14th

November 1874. The line between Nagapatnam and Erode enjoyed thatimmunity from flood damages which it has always possessed. In January1875, the Chief Engineer of the Madras Railway Company proceeded toEngland to confer with Sir John Hawkshaw, the consulting Engineer inLondon, has to the means to be adapted in order to prevent recurrence ofthese disasters.

In two of the drainages crossed by the line, the flood was backed upby the railway bank to prevent the injury of private property and theimminent danger to the way and works. The provision of rough stonebreach aprons, wherever floods are possible and the drainage beds areother than rock has already been requested The breaching of the Northernextension by the flood water on the 17th and 18th May 1877 owing to a greatdownfall of rain during storm lasted for many hours. Temporary line atPonar River 106 miles, Northern extension of south Indian Railway waswashed away by flood. Trains running to Villapuram and Punruttiarrangements made for mails. Railway from Trichinopoly, Tanjore toMadras via Cuddalore was breached at Budalur on the west and little onthe north east of Tanjore.

The maximum flood appears to have been at formation level and thedamage is said to have been caused by the breaching of several large tanksto the west. The bridges and culverts all stood well and sustained nodamage. Engineer was appointed to repair these breaches and by the aid ofa ballast train and a large force of coolies, he was able to reopen thecommunication by the 2nd December. The work was pushed with all theenergy possible, but could not make rapid progress owing to incessantheavy rain, which not only prevented the coolies from working, but madethe new embankment into such a state that slips took place on severaloccasions when the line was apparently ready for traffic again72.

72 Public Work department, dated 25/9/ 1877 ,G.O . No.449R

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The continuous heavy rain on the night of the 20th and during thewhole of the 31st November 1880, caused the river to rise over thetemporary Gingee bridge in the bed of the river. Traffic was interrupteduntil the 10th December, previous to which the flood had so far subsided asto enable the temporary road to be restored. On the 29th November a veryheavy flood came down the railway embankment on the 168th and 169th

miles between Shiyali and Antandavapuram stations, and slightlydamaged a 10 feet girder bridge at 167/12, and totally destroyed a 6 feetrail girder at 168/1, breaching the line at the latter point for about 33 linealyards. The reconstructed bridges were strongly floored and the railwayembankment was well pitched with stone for some distance on each sideof the Vennar. If the Vennar banks are not and cannot be made strongenough to stand such floods the railways would be damaged more or lesson the occasion of every such outburst. (230/11) A three 12 feet archedbridge was washed away here on the night of the 21st November. Thisbridge had stood for about twenty years without any indication of itsbeing liable to the action of heavy floods. It is said that the bursting ofseveral tanks above the railway caused this damaged. Several villageswere washed away and some lives were lost in the flood. Wheeled trafficwas resumed here on the 28th November by means of a temporary bridgemade of sleeper piers and girders.73

The Engineer made detailed inquiries into all the circumstancesconnected with the different localities, and assured to guard againstdanger from floods in future. Assistant Engineers Nicholls, Bond, Ellis, F.F.Smith, and Spalding, had much exposure and anxiety during the period oftrial under review, and they took their zealous efforts by day and night torestore and preserve communication. Every one did his very best withunvarying good will and temper. The Inspectors also, as a rule, did theirbest in support of their Engineers during the cyclone of 21st November1880. An estimate was prepared for the flooring off all bridges.

In November 1884 very heavy rain fall, 32 inches in 4 days wasgauged at Cuddalore. The large rivers Palar, Gingee, Poniar, Gadilam, andParavanar burst their banks and overspread the valleys where the railwayscrossed in Cudd