Chapter 3

Early African Societies and the Bantu Migrations

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Development of African Agriculture

Sahara desert originally highly fertile region Western Sudan region nomadic herders, ca. 9000

B.C.E. Domestication of cattle ca. 7500 B.C.E. Later, cultivation of sorghum, yams, increasingly

diverse Widespread desiccation of the Sahara ca. 5000

B.C.E.

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The Gift of the Nile

Gradual, predictable flooding

Alluvial deposits support productive agricultural society

“Gift of the Nile”

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Early Agriculture in Nile Valley

10,000 B.C.E. migrants from Red Sea hills (northern Ethiopia) Introduce collection of wild grains, language roots of

Coptic 5000 B.C.E. Sudanic cultivators, herders migrate

to Nile River valley Adaptation to seasonal flooding of Nile through

construction of dikes, waterways Villages dot Nile by 4000 B.C.E.

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Impact on Political Organization

As in Mesopotamia, a need for formal organization of public affairs

Need to maintain order and organize community projects

Egypt: simple, local irrigation projects Rural rather than heavily urban development Trade networks develop

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Unification of Egypt

Legendary conqueror Menes, ca. 3100, unifies Egyptian kingdom Sometimes identified with Narmer Tradition: founder of Memphis, cultural and political

center of ancient Egypt Instituted the rule of the pharaoh

Claimed descent from the gods Absolute rulers, had slaves buried with them from 2600 B.C.E. Most powerful during Archaic Period (3100-2660 B.C.E.)

and Old Kingdom (2660-2160 B.C.E.)

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The Pyramids

Symbols of the pharaoh’s authority and divine status

A testimony of the pharaohs’ ability to marshal Egypt’s resources

Largest Khufu (Cheops), 2.3 M limestone blocks, average weight 2.5 tons

Role: burial chambers for pharaohs

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Relations with Nubia

Competition over Nile trade Military conflict between 3100 and 2600 B.C.E. Drove Nubians to the south

Established kingdom of Kush, ca. 2500 B.C.E. Trade, cultural influences continue despite

military conflict

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The New Kingdom

Few pyramids, but major monumental architectural projects

Engaged in empire-building to protect against foreign invasion

After New Kingdom, local resistance drives Egypt out of Nubia

Kingdom of Kush revives ca. 1100 B.C.E.

Invasions of Kushites, Assyrians destroy Egypt mid-sixth century B.C.E.

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Egyptian Urban Culture

Major cities along Nile River, especially at delta Memphis ca. 3100 B.C.E., Heliopolis ca. 2900 B.C.E.

Nubian cities include Kerma, Napata, Meroë Located at cataracts of the Nile

Well-defined social classes Pharaohs to slaves Archaeological discoveries in Nubia also support class-

based society Patriarchal societies, notable exceptions: female

pharaoh Hatshepsut (r. 1473-1458 B.C.E.)

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Economic Specialization

Bronze metallurgy introduced late, with Hyksos invasion

Development of iron early, ca. 900 B.C.E. Trade along Nile River

More difficult in Nubia due to cataracts Sea trade in Mediterranean

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Hieroglyphs

“Holy inscriptions” Writing appeared at least by 3200 B.C.E. Pictographic, supplemented with symbols

representing sounds and ideas Survives on monuments, buildings, and sheets of

papyrus Hieroglyphs for formal writing, hieratic script for

everyday affairs used from 2600 B.C.E. to 600 C.E. Greek alphabet adopted – demotic and Coptic scripts

Meroitic writing: flexible system borrowed from hieroglyphs, represents sounds rather than ideas

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Development of Organized Religious Traditions

Principal gods Amon and Re Religious tumult under Amenhotep IV

(Akhenaten) (r. 1353-1335 B.C.E.) Introduces sole worship of sun god Aten One of the world’s earliest expressions of monotheism

Death of Akhenaten, traditional priests restore the cult of Amon-Re to privileged status

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Mummification and the Afterlife Inspiration of the cycles of the Nile Belief in the revival of the dead

First: ruling classes only, later expanded to include lower classes

Cult of Osiris Lord of the underworld Power to determine who deserved immortality Held out hope of eternal reward for those who lived

moral lives Nubian worship of Apedemak and Sebiumeker

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Bantu Migrations, 3000-1000 B.C.E.

Bantu: “people” Migration throughout sub-Saharan regions

Population pressures Over 500 variations of original Bantu language

90 million speakers By 1000 B.C.E., occupied most of Africa south of

the equator

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Bantu Migrations, 2000 B.C.E.-1000 C.E.

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Bantu Religions

Evidence of early monotheism Deistic views as well

Prayers to intercessors, e.g. ancestor spirits Great variations among populations

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