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CHAPTER 3

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR SUSTAINABLE TANK

IRRIGATION SYSTEM MANAGEMENT

3.1 INTRODUCTION

In this chapter, a conceptual framework to implement the

restoration scheme of tank irrigation system for sustainable rural livelihood is

developed based on the reviewed literature in the field of tank irrigation

system management and impact of rehabilitation of tank irrigation system.

Sustainable development was defined in the Brundtland report ‘Our

Common Future’ WCED (1987) as “development that meets the needs of the

present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to

meet their own needs”. Subsequently, many authors have used the term

sustainable development for specific development activities like sustainable

agriculture, sustainable forestry, sustainable energy development, etc.

A single development may be considered successful if it is weighed

against its specific performance criteria. But to achieve sustainability, all the

different aspects of development should be considered simultaneously.

An integrated approach is essential for this study. Many research

organizations and individuals have defined sustainability with regard to

development in agriculture, forestry, land management, etc. The Consultative

Group on International Agricultural Research (TAC/CGIAR, 1988, cited in:

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Prinz, 1998) states that sustainable agriculture is the successful management

of resources of agriculture to satisfy changing human needs while maintaining

or enhancing the quality. Current irrigated agriculture could not be sustained

until there is an improvement in water conveyance system and upgrading the

irrigation efficiency with a drainage system.

The major deficiencies that influence the sustainability of tank

irrigation system are inadequate maintenance, reduction in storage capacity,

heavy seepage losses in the delivery system and poor water management

techniques. There is a pressing need to evolve and implement appropriate

strategies that management be sound on technical, social, institutional and

economic dimensions for sustainable development and management of tank

irrigation systems (Arumugam and Mohan 1997).

Farmers involved in implementing tank rehabilitation have to be

helped to meet their felt needs primarily and their utmost cooperation has to

be earned in carrying out rehabilitation program effectively. There are three

factors that qualify the sustainable development of a system, which are: (a)

survivability; (b) sustainability; and (c) efficiency [l/o]. Survivability refers to

the conditions under which a system yields net profits above a certain

minimum level. Sustainability indicates that if the demand increases then the

net profit must also be increased without causing damage to the system,

which results in the sustainable use of the system. Efficiency refers to the

quantity produced in relation to the input use (output/ input) (Arumugam et al,

1997).

The experience with watershed development under the new

participatory approach in India shows that the immediate results are positive

in terms of rise in water tables, crop yields, employment and income of the

participants (Rao, 2000).

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3.2 WATER RESOURCES

Irrigation tanks are one of the major water and common property

resources in Southern Peninsular India. Declination of irrigation tanks

threatens the agriculture productivity and water availability in the South and

South East Asia especially in Southern Peninsular India and Sri Lanka. The

literature on water resources of tank irrigation system identifies numerous

reasons such as socioeconomic, institutional and physical for the decline of

tank irrigation (Von Oppen and Subba Rao, 1980; Reddy, 1990; Reddy et al,

1993; Janakarajan, 1991; Reddy, 1996; Gireesh et al, 1997).

Historically, the decline in tank irrigation is linked with increasing

population density. Tank degradations can be reversed through appropriate

water conservation and management techniques, which enhance groundwater

recharge, agriculture productivity and poverty alleviation in the rural area in

India. These resources need rehabilitation which is given in a framework as

shown in Figure 3.1.

Tank rehabilitation options that can be used to restore to the

original standards should be given priority. Desilting is an important option.

However, as stated earlier in section 2.5, it has been observed that in a 10 year

cycle, for only 3 years the tanks reach full storage, for five years deficit

storage and for two years the tanks fail. Hence, desilting the tank fully is not

economical as the benefits of desilting will be for only three years with tanks

at full supply. Partial desilting can be done nearer to the lower sluice as well

as around the periphery of the tank water spread area (Palanisamy, 2006).

This type of desilting is suitable for system and non-system tanks. Most of the

tanks do not receive an adequate water supply and the chain systems of tanks

have been almost broken. Hence, there is an urgent need to revive the tank-

chains (tank cascade or chain of tanks) through appropriate modernization

strategies for improving the supply channels connecting different tanks.

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This highlight the needs for taking up modernization works at the

chain-level i.e. by considering the entire hydrological boundary as a single

unit rather than viewing individual tanks as separate entities for new

investment (Palanisamy, 2006).

Community wells should be installed in the tank water spread area to provide some supplementary irrigation to the non-well farmers during critical periods. Again, the farmer’s level of access to resources plays a critical role in the acceptability or appropriateness of the various technologies (John, 2002). If the land is a limiting factor to production, then practices that reduce the land area are unlikely to be embraced. If the labour is limited, then the gender division of labour and the timing of the various activities become critical to the adoption of technologies. And if capital is limiting by considering the traditional practice experiences of the farmers, experts and scientists could develop the appropriate technologies jointly with the people. Siltation over many years generally reduces the tank storage capacity. In the earlier years, farmers used to desilt the tanks using their bullock carts and manual labour with the aim of maintaining the tank storage as well as obtaining manure for their lands.

Presently, it is becoming increasingly difficult to desilt by themselves due to the lack of bullock carts and the reduced spirit of Kudimaramath (community repair work). The Government cannot perform the desilting since it is too expensive to desilt the entire tank capacity. And also, it is difficult to dispose of silts outside the tanks. Partial desilting that helps to restore the original (10%) dead storage could be attempted as part of tank rehabilitation options to increase non-irrigation benefits of tank water particularly in the non-tank-irrigation season. The recharging of wells could also be improved. Partial desilting can be done nearer to the lower sluice as well as around the periphery of the tank water spread area (Palanisamy, 2006). This type of desilting is suitable for system tanks and non-system tanks.

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Figure 3.1 Framework for tank irrigation system degradation issues

and appropriate management and conservation for

sustainable development

Problems of small water storage bodies like irrigation tanks, kulams etc,

Silting and non-maintenance of tanks

Chocking of supply channel

Deterioration of the traditional irrigation institutions Non-maintenance of tanks

Encroachment of foreshore area, catchment area and supply channel

Pollution from industries

Restoration of Water Bodies

Maintaining and repairing of tank bund, sluice and surplus weir and improving supply channel

Desilting of tank bed area

Proper maintenance of tank system through farmers’ participation after modernization and restoration

SustainabilityImproving water storage, increasing ground water level through recharge, preventing encroachment of tank bed area and supply channel etc Silting and non-maintenance of tanks

Social EquityEnsure equity, adequacy and reliability in

water supply.

Economic efficiencyHighest productivity both in agriculture and ecosystem, adequacy and reliability in water supply.

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Issues

Cause

Effect

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In many tanks the supply channels feeding the tanks are heavily

silted, and in several cases they are missing due to the combined effect of

both siltation and encroachment.

Restoration of the supply channels with original capacities will help

capture the run-off water to the tanks. Tank siltation is one of the major

causes for the reduction in the tank storage capacity. This is further

aggravated by deforestation in the tank catchment area, by encroachers for

firewood causing soil erosion during heavy rains. Hence, afforestation has to

be taken up in the catchment area. This is further aggravated by deforestation

in the catchment area, both by encroachers and tank irrigators to be

introduced in the tank.

As per the social forestry programme, the Forestry Department is

planting trees in the tank catchment and foreshore areas. In some cases, the

water spread areas of the tanks are also used for planting the trees and after 10

years the trees will be auctioned off. About 50% of the revenue from the

auction will be given to the local Panchayat (Village level administrative

body), which will be spent on tank and village improvement works.

Supply channel desilting helps to receive the water properly from the

river. Channel desilting also helps in getting the benefit by two ways. The

first one is during rainy seasons. Heavy flows coming from the river may

directly enter the tank and fill it up to its full capacity, which may help the

farmers to achieve high productivity. The recharge of groundwater may also

be at its highest level. The second is during non-rainy seasons. With the sluice

gates closed, water may stagnate in the channel, which can be used for

irrigation by gravity or by pumping. This may also help to recharge the

groundwater.

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3.3 STAKEHOLDER CONTRIBUTION FOR TANK

IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT

Conserved tanks and ponds will serve a long lasting multiple uses

supporting various communities including urban areas. Based on situations,

either conservation or development or both assume significance. The

challenges to conservation and development are technological challenges for

restoration, conservation and development, institutional challenges for

revival, conservation and development, and financial and human resources

challenges for revival and redefining the role of the state, research

institutions, resource institutions and NGOs and the local community

(DHAN, 2002).

The situation, therefore, calls for major changes in governance and

management, activism of the locals, research in engineering and tank fed

agronomy, funding by the governments and donors. The desired changes can

be brought about only when the various stakeholders are brought to a

common platform to share their views on the need for a sustained

management. Presently, the tanks have many stakeholders such as the

Irrigation Department, the Local Panchayats, the Revenue Department, the

Agricultural Department, Forest Department and the local people. The

functions of various stakeholders towards sustainable development of tank

irrigation system are highlighted as on Figure 3.2.

There are many stakeholders in the tank and tank related programs,

of which the Government agencies, farmers and technologists are important.

The Government officials, institutions and farmers should be invited for a

meeting to listen to each others views on the tank systems. The meeting

should focus on the status of tanks, tank fed agriculture, tank improvement,

tank administration and encroachment.

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Figure 3.2 Tank restoration schemes for sustainable management of

tank irrigation

Multi stake holder decision making for restoration of tanks

Technologist

Maximising Tank water Productivity

Techniques of groundwater recharge

Farmers Government

Status of tanks and its improvement needed

Past uses of tanksTank restoration and its need

Awareness Training

Performance support Performance evaluation

Changes in livestock economy, changes in housing facilities, changes in farms and house hold assets, growth of social institution, changes in farm and nonfarm activities, employment opportunities etc.

Productivity (yield) of land, value of land and livestock holding, family income and Employment

Social Development Economic wellbeing Environmental sustainability

Changes in groundwater table Changes in cropping pattern through improved groundwater table

Cause

Effect

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Based on these aspects, an enabling solution has to be decided.

Perspectives of technologists are important, which should get integrated in the

decision making to increase the farm productivity. Recent technologies have

been used to improve the tank irrigation and also they have been used for

maximizing tank productivity, groundwater recharge and other tank services.

Micro-irrigation encompasses drip and sprinkler technologies.

The intended framework considers three key areas as equally

important. Figure 3.2, presents the relationship among the three key network

of active stakeholders (Technologist, Government and Farmers), as well as

the three objectives to be achieved (social equity, economic efficiency and

environmental sustainability). The multi stakeholder involvement in decision

making is very important for achieving all the three objectives.

Different stakeholders are involved in tank irrigation and hence,

any decision towards the tank renovation program should be finalised after a

consultation among the different stakeholders. Encroachments and siltation in

waterspread areas and the supply channels, catchments degradation,

deterioration of the traditional irrigation institutions, improper water

management at farm level are some of the major problems confronting tank

irrigation in the State.

Restoration program is carried out before understanding the general

characteristics about tank system and perspectives of farmers, technologists

and the Government. Integration of stakeholders (Government, farmers and

technologists) in decision making for rehabilitation/restoration/renovation,

modernization and desilting etc., is very important for achieving long term

sustainability. Lacking of any one of the stake holder participation in

decision-making may lead to immediate short-term benefit, but it will lead to

long term unsustainability.

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3.4 RESTORATION SCHEMES OF TANK IRRIGATION

SYSTEMS

Managing tank irrigation systems is a complex phenomenon.

Therefore, its management requires a variety of physical, social and economic

policies and techniques, all aimed at minimizing the adverse consequences of

natural disaster events to improve and enhance the quality of life of the

community. Rehabilitation of tank irrigation systems results in an augmented

supply of irrigation water, better recharge of groundwater, improved quality

of drinking water, increased production and productivity, enhanced

employment opportunities and better well-being of the stakeholder

communities. For a sustainable tank irrigation system management through

development (restoration) programme that the restoration programmes should

be sound on environmental, social and economic dimensions. Any restoration

programme must start with identifying the problems of tank irrigation system

through perspectives of farmers, improvement of the tank water productivity,

groundwater recharge and other tank support services, which should be

collaborated by the perspectives of technologists and finally the government

should allocate the funds not only for infrastructure development but also for

institution building and awareness programmes (Deivalatha and Ambujam,

2010).

Now a complete rehabilitation is not possible due to the fact, that

tanks are very old structures. Certain limited components of rehabilitation

works like partial desilting of tanks, desilting of channels, tank bund

strengthening etc. may be possible to get the expected benefits of agricultural

productivity through increased groundwater recharge. However, the major

stakeholders involved to implement these restoration works have to be made

aware of the expected positive impact. Results of the these restoration works

being the benefit of environmental well being through increased agricultural

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irrigated land, socio economical benefit of food security, productivity of

yield and profitability of farm income and also the investment amount is

financially feasible, which are clearly indicated in Figure 3.3.

Figure 3.3 Restoration schemes for tank irrigation systems

Stakeholders involved in implementation of restoration schemes of tank irrigation

system

Stakeholders of Tank Irrigation System Water user groups, NGO, Technologists and Government officials

Restoration works like partial desilting of tanks, desilting of supply channel and tank bund strengthening etc.

Changes in Groundwater rechargeChanges in well water level Pumping duration of wells, Well yield Changes in irrigated area etc.

Changes in crop yield Changes in farm income Changes in income for landless labours by increasing employment opportunity

Increased water availability

Improved agriculture productivity

Socio Economic Impact

Food security Productivity of crop yield Profitability of farm income

Ecological Impact

Increasing irrigated cropping area and cropping intensity and fodder availability for protecting environmental well being byconserve the basic natural sources of agricultural land and rural water bodies

Financially feasibleInvestment scheme of tank irrigation System

Tank irrigation system management through restoration scheme for Sustainable livelihood

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3.5 IMPACT OF IMPLEMENTATION OF RESTORATION

SCHEME IN TANK IRRIGATION SYSTEM

For a successful and sustainable tank irrigation system

management, it should be protected from the issues of degradation and

maintained for a good production. It should involve the relevant stakeholders

in implementing the tank restoration schemes particularly the community

from problem identification to all levels of planning. It should give combined

benefit for a solution of the restoration project.

For a tank irrigation system to be sustainable through restoration

schemes, multidimensional impacts of ecological, social and economic

benefits all need to be assessed as explained in Figure 3.4. These

multidimensional impacts of the restoration scheme of tank irrigation system

project are studied in detail.

Sustainable benefits of technical measures for ecological impact,

social and economic measures for socio economic impact and economic

feasibility are also studied in detail and the factors indicating the

sustainability of each element are determined.

The conceptual framework outlined here can be applied to

developmental schemes of tank irrigation systems not only in Tamil Nadu but

also elsewhere in the world with similar situations, which will be explored

and explained in the following sections. The overall performances of tank

irrigation system developmental programme have been examined in the state

of Tamil Nadu. It is pointed out that tank irrigation system developmental

activities have made significant positive impacts on bio-hydrological aspects

such as surface runoff water harvesting, production and productivity of crops,

changes in cropping pattern and cropping intensity.

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Figure 3.4 Multidimensional impacts of tank irrigation system

restoration schemes

Multidimensional impact of Restoration schemes of tank irrigation systems

Technical Measures Social Measures

Changes in groundwater recharge

Changes in well water level Pumping duration of wells, Well yield Changes in irrigated area etc

Changes in literacy rate Changes in farms and house hold asset Changes in farm and nonfarm activities Employment opportunity

Ecological Impact

Increasing irrigated cropping area and cropping intensity and fodder availability for protecting environmental well being.

Economic Measures

Socio Economic Impact Food Security Productivity of crop yield

Profitability of Farm income

Changes in crop yield Changes in farm income Changes in income for landless labours by increasing employment opportunity

Increment benefit of crop farm income by cropping area, cropping intensity and crop yield

Investment amount of restoration schemes

Investment Appraisal techniques

IRR Benefit Cost Ratio Pay Back Period Benefit Cost Index

Financial Feasibility

Tank irrigation system management through restoration schemes for Sustainable rural livelihood

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These activities have shown significant positive impact on water

table, recharging wells and employment opportunities for rural people, food

security, water availability for cattle and other domestic purposes etc. The

overall economic impacts have been evaluated in terms of Net Present Value

(NPV), Internal Rate of Return (IRR) and Benefit Cost Ratio (BCR). There is

no single indicator to evaluate the success of tank irrigation system

developmental activities. Hence, a feasible approach may be to compare the

performance of a variety of indicators. Such performance indicators may

reflect the diversity of the project objectives. These include raising agriculture

productivity, recharging groundwater for irrigation and drinking, reducing

productivity of non-cultivable land, increasing cultivable land, creating

employment, promoting collective action and building or strengthening social

institutions.

3.5.1 Evaluation Measures for Tank Restoration Schemes

Technical measures: Some technical measures may include the changes in

groundwater recharge, changes in well water level, pumping duration of

wells, irrigated area, and additional area brought under cultivation and

protecting environmental well beings

Socio economic measures: Socio economic measures are used to evaluate the

restoration schemes of tank irrigation systems. Social measures are changes in

literacy rate, changes in farms and household asset, changes in farm and

nonfarm activities, employment opportunity and food security etc. Economic

measures are changes in crop yield, changes in farm income and changes in

income for landless labourers by increasing employment opportunity are

using for assessing the socio economic impact of restoration scheme for tank

irrigation system management.

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The economic measures are also used to evaluate worth of the

project by comparing the values of goods and services generated or conserved

with the cost for assessing its effect on social welfare need and viability.

There are various undiscounted and discounted measures available to evaluate

the projects (Gittinger, 1982).

The undiscounted measures ignore the time value of money and

simply evaluate the worth of the projects. Discounting measures such as Net

Present Worth (NPW), Benefit Cost Ratio and Internal Rate of Return are

used for this purpose.

Key points from the above frameworks are summarized given in

table 3.1. It was used to know about problems of irrigation tanks, solutions to

siltation and evaluation tools for the impact of restoration of irrigation tanks.

Table 3.1 Summary of key points for conceptual framework for

sustainable tank irrigation system

Sl.no Description

key points for analysis Output for the study Remarks

1 Water ResourcesDeclination of small water bodies like lakes, reservoirs, irrigation tanks etc., threatens agriculture productivity and water availability in the South and South East Asia especially in Southern Peninsular India and Sri Lanka.

Maintaining and repairing of tank bund, sluice and surplus weir and improving supply channel. Partial desilting can be done nearer to the lower sluice as well as around the periphery of the tank water spread area. Proper maintenance of tank system through farmers’ participation after modernization and restoration

Sustainability Improving water storage, increasing ground water level through recharge etc Social Equity Ensure equity, adequacy and reliability in water supply. Economic efficiency Highest productivity both in agriculture and ecosystem,adequacy and reliability in watersupply.

Problems and solution for tank irrigation system

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2 STAKEHOLDER CONTRIBUTIONThere are many stakeholders in the tank and tank related programs, of which the Government agencies, farmers and technologists are important.

Solution for problems of water storage bodies i.e. Silting and non-maintenance of tanks ,Chocking of supply channel, Deterioration of the traditional irrigation institutions Non-maintenance of tanks, Encroachment of foreshore area, catchment area and supply channel and Pollution from industries

Sustainability Social Equity Economic efficiency

Problems and solution for tank irrigation system

3 DECISIONMAKERS FOR RESTORATION SCHEMES

Technologist

Farmers

Government officials

Technologists Maximising tank water productivity and techniques of groundwater recharge Farmers Status of tanks and its improvement needed Past uses of tanks Tank restoration and its need Government officialsAwareness, Training Performance support and Performance evaluation

Social Development Economic wellbeing Environmental sustainability.

Problems and solution for tank irrigation system

4 STAKEHOLDEROF TANKIRRIGATIONSYSTEM Identifying the problems of tank irrigation system through perspectives of farmers, technologists and government

Restoration works like partial desilting of tanks, desilting of supply channel and tank bund strengthening etc. Increased water availability Improved agriculture productivity

Ecological Impact, Socio Economic Impact Financially feasible Sustainable livelihood

Problems and solution for tank irrigation system

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5 IMPACT OF IMPLEMENTATION OF RESTORATION SCHEMEMultidimensional impact of Restoration schemes of tank irrigation systems

Technical Measures Social Measures Economic Measures

Socio Economic Impact• Food Security • Productivity of crop yield• Profitability of Farm income Ecological Impact• Increasing irrigated cropping area and cropping intensity and fodder availability for protecting environmental well being.

Financial Feasibility • IRR • Benefit Cost Ratio • Pay Back Period • Benefit Cost Index

Analysis for sustainability of system after restoration

3.6 SUMMARY

Sustainability means maintaining environmental assets or at least

not depleting them. Rapid depletion of essential resources coupled with the

degradation of land and atmospheric quality indicates that man has not only

exceeded its current social carrying capacity, but actually reduced the future

potential and biophysical carrying capacities by extinguishing essential

natural capital stock (Rwelamira, 1999).

To attain sustainable rural livelihood through restoration schemes

for tank irrigation system, the multi stakeholders have to be involved in

implementing the restoration programme. To achieve sustainable management

of tank irrigation systems for livelihood and the conservation of natural

resources as well as poverty alleviation, there is a need to identify appropriate

technologies for tank irrigation system management that are affordable and

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cost effective. Sustainable tank irrigation system management needs to be

supported by adequate institutional arrangements and must be economically

viable. The framework developed in this chapter can be used to evaluate tank

irrigation system projects.