CHAPTER 3 CHAPTER 3 CELLS AND TISSUES CELLS AND TISSUES PART 1 – CELLS PART 2 - TISSUES.

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CHAPTER 3 CHAPTER 3 CELLS AND CELLS AND TISSUES TISSUES PART 1 – CELLS PART 1 – CELLS PART 2 - TISSUES PART 2 - TISSUES

Transcript of CHAPTER 3 CHAPTER 3 CELLS AND TISSUES CELLS AND TISSUES PART 1 – CELLS PART 2 - TISSUES.

Page 1: CHAPTER 3 CHAPTER 3 CELLS AND TISSUES CELLS AND TISSUES PART 1 – CELLS PART 2 - TISSUES.

CHAPTER 3CHAPTER 3

CELLS AND TISSUESCELLS AND TISSUES

PART 1 – CELLSPART 1 – CELLS

PART 2 - TISSUESPART 2 - TISSUES

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PART 1 - CELLSPART 1 - CELLS

Made up primarily of C, O, H, N Made up primarily of C, O, H, N and important trace elementsand important trace elements

Vary greatly in structure and Vary greatly in structure and functionfunction

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Generalized Generalized Cell Cell StructureStructure All cells contain: nucleus, All cells contain: nucleus,

cytoplasm, plasma membrane cytoplasm, plasma membrane (cell membrane)(cell membrane)

Actual structure of cell depends Actual structure of cell depends on its functionon its function– Blood cells – disk-shapedBlood cells – disk-shaped– Nerve cells – have long extensionsNerve cells – have long extensions– Muscle cells – taperedMuscle cells – tapered– Epithelial cells - cubelikeEpithelial cells - cubelike

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NucleusNucleus

Control center of cellControl center of cell Contains DNAContains DNA Composed of 3 regions: nuclear Composed of 3 regions: nuclear

envelope, nucleolus, chromatinenvelope, nucleolus, chromatin Figure 3.1Figure 3.1

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Nuclear envelope (membrane)Nuclear envelope (membrane)– Double membraneDouble membrane– Membrane fuses at certain points to Membrane fuses at certain points to

produce nuclear poresproduce nuclear pores– Selectively permeableSelectively permeable

NucleolusNucleolus– Site where ribosomes are assembledSite where ribosomes are assembled

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ChromatinChromatin– Loose network of threads of DNA Loose network of threads of DNA

and proteinand protein– Forms chromosomes during cell Forms chromosomes during cell

divisiondivision

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Plasma MembranePlasma Membrane

Figure 3.2Figure 3.2 Phospholipid bilayerPhospholipid bilayer

– Polar heads of phosphate part of lipid, line Polar heads of phosphate part of lipid, line the inner and outer surfaces of the the inner and outer surfaces of the membrane and are hydrophilic or membrane and are hydrophilic or attracted to waterattracted to water

– Lipid layers are arranged tail to tail Lipid layers are arranged tail to tail forming the center of the membrane and forming the center of the membrane and are hydrophobic or impermeable to water-are hydrophobic or impermeable to water-soluble moleculessoluble molecules

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CholesterolCholesterol ProteinsProteins

– Responsilble for specialized functionsResponsilble for specialized functions– Involved in transport across the membrane Involved in transport across the membrane

by forming protein channels for water-by forming protein channels for water-soluble moleculessoluble molecules

– Glycoproteins contains sugars that extend Glycoproteins contains sugars that extend into the extracellular space, acting as into the extracellular space, acting as receptors, and involved in cell to cell receptors, and involved in cell to cell interactionsinteractions

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Special structures of the Special structures of the membrane include microvilli and membrane include microvilli and membrane junctionsmembrane junctions

MicrovilliMicrovilli – fingerlike projections – fingerlike projections that increase surface areathat increase surface area

Membrane junctionsMembrane junctions vary vary according to functionsaccording to functions

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Membrane junctions – figure 3.3Membrane junctions – figure 3.3– Tight junctionsTight junctions – bind cells together – bind cells together

to prevent substances from passing to prevent substances from passing between cellsbetween cells

– DesmosomesDesmosomes – buttonlike thickening – buttonlike thickening of adjacent membranes connected of adjacent membranes connected by fine protein filaments which by fine protein filaments which prevent cells from being pulled apartprevent cells from being pulled apart

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– Gap junctionsGap junctions – neighboring cells are – neighboring cells are connected by connected by connexonsconnexons made of made of proteins between membranes that proteins between membranes that allow communication between cellsallow communication between cells

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CytoplasmCytoplasm

Contains cytosol, organelles, Contains cytosol, organelles, inclusionsinclusions

CytosolCytosol –semitransparent fluid, –semitransparent fluid, largely water, nutrients and soluteslargely water, nutrients and solutes

OrganellesOrganelles – specialized for specific – specialized for specific functionsfunctions

InclusionsInclusions – depend on cell type, – depend on cell type, include lipid drops, glycogen, include lipid drops, glycogen, pigments, mucus, etc.pigments, mucus, etc.

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OrganellesOrganelles

Figure 3.4Figure 3.4 Mitochondria Mitochondria

– Structure – double membrane, Structure – double membrane, generally sausage-shapedgenerally sausage-shaped Inner membrane forms Inner membrane forms cristea, cristea,

partitionspartitions

– Function - Function - Oxygen is used to break down food and Oxygen is used to break down food and

produce ATP to store energyproduce ATP to store energy

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RibosomesRibosomes – –– Structure – bilobed bodies made of Structure – bilobed bodies made of

protein and ribosomal RNA protein and ribosomal RNA – Function – site of protein synthesisFunction – site of protein synthesis

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Endoplasmic ReticulumEndoplasmic Reticulum – network of – network of channels to transport substances channels to transport substances from one part of the cell to anotherfrom one part of the cell to another– Rough ERRough ER – studded with ribosomes – studded with ribosomes

Proteins made on ribosomes are carried Proteins made on ribosomes are carried through tubules of rough ER, folded into through tubules of rough ER, folded into shape and transported throughout the cellshape and transported throughout the cell

– Smooth ERSmooth ER Functions in lipid metabolismFunctions in lipid metabolism

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Golgi ApparatusGolgi Apparatus – Structure – stack of flattened Structure – stack of flattened

membranous sacsmembranous sacs– Function – packages proteins from Function – packages proteins from

rough ER – figure 3.6rough ER – figure 3.6 Proteins transported outside the cellProteins transported outside the cell Proteins & phospholipids transported to Proteins & phospholipids transported to

cell membranecell membrane Proteins (enzymes) packaged into Proteins (enzymes) packaged into

lysosomes to stay inside celllysosomes to stay inside cell

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LysosomesLysosomes – Structure – membranous sacs Structure – membranous sacs

containing digestive enzymescontaining digestive enzymes– Function – digest worn out or Function – digest worn out or

nonusable cell structures, also nonusable cell structures, also digest foreign substances that enter digest foreign substances that enter the cell such as bacteriathe cell such as bacteria

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PeroxisomesPeroxisomes– Structure – membranous sacs Structure – membranous sacs

containing enzyme oxidasecontaining enzyme oxidase– Function - Detoxify the cell by Function - Detoxify the cell by

removing dangerous chemicals, free removing dangerous chemicals, free radicals, from the cell radicals, from the cell

– Convert free radicals to hydrogen Convert free radicals to hydrogen peroxide which is then converted to peroxide which is then converted to waterwater

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Microfilaments and microtubulesMicrofilaments and microtubules– Structure - Composed of thin, threadlike Structure - Composed of thin, threadlike

strands of proteinstrands of protein– Function - an internal skeleton or a Function - an internal skeleton or a

cytoskeletoncytoskeleton– Microtubules, larger than microfilaments, Microtubules, larger than microfilaments,

function during cell divisionfunction during cell division– Microfilaments function in cell contraction Microfilaments function in cell contraction

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CentriolesCentrioles– Structure - Rod-shaped bodies, Structure - Rod-shaped bodies,

made of microtubules, at right made of microtubules, at right angles to each otherangles to each other

– Function - during cell division as a Function - during cell division as a mitotic spindlemitotic spindle

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Cilia and flagellaCilia and flagella– Structure - Extensions from the cell Structure - Extensions from the cell

membrane composed of membrane composed of microtubulesmicrotubules

– Function - Cilia, small hair-like Function - Cilia, small hair-like structures that move substances structures that move substances across cell surfaceacross cell surface

– Function - Flagella, single long tail-Function - Flagella, single long tail-like structure that moves the celllike structure that moves the cell

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Cell DiversityCell Diversity

Figure 3.8Figure 3.8 Shapes of cells and numbers of Shapes of cells and numbers of

various organelles relate to cell various organelles relate to cell functionfunction

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Cell PhysiologyCell Physiology

Most cells are designed to Most cells are designed to perform the following functions: perform the following functions: metabolize nutrients, digest food, metabolize nutrients, digest food, dispose of wastes, reproduce, dispose of wastes, reproduce, grow, move, respond to stimulusgrow, move, respond to stimulus

Important to these functions are: Important to these functions are: membrane transport, protein membrane transport, protein synthesis, cell reproductionsynthesis, cell reproduction

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Membrane TransportMembrane Transport

Important terms: solution, solvent, Important terms: solution, solvent, solute, intracellular fluid, interstitial solute, intracellular fluid, interstitial fluid, selective permeabilityfluid, selective permeability

Substances enter or leave the cell Substances enter or leave the cell in two general ways: passive or in two general ways: passive or active mechanismsactive mechanisms– Passive transport does not require Passive transport does not require

energy energy – Active transport requires ATP energyActive transport requires ATP energy

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Passive TransportPassive Transport

Passive mechanisms move Passive mechanisms move substances from areas of higher substances from areas of higher concentration to areas of lower concentration to areas of lower concentration – concentration – down the down the concentration gradientconcentration gradient

Passive mechanisms include: Passive mechanisms include: diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion, filtrationdiffusion, filtration

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DiffusionDiffusion – spreading of particles until – spreading of particles until equilibrium is reached, evenly distributedequilibrium is reached, evenly distributed

Plasma membrane is a barrier to Plasma membrane is a barrier to diffusion and molecules will diffuse diffusion and molecules will diffuse passively through the membrane if they passively through the membrane if they are small enough to pass through its are small enough to pass through its pores or they can dissolve in the fatty pores or they can dissolve in the fatty portion of the membraneportion of the membrane

Fats, fat-soluble vitamins, oxygen, COFats, fat-soluble vitamins, oxygen, CO22

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OsmosisOsmosis – Diffusion of water through a – Diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membraneselectively permeable membrane

Osmotic pressure is the tendency of a Osmotic pressure is the tendency of a solution to “pull” water into it. solution to “pull” water into it. – Hypertonic solutions have high solute Hypertonic solutions have high solute

concentrations and high osmotic pressureconcentrations and high osmotic pressure– Hypotonic solutions have low solute Hypotonic solutions have low solute

concentrations and low osmotic pressureconcentrations and low osmotic pressure

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Hypertonic solutions will pull water Hypertonic solutions will pull water from cells, and cells will shrinkfrom cells, and cells will shrink

Hypotonic solutions will force water Hypotonic solutions will force water into cells, and cells will swellinto cells, and cells will swell

Isotonic solutions have same Isotonic solutions have same osmotic pressure as cells, and will osmotic pressure as cells, and will cause no change to cellscause no change to cells

A Closer Look, page 75A Closer Look, page 75

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Water is highly polar and Water is highly polar and therefore cannot pass through the therefore cannot pass through the lipid portion of the membranelipid portion of the membrane

Water molecules pass through Water molecules pass through special pores in the membrane - special pores in the membrane - aquaporinsaquaporins

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Facilitated DiffusionFacilitated Diffusion – protein – protein membrane channel or protein membrane channel or protein carrier molecule is used because carrier molecule is used because molecules are lipid-insoluble and molecules are lipid-insoluble and too large to pass through too large to pass through membrane poresmembrane pores

Glucose enters the cell through Glucose enters the cell through facilitated diffusionfacilitated diffusion

Figure 3.10Figure 3.10

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FiltrationFiltration – substances are pushed – substances are pushed through a membrane by fluid or through a membrane by fluid or hydrostatic hydrostatic pressurepressure

Usually occurs in blood capillaries Usually occurs in blood capillaries with thin wallswith thin walls

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Active TransportActive Transport

Active mechanisms move substances Active mechanisms move substances from area of lower concentration to from area of lower concentration to area of higher concentration – moving area of higher concentration – moving uphill,uphill, or against the concentration or against the concentration gradientgradient

Active mechanisms include: solute Active mechanisms include: solute pumping, bulk transport by exocytosis pumping, bulk transport by exocytosis or endocytosis, receptor-mediated or endocytosis, receptor-mediated endocytosisendocytosis

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Solute pumpingSolute pumping – membrane protein – membrane protein carriers used to transport carriers used to transport substances too large to pass substances too large to pass through membrane channels or through membrane channels or lipid-insoluble lipid-insoluble against concentration against concentration gradient gradient

Sodium-potassium pump carries NaSodium-potassium pump carries Na++ out of cell and Kout of cell and K++ into cell using ATP into cell using ATP

Figure 3.11Figure 3.11

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ExocytosisExocytosis – removes substances – removes substances from cellsfrom cells

Substance is packaged by golgi, Substance is packaged by golgi, migrates to membrane, fuses migrates to membrane, fuses with membrane, ruptures, is with membrane, ruptures, is released outside the cellreleased outside the cell

Figure 3.12Figure 3.12

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EndocytosisEndocytosis – encloses extracellular – encloses extracellular substances in a membranous sac substances in a membranous sac formed by the plasma membraneformed by the plasma membrane

Extracellular substances are digested Extracellular substances are digested by fusing with a lysosomeby fusing with a lysosome

Types of endocytosis include: Types of endocytosis include: phagocytosis, pinocytosis, receptor-phagocytosis, pinocytosis, receptor-mediated endocytosismediated endocytosis

Figure 3.13Figure 3.13

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Phagocytosis external substances Phagocytosis external substances are large particles captured by are large particles captured by pseudopodspseudopods– Protective mechanism that ingests Protective mechanism that ingests

bacteria and debrisbacteria and debris– Not used to obtain nutrientsNot used to obtain nutrients– White blood cellsWhite blood cells

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Pinocytosis – plasma membrane Pinocytosis – plasma membrane invaginates and surrounds liquid invaginates and surrounds liquid extracellular substanceextracellular substance– Liquid contains dissolved proteins or Liquid contains dissolved proteins or

fatsfats– Lining of small intestine, kidneyLining of small intestine, kidney

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Receptor-mediated endocytosis – Receptor-mediated endocytosis – plasma membrane receptor plasma membrane receptor proteins bind with specific proteins bind with specific substancessubstances– Membrane invaginates to form vesicleMembrane invaginates to form vesicle– Enzymes, hormones, cholesterol, iron, Enzymes, hormones, cholesterol, iron,

viruses commonly enter cell through viruses commonly enter cell through receptor-mediated processreceptor-mediated process

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Cell DivisionCell Division

Cell life cycle consists of the changes Cell life cycle consists of the changes that the cell goes through from time that the cell goes through from time of formation until the time of divisionof formation until the time of division

Cell life cycle consists of Cell life cycle consists of interphase interphase and cell divisionand cell division– DNA replication occurs during interphaseDNA replication occurs during interphase– Mitosis and cytokinesis occur during cell Mitosis and cytokinesis occur during cell

divisiondivision

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InterphaseInterphase – DNA replication – DNA replication Figure 3.14Figure 3.14 DNA helix separates and uncoilsDNA helix separates and uncoils Each separate template strand is Each separate template strand is

duplicated with a complementary duplicated with a complementary set of nucleotidesset of nucleotides

Results with 2 identical DNA Results with 2 identical DNA moleculesmolecules

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Cell divisionCell division – mitosis – mitosis Results in the formation of 2 Results in the formation of 2

nuclei with same genes (DNA)nuclei with same genes (DNA) Stages of mitosis include: Stages of mitosis include:

prophase, metaphase, anaphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophasetelophase

Figure 3.15Figure 3.15

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ProphaseProphase– Chromatin threads coil and become Chromatin threads coil and become

chromosomes made up of 2 chromatids chromosomes made up of 2 chromatids held together by a centromereheld together by a centromere

– Centrioles separate and migrate to Centrioles separate and migrate to opposite sides of cellopposite sides of cell

– Spindle of microtubules is formed between Spindle of microtubules is formed between centrioles, centromeres attach to spindlecentrioles, centromeres attach to spindle

– Nuclear envelope & nucleoli disappearNuclear envelope & nucleoli disappear

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Metaphase Metaphase Chromosomes line up in the Chromosomes line up in the

center of the spindle (metaphse center of the spindle (metaphse plate)plate)

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AnaphaseAnaphase Centromeres split and single Centromeres split and single

chromosomes appearchromosomes appear Chromosomes are pulled to Chromosomes are pulled to

opposite ends of cell along opposite ends of cell along spindlespindle

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TelophaseTelophase Chromosomes uncoil and become Chromosomes uncoil and become

chromatinchromatin Spindle disappearsSpindle disappears Nuclear envelope forms around Nuclear envelope forms around

chromatinchromatin Nucleoli appear Nucleoli appear

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CytokinesisCytokinesis – division of cytoplasm – division of cytoplasm Begins during late anaphase, ends Begins during late anaphase, ends

during telophaseduring telophase Cleavage furrow appears in center Cleavage furrow appears in center

of spindleof spindle Cytoplasm is separated into two Cytoplasm is separated into two

partsparts 2 daughter cells are produced2 daughter cells are produced

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Protein SynthesisProtein Synthesis

Genes carry information (DNA) for Genes carry information (DNA) for constructing proteinsconstructing proteins– Sequence of 3 bases (triplets) code Sequence of 3 bases (triplets) code

for each amino acidfor each amino acid Proteins are important substances Proteins are important substances

for cellsfor cells– Major building material for cellsMajor building material for cells– ENZYMESENZYMES

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DNA is in the nucleus, protein DNA is in the nucleus, protein synthesis occurs on the synthesis occurs on the ribosomes in the cytoplasmribosomes in the cytoplasm

Information in DNA code must be Information in DNA code must be transcribed, transferred to transcribed, transferred to ribosomes, translated into ribosomes, translated into proteinsproteins

mRNA and tRNA are instrumental mRNA and tRNA are instrumental in protein synthesisin protein synthesis

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TRANSCRIPTION – Figure 3.16TRANSCRIPTION – Figure 3.16 mRNA copies the protein code from mRNA copies the protein code from

the nuclear DNAthe nuclear DNA– DNA unzips, complementary bases of DNA unzips, complementary bases of

RNA, codons, match up with DNA RNA, codons, match up with DNA tripletstriplets

– Single stranded mRNA has the protein Single stranded mRNA has the protein code from the DNAcode from the DNA

– mRNA leaves the nucleusmRNA leaves the nucleus

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TRANSLATION – figure 3.16TRANSLATION – figure 3.16 Occurs in the cytoplasmOccurs in the cytoplasm mRNA attaches to ribosomemRNA attaches to ribosome tRNA molecules present in cytoplasm tRNA molecules present in cytoplasm

contain a sequence of 3 bases that contain a sequence of 3 bases that represent an anticodon that is represent an anticodon that is complementary to the mRNA codoncomplementary to the mRNA codon– Different tRNA’s have different Different tRNA’s have different

anticodonsanticodons

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tRNA picks up an amino acid that is tRNA picks up an amino acid that is specific to its anticodonspecific to its anticodon

tRNA carries its amino acid to the tRNA carries its amino acid to the mRNA on the ribosome and matches mRNA on the ribosome and matches up with the mRNA codon up with the mRNA codon

Ribosome moves the mRNA to bring Ribosome moves the mRNA to bring the next codon into place, and another the next codon into place, and another tRNA with a new amino acid attaches tRNA with a new amino acid attaches to the mRNAto the mRNA

Amino acids of each tRNA attach to Amino acids of each tRNA attach to each other and form a peptide chaineach other and form a peptide chain

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Once the amino acids attach to Once the amino acids attach to each other (forming a peptide each other (forming a peptide bond), the tRNA is released from bond), the tRNA is released from the ribosomethe ribosome

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PART 2 - TISSUESPART 2 - TISSUES

Soon after cell division, cells Soon after cell division, cells develop different characteristics develop different characteristics in structure and function – cell in structure and function – cell differentiationdifferentiation

Certain groups of specialized cells Certain groups of specialized cells perform specific functionsperform specific functions

Groups of cells that are similar in Groups of cells that are similar in structure and function are called structure and function are called tissuestissues

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There are four major types of There are four major types of tissuestissues– Epithelial – protection, secretion, Epithelial – protection, secretion,

absorption, filtration, coveringabsorption, filtration, covering– Connective – support, binding Connective – support, binding

structures togetherstructures together– Muscle – body movementMuscle – body movement– Nervous – conduct impulses, Nervous – conduct impulses,

coordinate activities, controlcoordinate activities, control

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EpitheliumEpithelium

Fit closely together to form sheets with Fit closely together to form sheets with cells bound by cell junctionscells bound by cell junctions

Always has a free surface exposed to Always has a free surface exposed to an open space (apical surface).an open space (apical surface).

The underside is attached to a The underside is attached to a basement membrane which connects basement membrane which connects to connective tissue.to connective tissue.

Contains no blood supply. Nutrients Contains no blood supply. Nutrients diffuse through connective tissue.diffuse through connective tissue.

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Will readily divide. Damaged Will readily divide. Damaged cells are easily replaced.cells are easily replaced.

Free surfaces are modified for Free surfaces are modified for secretion, absorption, excretion, secretion, absorption, excretion, sensory reception.sensory reception.

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Identifying epithelial Identifying epithelial cellscells Simple – single layerSimple – single layer Stratified – several layersStratified – several layers Pseudostratified – looks layered, but is notPseudostratified – looks layered, but is not Transitional – can change if tissue Transitional – can change if tissue

stretches or contractsstretches or contracts Squamous – flat or scalelike cellsSquamous – flat or scalelike cells Cuboidal – cube-shaped cellsCuboidal – cube-shaped cells Columnar – elongated cellsColumnar – elongated cells Glandular – cells specialized to produce & Glandular – cells specialized to produce &

secrete substances into ducts or body secrete substances into ducts or body fluidsfluids

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Types of epithelial Types of epithelial tissuetissue Figure 3.18Figure 3.18 1 – Simple squamous epithelial1 – Simple squamous epithelial

– Single layer, flat cellsSingle layer, flat cells– Sites of diffusion and filtrationSites of diffusion and filtration– Easily damagedEasily damaged

2 – Simple cuboidal epithelial2 – Simple cuboidal epithelial– Single layer, cube-shaped cellsSingle layer, cube-shaped cells– Sites of secretion and absorptionSites of secretion and absorption– Central nucleusCentral nucleus

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3- Simple columnar epithelial3- Simple columnar epithelial– Single layer, elongated cells (thick Single layer, elongated cells (thick

tissue)tissue)– Nuclei located at same level near Nuclei located at same level near

basement membranebasement membrane– Sites of secretion, absorption along Sites of secretion, absorption along

digestive tractdigestive tract– Goblet, glandular, cells exist among Goblet, glandular, cells exist among

simple columnar that secrete simple columnar that secrete protective fluid called mucusprotective fluid called mucus

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4 – Stratified squamous epithelial4 – Stratified squamous epithelial– Many layers of flat cells (skin)Many layers of flat cells (skin)– Lower layers can be cuboidal or Lower layers can be cuboidal or

columnarcolumnar– Found at sites that receive abuse or Found at sites that receive abuse or

friction – skin, mouth, esophagusfriction – skin, mouth, esophagus 5 – Stratified cuboidal epithelial5 – Stratified cuboidal epithelial

– 2 to 3 layers that provide more 2 to 3 layers that provide more protection than single layerprotection than single layer

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6 – Stratified columnar epithelial6 – Stratified columnar epithelial– Superficial layer is columnar, but basal Superficial layer is columnar, but basal

layer varies in shapelayer varies in shape 7 – Pseudostratified columnar 7 – Pseudostratified columnar

epithelialepithelial– Not layered, but single layer with some Not layered, but single layer with some

shorter cells with nuclei at different shorter cells with nuclei at different levelslevels

– Commonly posses cilia and goblet cells Commonly posses cilia and goblet cells to secrete mucusto secrete mucus

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8 – Transitional8 – Transitional– Highly modified stratified squamous Highly modified stratified squamous

epitheliumepithelium– Basal layer is composed of cuboidal Basal layer is composed of cuboidal

or columnar cellsor columnar cells– Surface cells vary Surface cells vary

Cells flatten when organ is stretchedCells flatten when organ is stretched Cells layer and become rounded when Cells layer and become rounded when

not stretchednot stretched

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9 – Glandular epithelial – 9 – Glandular epithelial – specialized to produce and specialized to produce and secrete substances secrete substances – Exocrine glands – secrete into ducts Exocrine glands – secrete into ducts

that open onto a surfacethat open onto a surface– Endocrine glands – secrete into Endocrine glands – secrete into

tissue fluid or bloodtissue fluid or blood

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Connective TissueConnective Tissue

Functions to protect, support, bind Functions to protect, support, bind together other tissuestogether other tissues

Most is well vascularized, some is notMost is well vascularized, some is not– Tissues with poor blood supply heal slowlyTissues with poor blood supply heal slowly

Consists of various cell types and Consists of various cell types and nonliving extracellular matrixnonliving extracellular matrix– Some types of tissue are mostly cells in soft Some types of tissue are mostly cells in soft

matrix, other types of tissue have few cells matrix, other types of tissue have few cells in hard matrix, other types vary in betweenin hard matrix, other types vary in between

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MatrixMatrix– Produced by cells and secretedProduced by cells and secreted– Consists of ground substance and fibersConsists of ground substance and fibers

Matrix ground substancesMatrix ground substances– Composed of water, adhesion proteins, Composed of water, adhesion proteins,

charged polysaccaridescharged polysaccarides Protiens allow fibers to attach to ground subs.Protiens allow fibers to attach to ground subs. Abundance of polysaccarides changes Abundance of polysaccarides changes

consistency from liquid to gel to firm to rock-consistency from liquid to gel to firm to rock-hardhard

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Matrix fibersMatrix fibers– Collagen (white) fibers – high tensile Collagen (white) fibers – high tensile

strengthstrength– Elastic (yellow) fibers – can be Elastic (yellow) fibers – can be

stretched and will recoilstretched and will recoil– Reticular fibers – fine collagen fibers Reticular fibers – fine collagen fibers

that form an internal skeletonthat form an internal skeleton

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Connective tissue cell typesConnective tissue cell types– Bone tissue cells – osteocytesBone tissue cells – osteocytes– Cartilage cells – chondrocytes, Cartilage cells – chondrocytes,

fibroblastsfibroblasts– Loose tissue cells – fibroblasts, fat Loose tissue cells – fibroblasts, fat

cells, reticular cells which resemble cells, reticular cells which resemble fibroblastsfibroblasts

– Blood tissue cells – variety of white Blood tissue cells – variety of white blood cells and red blood cellsblood cells and red blood cells

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Types of Connective Types of Connective TissueTissue

Major differences in connective Major differences in connective tissue types depend on types and tissue types depend on types and numbers of fibers in the matrixnumbers of fibers in the matrix

Connective tissue types from Connective tissue types from most rigid to softest include: most rigid to softest include: bone, cartilage, dense connective bone, cartilage, dense connective tissue, loose connective tissue, tissue, loose connective tissue, bloodblood

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Figure 3.19Figure 3.19 1 – Bone –osseous tissue1 – Bone –osseous tissue

– Composed of bone cells in cavities Composed of bone cells in cavities called called lacunae lacunae and surrounded by and surrounded by layers of hard matrix called layers of hard matrix called lamellalamella

– Contains calcium saltsContains calcium salts– Protect and support body partsProtect and support body parts

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2 – Cartilage2 – Cartilage– More flexible than boneMore flexible than bone– 3 types of cartilage: hyaline 3 types of cartilage: hyaline

cartilage, fibrocartilage, elastic cartilage, fibrocartilage, elastic cartilagecartilage

– Hyaline cartilageHyaline cartilage Collagen fibers hidden in a rubbery Collagen fibers hidden in a rubbery

matrix, chondrocyte cells in lacunaematrix, chondrocyte cells in lacunae Found in larynx, attaching ribs to Found in larynx, attaching ribs to

breastbone, ends of bonesbreastbone, ends of bones

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– Fibrocartilage Fibrocartilage More collagen fibers than hyaline More collagen fibers than hyaline

cartilage, chondrocyte cells in lacunaecartilage, chondrocyte cells in lacunae Forms intervertebral disks of spinal Forms intervertebral disks of spinal

columncolumn

– Elastic cartilageElastic cartilage More elastic fibersMore elastic fibers Found in structures that need elasticity, Found in structures that need elasticity,

external earexternal ear

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3 – Dense Connective Tissue3 – Dense Connective Tissue– Closely packed collagen fibers Closely packed collagen fibers

containing rows of fibroblastscontaining rows of fibroblasts– Strong tissue composing tendons Strong tissue composing tendons

and ligamentsand ligaments Tendons connect muscle to boneTendons connect muscle to bone Ligaments connect bones to bones, also Ligaments connect bones to bones, also

contain elastic fibers contain elastic fibers

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4 – Loose Connective Tissue4 – Loose Connective Tissue– Tissue is softer and contains more Tissue is softer and contains more

cells and less fiberscells and less fibers– 3 types of loose connective tissue 3 types of loose connective tissue

include: areolar tissue, adipose include: areolar tissue, adipose tissue, reticular connective tissuetissue, reticular connective tissue

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– Areolar tissue – most widely Areolar tissue – most widely distributeddistributed

Loose network of various fibers and Loose network of various fibers and fibroblasts - cobwebfibroblasts - cobweb

Cushions and protects body organsCushions and protects body organs– Helps to hold internal organs in positionHelps to hold internal organs in position

Provides a reservoir of water and salts for Provides a reservoir of water and salts for surrounding tissue – soft, fluid matrixsurrounding tissue – soft, fluid matrix

All cells obtain nutrients and release All cells obtain nutrients and release wastes into areolar tissue fluidwastes into areolar tissue fluid

– Excess fluid in areolar tissue causes swelling, Excess fluid in areolar tissue causes swelling, edemaedema

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– Adipose tissueAdipose tissue Composed of mostly fat cellsComposed of mostly fat cells Fat cells are composed mainly of oil Fat cells are composed mainly of oil

with a thin rim of cytoplasm and a with a thin rim of cytoplasm and a bulging nucleusbulging nucleus

Found in tissue beneath the skin and Found in tissue beneath the skin and insulates the body from extreme insulates the body from extreme temperature changestemperature changes

Protects organsProtects organs Fat is available as energy sourceFat is available as energy source

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– Reticular connective tissueReticular connective tissue Composed of network of reticular fibers Composed of network of reticular fibers

and reticular cellsand reticular cells Found in limited sites: lymph nodes, Found in limited sites: lymph nodes,

spleen , bone marrowspleen , bone marrow

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5 – Blood5 – Blood– Consists of blood cells surrounded Consists of blood cells surrounded

by fluid matrix called blood plasmaby fluid matrix called blood plasma– Fibers are made of protein that is Fibers are made of protein that is

visible when blood clotsvisible when blood clots– Transports nutrients , wastes, Transports nutrients , wastes,

respiratory gasesrespiratory gases

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Muscle TissueMuscle Tissue

Composed of many muscle Composed of many muscle cellscells called muscle called muscle fibersfibers

Specialized to contract to produce Specialized to contract to produce movementmovement

3 types of muscle tissue include: 3 types of muscle tissue include: skeletal, cardiac, smoothskeletal, cardiac, smooth

Figure 3.20Figure 3.20

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Types of Muscle TissueTypes of Muscle Tissue

1 – Skeletal muscle1 – Skeletal muscle– Found in muscles that attach to bone Found in muscles that attach to bone – Are controlled by conscious effort, Are controlled by conscious effort,

therefore they are called voluntary therefore they are called voluntary musclesmuscles

– Provide gross body movementsProvide gross body movements– Cells are long and threadlike with Cells are long and threadlike with

light and dark striations and many light and dark striations and many nucleinuclei

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2 – Cardiac muscle2 – Cardiac muscle– Found only in the heartFound only in the heart– Are involuntary musclesAre involuntary muscles– Cells are striated, have one nucleus, are Cells are striated, have one nucleus, are

shorter than skeletal muscles, are shorter than skeletal muscles, are branchedbranched

– Cells fit together at junctions calledCells fit together at junctions called intercalated disksintercalated disks which contain gap which contain gap junctions that allow rapid conduction of junctions that allow rapid conduction of impulsesimpulses

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3 – Smooth muscle (visceral)3 – Smooth muscle (visceral)– Found in walls of hollow internal organsFound in walls of hollow internal organs– Involuntary musclesInvoluntary muscles– Cells are shorter and spindle-shaped with Cells are shorter and spindle-shaped with

a central nucleus and no striationsa central nucleus and no striations– Smooth muscle contraction Smooth muscle contraction constrictsconstricts an an

organ, smooth muscle relaxation organ, smooth muscle relaxation dilatesdilates an organan organ

– Wavelike constriction and dilation Wavelike constriction and dilation produces produces peristalsisperistalsis which moves food in which moves food in the digestive tractthe digestive tract

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Nervous TissueNervous Tissue

Found in the brain, spinal cord, and Found in the brain, spinal cord, and nervesnerves

Nerve cells are called neuronsNerve cells are called neurons– Neuroglial cells – supporting cells that Neuroglial cells – supporting cells that

insulate, support and protect neurons insulate, support and protect neurons Neurons have nerve fiber extensions Neurons have nerve fiber extensions

which transmit impulses to other which transmit impulses to other neurons, muscles, or glandsneurons, muscles, or glands

Neurons have single nucleusNeurons have single nucleus Figure 3.21Figure 3.21

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Tissue RepairTissue Repair

Response to tissue injury involves Response to tissue injury involves an inflammatory response and an an inflammatory response and an immune responseimmune response– Inflammation prevents further injuryInflammation prevents further injury– Immune response attacks against Immune response attacks against

bacteria and viruses bacteria and viruses

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Tissue repair involves Tissue repair involves regeneration and fibrosisregeneration and fibrosis– Regeneration involves the Regeneration involves the

replacement of destroyed cells by replacement of destroyed cells by the same kind of cellthe same kind of cell

– Fibrosis involves the repair of an Fibrosis involves the repair of an injury with dense connective tissue injury with dense connective tissue that forms a scarthat forms a scar

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Process of tissue repairProcess of tissue repair– Capillaries become very permeableCapillaries become very permeable

Blood seeps into area and forms clotBlood seeps into area and forms clot

– Granulation tissue formsGranulation tissue forms Composed of new, fragile capillariesComposed of new, fragile capillaries Contains phagocytes to dispose of clot, Contains phagocytes to dispose of clot,

fibroblasts to produce collage fibersfibroblasts to produce collage fibers

– Surface epithelium regeneratesSurface epithelium regenerates Above granulation tissue & below clotAbove granulation tissue & below clot Scar forms (fibrosis)Scar forms (fibrosis)

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RegenerationRegeneration– Occurs readily in epidermis, mucous Occurs readily in epidermis, mucous

membrane, fibrous connective tissue, bonemembrane, fibrous connective tissue, bone– Skeletal muscle regenerates poorlySkeletal muscle regenerates poorly– Cardiac muscle and nervous tissue are Cardiac muscle and nervous tissue are

replaced by scar tissue replaced by scar tissue Fibrosis – scar tissue lacks the ability to Fibrosis – scar tissue lacks the ability to

perform the normal functions of the perform the normal functions of the tissue it replacestissue it replaces

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Development of Cells Development of Cells and and TissuesTissues During embryonic development, cells During embryonic development, cells

begin to specialize to form primary begin to specialize to form primary tissues.tissues.

By birth, most organs are formed and By birth, most organs are formed and functioning.functioning.

During growth throughout childhood During growth throughout childhood and adolescence the body enlarges and and adolescence the body enlarges and forms new tissue through cell divisionforms new tissue through cell division

At adulthood, overall body growth endsAt adulthood, overall body growth ends

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After adulthood, only certain cells After adulthood, only certain cells routinely divide.routinely divide.– Skin and intestineSkin and intestine– Liver stops but can be replaced if Liver stops but can be replaced if

damageddamaged– Heart muscle and nerve tissue can Heart muscle and nerve tissue can

no longer divide, they become no longer divide, they become amitoticamitotic

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Aging process involves:Aging process involves:– Epithelial tissue thins and loses Epithelial tissue thins and loses

elasticityelasticity– Exocrine glands become less activeExocrine glands become less active– Endocrine glands produce less Endocrine glands produce less

hormonehormone– Bone tissue becomes porous and Bone tissue becomes porous and

weakenweaken– Muscle tissue begins to atrophyMuscle tissue begins to atrophy

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Other cell and tissue modifications Other cell and tissue modifications (not associated with aging)(not associated with aging)– Neoplasm – normal cell division is out Neoplasm – normal cell division is out

of control and cells divide continuallyof control and cells divide continually– Hyperplasia – increase in cell number Hyperplasia – increase in cell number

as a result of an irritantas a result of an irritant Usually temporary, no treatment neededUsually temporary, no treatment needed

– Atrophy – decrease in size in an area Atrophy – decrease in size in an area that loses stimulationthat loses stimulation

musclemuscle