CHAPTER 3

CHANGING EMPLOYEE BEHAVIOR THROUGH

CONSEQUENCES

Learning

• A fairly permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience

• Change in behavior must be more than temporary

• Learning occurs when we observe a fairly permanent change in behavior

Approaches to Learning

• Classical conditioning

• Observational learning

• Instrumental, or Operant, Conditioning

Classical Conditioning

• Early approach to learning theory by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian Physiologist

• Pavlov’s test:– Conditioned a dog to salivate when a bell is

rung presenting food; eventually the dog responded to the bell alone without the presentation of food

Classical Conditioning (cont.)

• Unconditioned stimulus: presentation of food to dog

• Conditioned stimulus: Ringing of bell

• Conditioned response: The dog salivating when bell alone was rung

• Unconditioned response: The dog salivating when the food was presented to him

Observational Learning

• Occurs when a person witnesses the behavior of another and vicariously experiences the consequences of the other person’s actions

• Appropriate for simple tasks• Numerous trials and rehearsals

unnecessary• No apparent reward is administered in

observation

Observational Learning (cont.)

• Largely self-regulated

• Examples of this form: training films, training manuals, lectures, role playing

• Many believe this form is most successful when external rewards are provided

Instrumental, or Operant, Conditioning

• B.F. Skinner developed this approach

• Based on premise that human behavior in organizations is “instrumental”

• People act on their surroundings as well as deliberately move into and out of different situations

Instrumental, or Operant, Conditioning

(cont.)• Reinforcement is used in conjunction

with a response:– Positive reinforcement: any event

used to increase frequency of desired response

– Negative reinforcement: any eventthat, when removed, increases

frequency of a response

Law of Effect

• Behavior that is followed by a positive response is more likely to recur while behavior that is followed by an undesirable response is less likely to recur

Behavior Modification(OB Mod)

• The application of operant conditioning in organizational settings is known as OB Mod

• Involves – Acquiring complex behaviors: shaping– Maintaining desired behaviors

Acquiring Complex Behaviors: Shaping

• Reinforcing small approximations of the final desired behavior

Maintaining Desired Behaviors

• Extinction: when a response ceases to occur due to the removal of reinforcement– Managers seek to increase the strength of

desired responses so desired behavior will not disappear if reinforcement is removed

Maintaining Desired Behaviors (cont.)

• Resistance to Extinction: ensuring the responses persist in the absence of reinforcement

• Partial reinforcement: providing reinforcements on an intermittent basis; proven to be more successful in increasing resistance to extinction

Maintaining Desired Behaviors (cont.)

• Continuous reinforcement: when employee behaviors are followed with reinforcement after each and every occurrence

Schedules of Reinforcement

• Schedules of reinforcement are used when reinforcement is partial

• Interval Schedule: Reinforces behavior on basis of time elapsed

• Ratio Schedule: Number of times the behavior is performed

Schedules of Reinforcement (cont.)

• Fixed Schedule: Amount of time/number of behaviors is specified in advance

• Variable Schedule: Amount of time/number of behaviors vary

Interval Schedule

• The amount of time between reinforcements is the determinant of scheduling– Fixed interval: Fixed periods of time

between reinforcements; performance tends to be poor; little incentive

– Variable interval: Vary the amount of time the elapses between reinforcement; time can’t be predicted in advance

Ratio Schedules

• Number of incidences of behaviors between one reinforcement and the next is the determinant of scheduling– Fixed Ratio: involves giving reinforcement in

exchange for a fixed number of responses; e.g. a piece-rate pay scheme

Ratio Schedules (cont.)

– Variable Ratio: reinforcement after individual has produced a number of desired responses, with the precise number varying; e.g. cash bonuses, public recognition, awards for good performance

– Most effective schedule is the variable ratio schedule which is most resistant to extinction

Rules for Applying Operant Conditioning

Principles1. Use differential rewarding

– Treating all subordinates alike encourages mediocrity

– Make rewards commensurate with performance to signal efforts are valued

2. Identify valued rewards for individual– If a manager hopes to influence an employee’s

behavior through the use of rewards, the rewards must have value to the employee.

Rules for Applying Operant Conditioning

Principles (cont.)3. Instruct subordinates on how rewards are tied

to performance– If employees understand how rewards and

performance are tied together, they may construct behaviors to earn rewards.

4. Provide informative feedback on performance– Feedback itself is rewarding, and also so that

behavior can be molded to match desired standards.

Does OB Mod Work?

• Useful approach to improving employee performance

• Recent review of 10 Organizations that experimented with OB Mod– Nine of the 10 cases have positive effect

Controversies Surrounding

OB Mod• Studies have generally supported OB

Mod program effectiveness• Opponents accuse OB Mod of being

manipulative, deliberately controlling behavior of others in a “Big Brother” fashion

• Unoriginal, i.e., similar to scientific management

Controversies Surrounding

OB Mod (cont.)• Unpleasant questions arise as to whether

firms should condone such programs

• Ignoring the importance of internally mediated rewards; e.g. motivation from enjoyment

Controversies Surrounding

OB Mod (cont.)• Another body of criticism comes from

studies that were oriented to determine the mental processes that caused the responses to operant conditioning techniques

The Role of Punishment

• Defined as an undesirable event that follows a behavior it intends to eliminate

• Does little to alter undesirable behavior, but instead encourages the offender to seek other ways to engage in the behavior

• May motivate the offender to engage in revenge tactics

Alternatives to Punishment

• Creating work settings where undesirable behaviors are unlikely to occur

• Permit extinction to set in by removing the reinforcement that may have initially fueled the person to engage in undesirable behaviors

Alternatives to Punishment (cont.)

• Ignore events that are not costly to the organization, or that were exceptions to standard policies

Effective Punishment

• Punishment may be appropriate:– When undesirable behavior is so serious it

warrants some form of punishment– When avoidance of circumstances that lead

to undesirable behaviors is impossible, or too costly

– When the undesirable behavior provides its own reward, and thus resistance to extinction is high

Attributes of Effective Punishment

• Focus on behaviors, making punishment impersonal

• Act immediately

• Make the punishment severe enough

• Use punishment reliably, in each case of specified undesired behavior

• Do not discriminate across employees, i.e., make it uniform

Guidelines for Administering Discipline

• The question of how to deliver it depends on:– Supervisor’s personal style of leadership– Employee’s background– Size of the organization

Progressive Discipline

• Uses penalties that are increased according to the frequency and severity of infractions

• Consists of series of steps that gradually impose increasingly severe penalties

• At every step the employee is aware that actions rest on company policies

Progressive Discipline (cont.)

• Many companies pose a list of how various infractions will be treated

Conducting a Disciplinary Meeting

• Have a private meeting with the offender

• Don’t lose your cool

• Be certain of your facts; back up charges

• Select an appropriate punishment, severity should match offense

Conducting a Disciplinary Meeting (cont.)

• Accomplish the following three objectives:– State what is wrong– State what you expect– State what happens if you don’t get what you

expect

• Keep records