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Chapter-2

Review of Relevant Literature

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Reviews on Co-curricular Activity

2.3 Reviews on Social Competence

2.4 Reviews on Altruism

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Chapter-2

Review of Relevant Literature

2.1. Introduction:

One of the indispensable parts of the research is reviewing the

literature. The review of related literature is a sort of formal training,

which enables the researcher to understand the objectives and the

corresponding hypotheses of the study. It acquaints the researcher

with the current knowledge and serves as a pole star in delimiting and

defining the problem. The most important reason for reviewing the

literature is to know about the recommendations of the previous

researchers for further researches, which they have listed in their

studies. This step helps to eliminate the duplication of what has been

done and provides useful hypothesis and helpful suggestions for

significant investigation. Essentially, review of related literature

economizes time and energy of the researcher. Thus, the review of

related literature is an essential aspect of research problem as it is a

step of scientific method; it forms the foundation upon which all the

future work is to be built. If we fail to acquire this formation of

knowledge provided by the review of literature our work is likely to

be shallow.

A literature review…

Provides an overview and a critical evaluation of a body of literature

relating to a research topic or a research problem.

Analyzes a body of literature in order to classify it by themes or

categories, rather than simply discussing individual works one after

another.

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Presents the research and ideas of the field rather than each individual

work or author by itself.

Purpose of a literature review:

A literature review situates your topic in relation to previous

research and illuminates a spot for your research. It accomplishes

several goals:

Provides background for your topic using previous research.

Shows you are familiar with previous, relevant research.

Evaluates the depth and breadth of the research in regards to your

topic.

Determines remaining questions or aspects of your topic in need of

research.

Review of related literature in the concerned field is of greater

significance in locating the research problem. It plays the pivotal role

at the crucial juncture of planning of the study. Review of related

literature is an intellectual pursuit, “essential to the development of the

problem and to the devotion of an effective approach to its solution”.

The importance of the related literature cannot be denied in

research. It works as guide not only with regard to the quantum of

work done in the field but also enable us to perceive the gap and

lacuna in the concerned filed of research. The similar or related study

carried out by research workers at various levels is called review of

related literature.

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2.2 Reviews on Co-curricular Activity

The co-curricular activities are very important for the

development of the child. As such these activities should be arranged

very carefully. Physical activities keep the balance of the development

of a child. Only studies or theoretical work make them dull and weak.

Hence physical activities are necessary. A sound body has a sound

mind. Physical fitness is necessary for the mental work. Now, a

subject as physical education is also introduced at 10+2 level and

teachers are trained for the physical education. Teachers play an

important role in the co- curricular activities of the school under the

preparation.

Co-curricular activities ensure the harmonious growth of

personality in children. It is a source of strength for streamlining the

talents of the child. It also helps to improve analytical thrust for

knowledge, competitive spirit, communication abilities, value

orientation, leadership teamwork and various other facets of life. Co-

curricular activities help in the development of mind and personality.

For the all-round development of the personality; intellectual,

emotional, social, moral and aesthetic growths are utmost important.

These growths succeed if curricula are supplemented with co-

curricular activities.

Co curricular activities also provide students with a network of

peers and adults who have interests and talents similar to their own.

Students who participate have the chance to excel individually, be part

of a group, and gain real-life lessons about the importance of

teamwork, responsibility, commitment, and hard work (Educational

Research Service 1999).

32

According to Zill, Nord, and Loomis (1995) participation in co

curricular activities improves an adolescent's chances of avoiding such

risky behaviors as dropping out, becoming a teenage parent, engaging

in delinquency, smoking or abusing drugs or alcohol through three

mechanisms.

National Federation of State High School Associations [NFHS]

of America (1999) had stated that co curricular activities are an

extension of not a diversion from, a good educational program and

support the academic mission of the school. Students who participate

in activity programs tend to have higher grade point averages, better

attendance records, lower dropout rates and fewer discipline problems

than students who don't participate.

Allison (1979) found out that students who participate in co

curricular activities not only do better academically than students who

do not but also develop other facets of their personalities in the

process. Self-esteem, self - confidence, social cooperation, and

leadership skills are just a few of the cognitive factors that are

affected. Co curricular activities allow students to blend aspects of

their academic learning into personal actions

Haensly, Lupkowsky, and Edlind (1986) reported that co

curricular activities may be one of the reasons many students stay in

school or find personal meaning for their middle level and high school

years. Students who are involved in co curricular activities are able to

extend and enrich previously learned academic skills through

competitions and real-world simulations. In the co curricular setting,

they may also develop and practice artistic, psychomotor talents;

leadership skills; and future career and occupational skills

33

Zill, Nord, and Loomis (1995) found out that goal-directed

activities develop skills in young people, and they may foster positive

character traits. Both individual and group activities can teach students

the importance of vigilance, hard work, attention to detail, practice,

patience, and persistence in the face of setbacks. Group activities

encourage cooperation and team- work, personal sacrifice for group

goals, and empathy qualities that benefit young people in their studies,

their jobs, and their personal lives, as well as help them become

responsible and successful adults.

Zill, Nord,and Loomis (1995) reported that research also shows

that low levels of participation in student activities are characteristic

of at-risk students (Klesse and D‟Onofrio 1994). Compared with

students who reported spending 1–4 hours a week in co curricular

activities, students who reported spending no time in school-

sponsored activities were 57 percent more likely to have dropped out

before their senior year, 49 percent more likely to have used drugs, 37

percent more likely to have become teen parents, 35 percent more

likely to have smoked cigarettes, and 27 percent more likely to have

been arrested.

Vandra K. N. (1994) conducted „A Study of Co-curricular

activity in Saurastra Primary School. The Objectives are (1) to know

general and class wise activity in school. (2) to know Co-curricular

activity in school time and after school time. (3) to know in which

activity schools are participated. (4) to know who is organized this co-

curricular activity. (5) to remove the obstacles in co-curricular

activity. (6) to get real image of co-curricular activity in primary

school. The investigator takes sample of 8 P.T.C. College out of 24 in

Saurashtra. The tools to get information with the use of

questionnaires. The Conclusion are (1) the professors are interested

34

and fortitude in co-curricular activity. (2) No negative effect in co-

curricular activity with educational work. (3) The student‟s intelligent

quoentient is very high in co-curricular activity. (4) In during co-

curricular activity time, money, counseling, co-operation, fortitude

and planning‟s absent.

Wagner (1999) found out that Co curricular activities encourage

personal accomplishments and the development of interpersonal skills.

Adolescents who participate in these activities have opportunities to

assume meaningful roles and responsibilities. The sense of efficacy

student‟s gain from these experiences can be an important protective

factor for those growing up under adverse circumstances.

Upadhyay N. B. (1998) carried out a study on „Educational

Programmed and Co-Curricular Activity in Primary School of

Vishavadar Taluka‟. The Objectives are (1) to get information of

educational programme in primary school of vishavadar taluka. (2) To

know schools information like number of students, numbers of

teachers and educational qualifications of the teachers. (3) To know

materialistic facilities in vishavadar primary school. (4) To know co-

curricular activity in classroom time and after class-room time. (5) To

know obstacles cause of curriculum of co-curricular activity. (6) To

know usage of co-curricular activity. (7) To get real image of co-

curricular activity in schools. The sample size nineteen self finance

schools and ninety three district schools are selected. The tool was

used to get information with self-oriented questionnaires. The

Conclusion are (1) the primary schools of vishavadar they don‟t have

enough materialistic facilities. (2) The economy reason is the main

reason behind the non co-curricular activities happen in schools of

vishavadar taluka. (3) The parents play a very vital role to remove the

35

obstacles to co-curricular activity. (4) In primary schools of

vishavadar taluka very less spiritual co-curricular activities took place.

Commission on National Community Service (1993) America

indicate that Youth service can build a community. When young

people from different racial, ethnic, economic, and educational

circumstances work together in close quarters, they come to trust each

other and depend on each other. Youth service can build up the young

people themselves: When young people engage in community service,

they become valued, competent resources, rather than clients of social

institutions, such as schools, and gain self-satisfaction and respect.

Their experience can transform who they are in their own eyes and in

the eyes of others. Youth service can inculcate a sense of civic

responsibility as young people come to appreciate the value of the

community and the contribution they can make to it; they develop a

lasting commitment to do their part and do it well.

Rubin, Bommer and Baldwin (2002) examined six hundred

eighteen business students and the relationships of their

extracurricular involvement to four interpersonal skills were

examined. Significant relationships were found and recruitment

implications are discussed. They suggest that there is widespread

agreement that success in organizations requires more than high

intellect. Thus, college recruiters commonly examine job candidates'

extracurricular activities in search of “well-rounded,” emotionally

intelligent, and interpersonally skilled students. Intuitively,

extracurricular activities seem like valuable student experiences;

however, research evidence is sparse, suggesting far more questions

than answers.

Shukla (2003) added that the school ground must be well-

situated with reference to location and environment. Co-curricular

36

activities would be enhanced with the presence of a playground. The

school must be housed in a grand building with a playground. It must

be pleasing in its aesthetic environments and designed to

accommodate the most progressive features of an educational

programme: races, PT shows, parades etc.

Clark (2007) stated that teaching process through games was

effective as compared to the alternative ways to teach. Games were

used to practice the knowledge and skills. A further factor which

affects personality development of a child is the quality of teachers

available and the ability of a teacher to dispense education. This can

be gauged by evaluating performance of students.

Parmar N. J. (2010-11) has done „A study of the Co-curricular

activities of the teacher‟s trainees of the P.T.C. College of the

Gandhinagar district‟. The objectives are -(1) To study of Co-

curricular activities in trainees of P.T.C. college in Gandhinagar

District. (2) To study of Co-curricular activity in teacher trainees of

P.T.C. College in relation to their caste, area, year and types of

college. (3) To study of co-curricular activity in teacher trainees of

P.T.C. College in relation to their prayer, gender and types of college.

(4) To study of co-curricular activity in teacher trainees of P.T.C.

College in relation to sports activity, caste, area year and type of

college. (5) To study of Co-curricular activity in teacher trainees of

P.T.C. College in relation to competitive exam and types of the

college. (6) To study of Co-curricular activity in teacher trainees of

P.T.C. College in relation to physical education of culture activity and

types of the college. The Conclusion are (1) we may say in the

summery of whole prayer association that in colleges. The percentage

of present in prayer is 84.75% total in which the girls are 85% and in

villages non granted colleges in which the total percentage of present

37

students in prayer is 84.50% in contrast in city granted colleges we

can measure the present students in prayer is 85%. (2) In competitive

activity according to drawing competition the boys and girls are 80%

participate to this activity and the non granted villages schools

students are 76.50% participated. (3) In summary we may say that

kho-kho play more than any other game the players of this game in

total 71.25% in which boys 71.50% and girls are 71%. Non-granted

colleges of village whose total players are 70%. In contrast in city

granted colleges we find 81% in totality. (4) In summary of others

activities we may say that the percentage of participation of Guardian

day is 78.25%. in which 75% are boys and 82.50% are girls. In village

non granted colleges the percentage of participating is total 79.50%. in

city are granted colleges we found total percentage is 79.50%.

The study of Bawa and Debnath (1993) has shown that students

suffering from high anxiety got relieved of it through a regular

participation in co-curricular and extracurricular participation.

Participation in this activity improves self-esteem, selfsatisfaction,

personal worth and emotional adjustment.

Amin R. M. (1972) conducted „A Study of Co-curricular

activity in secondary school of Baroda City‟. Objectives are -(1) To

arrangement of co-curricular activity and currently running activity in

secondary school of Baroda city. (2) In every co-curricular activity

normally how many students take part in arrangements of activity. (3)

To get idea of doing co-curricular activity and its progress. (4) To

evaluate co-curricular activity and get information about how do we

develop it. The Sample size we have selected 22 higher secondary

school of Baroda district which include students of standard 8 and 9.

Conclusion are (1) In Baroda secondary school I found from Co-

curricular activities very satisfied each sport but some activities are

38

not. (2) Have seen all Co-curricular activity repeatedly which are done

after school time. (3) I found that little contribution of new teachers

and parents and don‟t get grant or fee from education

ministry/department. (4) Personally students don‟t take part in any

activity of school. (5) In many schools I can see competition in

activity like sports and group discussion.

Tahir Mehmood et. al. (2012) designed the study to find out the

impact of co-curricular activities on personality development of

Secondary School Students. On the basis of data analysis, it was found

that co-curricular activities have significant impact on selected

personality traits.

Zahida Habib (2012) reported that the modern education system

recognizes that child comes to school for all-round and better

development. It aims at the development of the total personality of the

child and for that school provides opportunities for experience.

Results indicated that Community Model Schools were better in

student‟s performance due to well organized co-curricular activities

and physical facilities than Govt. Girls Primary Schools. By and large

it came out that the performance of community model schools is better

than Govt. Girls Primary Schools it is due to the well organized co-

curricular activities in Community Model Schools.

Poonam (2002) conducted a study of the perception of assistant

teachers about co-curricular activities at primary stage with special

reference to value inculcation. The objectives of the study were: 1. To

find out the various types of co-curricular activities organized in

primary schools. 2. To study the perception of teachers regarding

purpose of organizing co-curricular activities. 3. To Study the

awareness of teachers about the potential of co-curricular activities as

a source of value inculcation. To study the problem faced by the

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teachers in organization of co-curricular activities. This study was

confined to the teachers of Municipal Corporation of Delhi in

Najafgarh Zone. The major findings of the study were that (i) 42 per

cent schools were organized notice board decoration and only four

percent schools subjects clubs and visits to the institutes like bank and

post office. (ii) Majority of schools organized cultural development

activities like celebration of festivals (86%) of these 72% organized

them annually. (iii) Majority of the teachers were in favored of co-

curricular activities. They said these activities were important and not

wastage of time. Most of the students considered that co curricular

were major source of value inculcation of students. (iv) Almost all

teachers (98%) said that financial constraints restricted the

organization of co-curricular activities in schools.

Barnett and Weber (2008) asserted there is a wealth of research

which has documented the positive effects of extracurricular

recreational involvement on pre- and adolescent functioning as well as

deterring negative effects of dropping out of school or becoming

involved in self-harming practices. The study also perceived the

benefits of children participating in different types of recreational

activities. Their results showed the vast majority of mothers whose

children participated in recreational activities believed there were

significant positive benefits related to the development of character

attributes, both in terms of self and in how one treats others. Mothers

attributed their children‟s learned experiences as a result of

participation in various types of recreational activities including

individual sports, team sports, performing, and community

involvement.

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Tchibozo (2007) also found that extra-curricular activities play

a role in impacting occupational status, access to large firms, and

unemployment. Those with longer periods of time spent in extra-

curricular activities and those participating in student and cultural

activities were less likely to obtain managerial positions. Participation

in student and social organizations led to an increased likelihood of

joining a large firm in one‟s first role. Wages were more likely to be

lower for those who participated in social sector or student extra-

curricular activities than those in athletics. Finally, as it relates to

unemployment, graduates who were not in leadership roles in their

extra-curricular activities, those in cultural activities, or those who had

long-term involvement in their organizations were more likely to

experience unemployment prior to obtaining their first role.

2.2.2 Reviews on Social Competence:

Shiner (2000) examined the relationship between personality

traits and social competence. Deptula, Cohen, Phillipsen, and Ey

(2006) similarly explored the construct of personality through peer

optimism in its relation to social competence. The researchers

collected data from 232 third through sixth grade children from a

public elementary school. In Deptula et al.'s (2006) study, the

researchers constructed a questionnaire designed to assess children's

social competence through optimism regarding peer relations.

Children were asked to respond to questions regarding the different

expectations they have towards their peers. The questions were

phrased as being either optimistic or pessimistic and the children were

asked to respond using a four-point Likert scale. In addition, children

were given a full class roster and were asked to identify all of their

peers who they considered a friend. This procedure was done to

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identify mutual friendships and to help determine if optimism would

influences the number of nominations given and received. Gender

differences among the children were also considered (Deptula et al.,

2006). After an analysis of the data, the findings indicated that all of

the children were at least somewhat optimistic about peer relations,

despite differences of gender or age. However, when comparing social

competence and optimism, differences between genders were found.

The findings showed that less optimistic boys were just as likely to

have mutual friendships and social competence when compared with

more optimistic boys. For girls, the results indicated that having

friends and displaying social competence has more to do with

perceived self-competence (i.e. internalizing variables) than actual

optimism. This remarkable finding suggests that the development of

social competence may have more to do with the perception of the

self, rather than the sole personality characteristics of the child.

Nelson et al. (2009) used general competence scores of the

PSPCSA, peer ratings, and teacher ratings to explore how social

behaviors, subtypes of withdrawal, and peer acceptance/rejection

relate to self-perceptions of preschoolers. They found that children

who have lower self-perceptions of their abilities than their peers

tended to engage in more reticence, solitary-passive withdrawal, and

solitary-active behavior. To explore the possible origins of negative

self-perceptions in young children, Nelson, Rubin, and Fox (2005)

examined the relations between various nonsocial behaviors (i.e.,

reticence and social withdrawal), observed peer acceptance at ages

four and seven, and self-perceptions at age seven. Their findings

suggested a gender difference. For girls, nonsocial behavior was

negatively related to observed peer acceptance at ages four and seven;

further, peer acceptance as early as age four was found to influence

42

self-perceived competence at age seven. For boys, reticence at age

seven negatively predicted perceived peer acceptance, perceived

physical competence, perceived and cognitive competence at age

seven. Further, solitary-passive withdrawal at age four positively

predicted cognitive self-perceptions at age seven, and negatively

predicted perceived peer acceptance and perceived physical

competence at age seven.

Schneider and Byrne (1989), Ruffalo and Elliot (1997), and

Fagan and Fantuzzo (1999) reported that parent and teacher ratings of

children‟s social competence do not agree with each other. On the

other hand, van Aken and van Lieshout (1991) and Swick and Hassell

(1990) have found evidence indicating that parents and teachers

perceive children‟s social behaviour as reasonably similar (see also

Pakaslahti & Keltikangas-Järvinen, 2000). Galloway and Porath

(1997) concluded that both parents‟ and teachers‟ perceptions of

children‟s overall social skills were similar, but that differences

emerged at the level of specific kinds of social skills. Teachers

evaluated children as behaving more co-operatively than parents did,

and parents evaluated their children as being more assertive than

teachers did.

Tram and Cole (2000) conducted a longitudinal study which

investigated whether self perceived competence played a mediating or

moderating role between life events and depressive symptoms in ninth

grade students. A mediator accounts for the interaction between two

variables, whereas a moderator is a variable that influences the

direction or strength of two variables. The authors of this study

concluded from their findings that self-perceived competence served

as a mediator, not a moderator, of the relation between negative life

events and depressive symptoms; negative events predicted changes in

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self-perceived competence, while self-perceived competence predicted

changes in depressive symptoms.

One such research by Hemphill and Sanson (2001) revealed that

a child with a negative, reactive temperament whose parents use harsh

punishment may be more likely to develop behavioural problems and

lower social competence than the same child with a parent use

inductive reasoning. Smart and Sanson (2001) investigated children‟s

social competence at 11 to 12 years, and found that children with

difficult temperament who had a poor relationship with their parents

had significantly lower social competence.

Visser and Antheunis (2010) conducted a study abent Online

Communication and Social Well- being: How Playing World of

Warcraft Effects the Players‟ Social Competence and Loneliness

Sample 800 High School Students Results revealed that there is no

direct effect between playing World of Warcraft (WoW) and

adolescents‟ social competence and feelings of loneliness. However,

indirect effect with the variety of communication partners as a

mediator was found. Adolescents who play WoW have more variety

in their communication partners during the game. Moreover, variety in

communication partners leads to an increase of social competence and

a decrease of loneliness.

2.2.3 Reviews on Altruism:

Satow (1975) found that those individual with high approval

needs would be more likely to help other than individual whose need

for approval was low and that such differences would be greatest even

others witnessed the act of helping.

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Batson et al (1986) reported that certain personality

characteristics are associated with increased helping has led to these

claim that there is an altruism personality. But these personality

characteristics associated with motivation to benefit another as and in

itself (altruistic motivation)? in order to address this question, 60

female undergraduate participate in two session study. Within cell

correlation revealed that with three of the personality variable, self

esteem, ascription of responsibility, and empathic concern. For each of

this variable, however the pattern of correlation suggested that the

underlying motivation was egoistic. Higher score were associated with

increased helping when subject anticipated being reminded of their

failure to help (difficult escape), but not when subjects did not

anticipated being remained (easy escape).

Kapila (1987) carried out a study of Altruism, Personality,

Achievement, Motivation and Adjustment of Doctors. The sample

consisted or 200 doctors from district Patiala (Punjab, India). There

were a hundred males & a hundred female doctors. Altruistic scale by

Ronald, Chrisjhon and Febber (1981), Eysenck‟s personality

Questionnaire by Eysenck & Eysenck (1975), Achievement

Motivation Questionnaire by Ray (1974, 1975), Bell‟s Adjustment

inventory by bell (1937) were keeping in view the aim of the study.

Her result shows that there is a positive correlation between

extraversion & Altruism and there is negative correlation between

Psychoticism & Altruism.

McGuire et al (1994) studies the relation between altruism and

mental disorders. Data suggested that the theories of kin selection and

reciprocal altruism are viable working models to explain altruistic

behavior (AB). It remains to be demonstrated whether these model

can explain the behavior of person with mental disorders for whom

45

AB is reposed to be reduced. The author review proximate factors

thought to influence both altruistic decision making and inter

individual variation in altruistic behavior. The focus is on trait

signaling by potential beneficiaries and the evaluation of signals and

altruistic decision making by potential altruists. The point developed

in this review are combined with clinical and empirical findings to

analysis data on personality disorders, including a case study of

42women aged 22- 45 years with dysthymic disorder. Reduced

altruistic behavior (AB) may be (1) an evolved strategy, a

consequence of recognition system or algorithms, and or (2)

secondary response to an increase in symptoms.

Batson (1995) conducted study on empathy – enduced altruism

and the results of 2 experiments supported the proposal that empathy

enduced altruism can lead one act in a way that violates the moral

principal of justice. In each experiment participant were ask to make

an allocation decision that affected the welfare of other individual.

Participants who were not including feeling empathy tended to act in

accord with a principal of justice: participant who were induced to feel

empathy were significantly more likely to violate this principle,

allocation resources preferentially to the person for whom empathy

was felt. High empathy participants in perceiving partiality to be less

fair and less moral (Experiment-I) Overall to uphold a moral principal

of justice are independent prosocial motive that sometimes cooperate

but sometimes conflict.

Callero (1985-88) develop the symbolic integrationist approach

to prosocial behavior, focusing on the work on G.H.Mead (1934,

1938). It is argued that Mead‟s work offersa frame work for

understanding prosocial behavior at both the micro societal and the

micro- individual levels. His concept of social object, perspective the

46

generalized other is used to conceptualize prosocial behavior as role

behavior.

Smith and Shafeer (1986) conducted study of eight female

undergraduate two differed in public and private self consciousness

(SC) and in self reported altruism were afforded an opportunity to

assist a person in need. As anticipated, subjects high in private self

consciousness provided more assistance to the recipient than did

subjects low on this attribute; however, there was a tendency for

highly private subjects to be less helpful if they were also high in

public self consciousness. Analysis revealed that self – reported

altruism reliability predicted the helping behavior of subject high in

public self consciousness but did not predict the personal action of

those low in private self consciousness.

Killeen & Mc Carrey (1986) examined relation of altruistic

versus competitive values. 3 altruistic and 3 competitive instrumental

values from the Rokeach value survey were rank ordered by 83

nursing and 70 business students. Subjects also responded to an

invitation from a different response to volunteer for altruistic or

competitive task involving 10-20 hrs. of their time. Value oriented

was significantly related to individual/ competitive value orientation,

while 74% of the nursing students espoused the predominant social

altruistic value orientation. Analysis indicated a significant

congruency between the type 6 of Instrumental value the person

reported and the kind of activity chosen.

Schwartz (1993) conducted study on an altruism & social

influence. In his study he examined 319 last wills probate court

regarding expressions of individuality, altruism, and social influence

in the writing of a will. 10% of the testator s used testamentary

material, disinheritance, or altruism to express their individual; about

47

42% were personalized directly in other ways, while 48% displayed

indirect influence of family, friend and community. less than 100%

displayed primary influence of attorneys, bank, nursing home,

governments, religious or others organization. Although non of the 3

major theoretical position of testamentary behavior prevailed, the

individualist was found more of ten then family community position

and both were more common than the legalist position. Testators were

found not to be very frank or revealing.

Ribal (1962) hypothesized the existence of four personality

types relevant to giving and receiving behavior in social interchange.

The typology was based on two levels (high & low) on dimensions of

nurturance. The need to give other, and uccorance, the need to receive

from other. The 3 types identified were as follows: (1) the altruistic

self who has high need to give others and low needs to receive from

others. (2) The receptive giving self who ha high nurturance needs and

high succorance. (3) The inner sustaining self who has low nurturance

& succoraance needs.

Ribal (1963) also found that altruism female had high needs for

affiliation and interception and low needs for achievement and

dominance as defined by Edwards personal preference schedule

(Edwards, 1954). Altruistic males scored high on need for endurance.

Echwartz and Clausen (1970), however, fail to relate personality

difference to helping behavior.

Ranchburg et al (1980) examined the formation of altruistic

manifestations, in 13-14 year old to determine whether altruism is

behavior regulated by empathy or controlled by cognitive process

through reward or consideration of punishment or the transformation

of moral verdicts. Results suggest that belonging to the introvert or

extravert group determine the degree of giving. Data indicated that

48

giving altruistic behavior was not regulated by empathy but by

considering rewards & punishment. Though the interpretation of data

from the situation of self denying seems to be more complex. It is

hypothesized that giving is the extravert from while self denial is the

introvert from of altruism.

Sheoran (1983) found neuroticism, extroversion and life scale

to be positively correlated to altruism. Sethi (1985) also found

extraversion, neuroticism to be positively correlated altruism. But with

the line scale, it can be assumed that scores might be negatively

correlated with altruism in introverts but positively correlated with

extraverts.

Winniford et al. (1995) conducted a study by analyzing the

traits and motivation of college students involved in services

organizations. In their study they kept a sample of 443 students

involved in volunteer work before entering college by exploring the

trait and motivation that attracted. Altruistic motive were rated as

most important, followed by egoistic motivation and social obligation.

Factor analysis confirmed the conducted validity of the instrument,

and accounted for 54.9% of the variance in subject‟s initial

motivations for continued involvement. Content analysis of open

ended question showed that although altruistic motivations were cited

as being equally important in initially and continued involvement,

egoistic motivation, specifically friendship and interaction as being

important in continued involvement.

Mohan et. al. (1986) examined the altruistic behavior of

adolescents in relation to their personality and value. In the study,

administered personality, altruism and value scale to 100 male and

100 female high school subject (mean age of 16 year) to assess the

relationship among these factors. Instruments used include that

49

personality Questionnaire developed by H.J. Eysenck and S.B.

Eysenck (1978), self –reported altruism scale developed by Ronald et.

al. (1951), and study of values developed by G.W.Allport et. al.

(1951) Altruism was found to correlate significantly with age and

theoretical social value, while sex was a significant determiner of

psychoticism, neuroticism, and likelihood of lying.

Goldberg (1995) examined altruism towards panhandlers: who

gives? Collected data on the proportions of passer by who gave

donations to panhandlers in Boston and Cambridge, Massachusetts. 11

male and 7 female Panhandlers and 6396 passerby were observed

1.6% of passerby gave donations. Male passerby gave more frequently

than did female male. When alone, gave disproportional to female

panhandlers. When in the company of a similarly aged female, male

disproportionately avoided giving to female panhandlers and did not

appear to show off by giving disproportionately to male panhandlers.

Female panhandlers did not receive more help than males.