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89 Chapter 2: Review of Literature 2. Review of Literature 2.1. Nishkam Karma Yoga (िनçकाम कम योग) 2.1.1. Message of the Geeta (गीता): Its History and Evolution The Geeta (गीता) is linked to the Dravidians dating back to about 3000 B.C. Elements of their language are still evident in some of the regional languages spoken and written in India today (Soundar, 2005). According to some, the original author of the Geeta (गीता) is unknown (Mascaro, 1971). However, its history stretches from 400 BC to 400 AD (Haridas, 2001). The first translation from Sanskrit into English can be attributed to Charles Wilkins in 1785 (Mascaro, 1971). From the Hindu perspective, a sage and a seer, Rishi Krishna Dwaipayan (ऋिष çण ɮवैपायन) who was known as Veda Vyas (वेद åयास) compiled the Mahabharata (महाभारत) comprising about 100,000 verses (Nawal, 1996). The Geeta (गीता) is part of the Bhishmaparva (भीçमपव ) in the Mahabharata (महाभारत) with only about 700 verses. To Hindus, the Geeta (गीता) has been documented by Sri Ganesha (Įी गणेश); an elephant faced deity (Balakrishnan, 2005). Many consultants and coaches have adapted wisdom in the Geeta (गीता) for management practices (Govindarajan and Bagchi, 2009; Chatterjee, 2006). G.E. reports of breakthroughs in leadership training based on principles adapted from the Geeta (गीता) (Prokesch, 2009). The Geeta (गीता) distills the essence of Indian wisdom in simple and memorable poetry that permeates one’s mind and informs about the affairs of everyday life (Easwaran, 1985). Some of the key principles from this Hindu treatise and the philosophical significance of those principles that have excellent potential to impact management thought in today’s global arena. Many European and American managers have reviewed and cross the threshold of understanding regarding these principles (Natesan, et. al., 2009). The Geeta (गीता) has been published in over 2,000 editions and translated into at least 75 languages (Bhatia, 1996). European and American corporations are looking towards the Bhagvad Geeta (भगवɮगीता) to develop an understanding and thereby draw Eastern philosophical techniques to apply to global business practices and improve their competitiveness (Engardio and McGregor, 2006). 2.1.2. Nishkam Karma Yoga (िनçकाम कम योग) as Work Ethics The philosophy of Nishkam Karma Yoga (िनçकाम कम योग), as exemplified in the Shrimad Bhagvad Geeta (Įीमगवɮगीता) has been viewed as work ethics by different scholars, all holding more or less the same view that work should be selfless and for the greater

Transcript of Chapter 2: Review of Literature

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    Chapter2:ReviewofLiterature2.ReviewofLiterature

    2.1.NishkamKarmaYoga( )

    2.1.1.MessageoftheGeeta():ItsHistoryandEvolution

    TheGeeta () is linkedtotheDravidiansdatingbacktoabout3000B.C.Elementsoftheirlanguagearestillevidentinsomeoftheregionallanguagesspokenandwrittenin

    Indiatoday(Soundar,2005).Accordingtosome,theoriginalauthoroftheGeeta ()isunknown (Mascaro, 1971). However, its history stretches from 400 BC to 400 AD(Haridas, 2001). The first translation from Sanskrit into English can be attributed toCharlesWilkinsin1785(Mascaro,1971).FromtheHinduperspective,asageandaseer,

    Rishi Krishna Dwaipayan ( ) who was known as Veda Vyas ( ) compiled theMahabharata () comprising about100,000 verses (Nawal,1996).TheGeeta() ispartoftheBhishmaparva ( )intheMahabharata() withonlyabout700verses.ToHindus,theGeeta() hasbeendocumentedbySriGanesha ( );anelephantfaceddeity(Balakrishnan,2005).

    Many consultants and coaches have adapted wisdom in the Geeta () formanagementpractices(GovindarajanandBagchi,2009;Chatterjee,2006).G.E.reportsof breakthroughs in leadership training based on principles adapted from theGeeta

    ()(Prokesch,2009).TheGeeta() distillstheessenceof Indianwisdom insimpleandmemorable poetry that permeates onesmind and informs about the affairs ofeverydaylife(Easwaran,1985).SomeofthekeyprinciplesfromthisHindutreatiseandthephilosophicalsignificanceofthoseprinciplesthathaveexcellentpotentialtoimpactmanagementthought intodaysglobalarena.ManyEuropeanandAmericanmanagershave reviewed and cross the threshold of understanding regarding these principles

    (Natesan,et.al.,2009).TheGeeta() hasbeenpublished inover2,000editionsandtranslated into at least 75 languages (Bhatia, 1996). European and American

    corporations are looking towards the Bhagvad Geeta ( ) to develop anunderstanding and thereby draw Eastern philosophical techniques to apply to globalbusinesspracticesandimprovetheircompetitiveness(EngardioandMcGregor,2006).

    2.1.2.NishkamKarmaYoga( )asWorkEthics

    ThephilosophyofNishkamKarmaYoga ( ),asexemplifiedintheShrimadBhagvadGeeta ( )hasbeenviewedasworkethicsbydifferentscholars,allholdingmoreor less the same view thatwork shouldbe selfless and for thegreater

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    social betterment (Rao,1990; Sheth and Sheth, 1990; Shrivastava, 1990). Therelationshipbetweenhumankindandworkhasbeenexplainedthroughthephilosophy

    ofrightactionorNishkamKarmaYoga ( ) intheShrimadBhagvadGeeta ( ).TherearetwovitaldimensionsofKarmaYoga ( ),viz.a senseofduty or obligation towards others and an absence of desire for personal rewards. Abelief in the Indian philosophy enhances duty orientation, and absence of desire forrewardsenhanceslifesatisfaction(MullaandKrishnan,2006a).Workisthecentralanddefining characteristic of life. Attachment to the result ofworkmay lead to stress,competition and aggression that in turnmay lead to fatalmedical and psychological

    conditions.TheunderstandingofKarmaYoga ( ) and itspracticewould leadanindividualtoworkwithintrinsicvaluesratherthanwithinstrumentalvalues.

    ThepursuitofKarmaYoga( ) willhelptoattainthepracticalaspectsofpositivepsychologyinthelifeofanindividualbyhelpinghimtoleadapleasurableandsatisfiedlife.Extrinsicmotivationpushesonetoworkforresultsthatmaybringaboutsituationsthatone likesorwillavoidunpleasantemotions.Contrary to this intrinsicmotivation

    inspiresone toworkbecauseoneenjoys thework itself.KarmaYoga ( ) isonesuchmodel for intrinsicmotivation (KumarandKumar,2013).The lawofkarma () canbeevaluatedon theparameterof causation to result inpleasureorpain for the

    agenti.e.,thekarta ()innearordistantfuture.Inthecontextofsalespeople,therearefourdimensionstotheirkarmaorientation,viz.workasselflessaction,workasdutytowards others, detachment from work related rewards and equanimity under

    environmental influences. A salespersons karma () orientation is useful fordeveloping relationships with customers, enhances selling effectiveness, ethicalbehaviorandspiritualwellbeing,byprovidingthesalespersonwithasenseofdutyandownershiptowardshiswork(SinghandSingh,2012).

    Karma () is considered to be an impersonal process, inherent in the universe, bywhichrewardsandpunishmentsaredistributed;the impersonalnatureoftheprocessmeansthatthereisnoagentordivinityresponsibleformetingouttherelevantrewards

    andpunishments.Thedoctrineofkarma () providesonewith theknowledge thattheuniverse isultimately just, thatnogooddeedgoesunrewardedandnobaddeedgoes unpunished, though the doctrine does not enable one to make very specific

    predictions(ChaddhaandTrakakis,2007).ThedoctrineofNishkamKarma ( )isadoctrineofaction,whichwasadvocatedbytheBhagvadGeeta( )toprotectdharma in the society. Therefore actions are directed towards the social end of

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    loksangraha () or the individual end of moksha () or liberation. SeeingNishkamKarma ( ) from this angle, it is a teleological concept rather than adeontologicalone(Pal,2001).

    2.1.3.CriticismoftheDoctrineofKarma()Considering thevariousschoolsofHindu thoughtalongwith JainismandBuddhism, itmaybehypothesizedthatdivinegraceintervenesinthecauseandeffectrelationshipin

    karma ().Butaverysatisfactoryandlogicalconclusiontotheproblemthathowdoesthelawofkarma ()operateastoaccountforanexplanationforhumanpleasureandpain cannot be reached at (Reichenbach, 1989). Furthermore, a very strong doubt

    remainsthatwhetherkarma() orthekarma() doctrine ismeanttofunctionasa

    theodicy. Karma () as a systematic theodicy can be morally objected on various

    accounts.Thus, thedoctrineofkarma () and rebirth, takenasasystematic rationalaccountofhumansufferingbywhichall individualsuffering isexplainedasaresultofthatindividual'swrongdoing,isunsuccessfulasatheodicy(Kaufman,2005).ThisdoubtisfurthercorroboratedbytheviewthatIndianwisdomisunconcernedabouttheodicy,

    asbecauserebirthand joyorsorroware takencareofby thedoctrineofkarma ()(Herman,1976;OFlaherty,1980). It is frequently claimed that thedoctrineofkarmaandrebirthprovidesIndianreligionwithamoreemotionallyandintellectuallysatisfyingaccountofevilandsuffering thando typicalWesternsolutions to theproblemofevil(Kaufman,2005).Due to this aperson can get awaywith anotherwisewrongact to

    causemasssufferingundertherefugethatheisactingasonlyanagenttokarma() carrying out necessary punishments forwicked people (Kaufman, 2005; Chadha andTrakakis,2007).

    Karma()cannotbecharacterizedasatheodicy,becausethispresupposestheideaofa benevolent, omnipotent deity which is uncharacteristic of South Asian religions

    (Keyes, 1983). Karma () is a theory of causation that supplies reasons for humanfortune,goodorbad,andthatcanatleastintheoryprovideconvincingexplanationsforhumanmisfortune (Keyes,1983).There isno intrinsicconnectionbetweenthe ideaofkarmic causationand thatof rebirthor reincarnationexcept thatwithout the rebirth

    ideakarma () wouldnot constituteaplausible theodicy (Chapple,1986).Scripturalreferences to thedoctrinearenotoriouslyvagueandobscureand require substantial

    fillingin.Inpartthisobscurityisdeliberate;insomeplacesintheUpanishads() itissuggestedthatthedoctrineisdeliberatelykeptsecretandesotericasisalsogivenin

    thefollowingversesoftheGeeta()

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    I

    IIItitegyanamakhyatamguhyadguhyatarammayaaVimrishyaitadasheshenyathechchhasitathakuru(XVIII/63).

    : :I

    S IISarvaguhyatambhuyahshrinumeparamamvachahIshtosimedridhamititatovakshyamitehitam(XVIII/64).

    Inpartthisobscuritymaybeattributabletothegradualevolutionofthedoctrinefromtheideaofefficacyofsacrificetotheideaofefficacyofvirtuousactioningeneral,andto theeffectsextendingbeyond the lifetimeofan individual (Kaufman,2005).Even if

    there is noway of knowingwhat historicallywas the problem that karma () wasoriginally intended tomeet, theprogressivedevelopmentof the theorywasnodoubtmotivatedby adesire to rationally to account for thediversityof circumstances andsituations into which sentient creatures were born, or for the natural eventsexperiencedduringone's lifetimewhichaffectedonepersonpropitiouslyandanother

    adversely.Theattractionofthekarma() doctrineovertimeisitsallegedexplanatorypower in this regard which has gained for its adherents through the centuries(Reichenbach,1990).2.1.4.AntithesistotheCriticismoftheKarmaDoctrineSomeofthewesternscholars like (Clooney,1989;Riechenbach,1990;Edwards,1996;

    Kaufman,2005)have tried toget inferences from theKarma () philosophyorhave

    associatedKarma() philosophywithmatterssuchasthatofhumansufferingandevilinthesocietyandhaveexpressedtheinsufficiency,inapplicabilityandvaguenessofthe

    philosophy to aptly give an answer to these problems. Karma () which essentiallymeans all actions of thought speech and conduct has been contextually discussed in

    variousUpanishads() andalso inotherscriptureslikeGaneshPurana( ) etc.(Tilak,1926).Theconceptofkarmacannotbe isolatedfrom itsmeaning,itsforms

    and categories, the karmasiddhant (), the yoga () of karma (), nishkamkarma ( ) and its advantages anddisadvantages.The conceptof karma () shouldbeseenasahumanphenomenonratherthanatheoryortheodicy.Theobjective

    ofancient Indianrishis () andpreceptorsbehindpreachingtheyoga ()ofkarma

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    ()was toenablepeopleof all types from allwalksof life, to lead a fuller life andrealizetheirlifepositionandgiveintheircontributiontothesocietythroughtheirown

    karma ().

    ConsideringtheSrimadBhagvadGeeta( )whichisdevotedtotheYoga() of Karma () and discusses all aspects very elaborately, it firstly talks about thewisdomwhichistheunderlyingprincipleandisthefirststeptowardsunderstandingthe

    yoga () of karma (),which is the sankhya () or analytical truth behind theyoga () of karma (). Then the Geeta () gradually builds the concept for theseeker,atalllevelsgivingconcretereasonsbehindeachdirective.Thewholephilosophyis gradually unfolded in order to aid the understanding of the seeker. It focuses oncognitiveandintellectualdevelopmentoftheseekerinordertomakehimawareofhis

    cosmic position and the role he ought to play. Themessage of theGeeta () is amodelforinspiration,selfmotivationandselfefficacy.

    Moreover,thepremiseandthepretextofthesermonoftheGeeta ()itselfindicatesthat it is for those people who have immense potential within themselves, theirdecisionsandactionshavethepowertoaffectabroadspectrumofpeopleandeventheenvironment,andtheyaredesperatelylookingforconcrete,substantialandunchangingandfirmlyrootedmoralprinciplestodecidethebestcourseofactionwhenfacedwith

    situationsofdilemma.TheGeeta() givesthemodelofNishkamKarmaYoga( ) whichwhenunderstoodandbroughtintopracticebytheseeker,itensuresthenecessarymoral,ethical, intellectualandbehavioralmakeupofan individual thathewillneverfalterintakingthemostappropriatecourseofactionandalsoensuresthathewillactwhenheisoughtto.TheodicyisthatbranchoftheologythatdefendsGodsgoodnessandjusticeintheface

    ofexistenceofevil.Tothescholarswhohavecriticizedkarma() asatheodicy,there

    are two facts thathavebeengiven in theGeeta () by thepreceptor, the firstandforemost isthatKarmaphal () ortheresultantofanaction takes itsownnaturalcoursewhichcannotbealteredbydivineintervention,thereforegahanakarmanogatih ( :);secondlywhenevertherightorderofsocietyorlifei.e.,dharma ()isdisturbed by evil forces, the omniscient and omnipotent divinitymanifests itself in aform to set the order of the society right, as is given in the following verse of the

    BhagvadGeeta( ):

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    I

    II

    Yadayadahidharmasya glanirbhavatibharata Abhyutthanamadharmasyatadatmanamsrijamyaham(IV/7). Thedoctrineofkarma () isaguidingprincipleratherthana law(Potter,1964).Theacceptanceofthekarmicprincipleisincompatiblewithnolawsofconduct,notbeingalaw itself. Acceptance of the karmic principle requires one to adopt the position ofnaturalisminethics.Themostfundamentalphilosophicalimplicationofthedoctrineofkarma () is that the human predicament requires one to view the worldnaturalistically, i.e., as governed by discoverable regularities.Only by so viewing theworldinthiswaycanonehopetofreeonesselffromthesufferingwhich,bycommonconsentofallIndiansystems,Hindu,Buddhist,andJaina,pervadeshumanlives(Potter,1964).

    Lest suchamoralhazardarise inanykarta ()thathe isactingasonlyanagent tokarma () metingoutdeservingpunishments forwickedpeople in thewholeof the

    SrimadBhagvadGeeta ( ),certaincognitiveandbehavioraltraitshavebeensuggested,thepresenceofwhichinanindividualwillensureoptimummoraljudgmentandactionbyhimatalltimesand inallsituations.Itisalsoadvisedthatonewho is in

    thepursuitofKarmaYoga( ) shouldenterprisetocultivatethesequalities.Whenapersonmakessincereeffortsinthisdirection,hisdecisiontoactinaparticularmanner

    inanysituationisforloksangraha() andtheconservationofdharma ().

    As opposed to the negative critique of the Karma () philosophy by somewesternscholars,yetothersopinethatKarma() standsoutbyvirtueofitsconsistencyaswellas by its extraordinarymetaphysical achievement. The philosophy unites virtues likeselfredemption by man's own effort with universal accessibility of salvation, thestrictest rejection of theworldwith organic social ethics, and contemplation as theparamount path to salvation with an innerworldly vocational ethic (Weber, 1946).UnliketheWesterntheories,thedoctrineofrebirthasanoffshootoftheKarmatheoryis capableofmeeting themajorobjectionsagainstwhich thoseWesternattemptsallfailed (Herman, 1976). The Indian idea of rebirth ismore plausible than traditional

    Christian ideas such as purgatory (Stoeber, 1992). The Karma () theory ispraiseworthy for its consistency and completeness (Herman, 1976). It is a carefully

    workedouttheoryconcerningthemechanicsofkarma() andrebirth(Potter,1980).

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    Karma () isasystematicexplanationofallevents intheworld;thedoctrineextendstheprinciplesofcausationtothesphereofhumanconductandteachesthat,aseveryeventinthephysicalworldisdeterminedbyitsantecedents,soeverythingthathappensinthemoralrealmispreordained(Hiriyanna,1995).

    2.1.5.TheJainViewofKarma()Karma ()etymologicallymeanswork,butbecameassociatedwiththeaftereffectsofactions,bothphysicalandpsychical.Every livingbeingor jiva () isconstantlyactive,expressingitsactivityinthethreefunctionsofbody,speech,andmind.Theseactivitiesleavebehindtracesofaftereffectsinphysicalandpsychicforms.Everyaction,word,orthought produces invisible and transcendent effects, as well as visible effect. . Thekarma () doctrine involves the ideaofaneternalmetempsychosis (Kalghatgi,1965).

    The Jainshavea realisticviewofkarma ().The Jainconceptionofkarma () musthavebeencompletelydevelopedafterathousandyearsofMahivira's () nirvana (). The Sthananga ( ), the Uttaradhyayana sutra ( ), and theBhagavati sutra ( ) containageneraloutlineof thedoctrine,and thedetailshavebeenworkedout in theKarmagrantha ( ), thePancha sangraha ( ),and the Karma prakrti ( ). In working out the details, there have been twoschools of thought: the Agamikas () and; the Karma granthikas ( ).Karma (), according to the Jains, is material in nature. Physical karma () andpsychickarma() aremutuallyrelatedascauseandeffect(Kalghatgi,1965).Inregard

    tothelogicaljustificationofthedoctrineofkarma (),itcanbesaidthat,fromtherealpointofviewornischayanaya ( ), full logical justificationof thedoctrine isneither possible nor necessary. It is the expression of the highest knowledge andexperienceoftheseers.Ultimatelyitmustbeacceptedonauthority(Kalghatgi,1965).

    2.1.6.KarmaYoga()andPsychology

    Modern western psychology is yet to acknowledge Yoga () as a valid form ofpsychology. Yoga () is still deemed as yet another version of Easternmetaphysics

    andmysticism.ButthereisperhapsonepromisingpointofcontactbetweenYoga ()andmodernpsychology,that is,anapparentparallelbetweenthemodernpsychology

    ofmemory and the Yoga () notion of karma (). This is especially notable if acomparisonismadeoftheconceptionofkarma() foundinPatanjali's() YogaSutras ( ) and the views of the contemporary psychologists Sigmund Freud andCarl Jung. For both the ancient Yoga () of Patanjali () and the modern

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    LeibnitzianpsychologyofFreudandJungasopposedtothesimpleLockeanspinalreflexmodel, memory, motivation and the unconscious are intimately intertwined at theneurophysiologicallevel(Freud,1954;Pribram,1969;Eccles,1977).Experimentsonactualneurologicalprocessesconcludethatthespinesynapsesonthedendritesofneurons in thecerebralcortexand thehippocampusaremodifiable toahigh degree and exhibit a prolonged potentiating that could be the physiological

    expressionofthememoryprocess(Eccles,1977).Karma() isdescribedbyPatanjali() as amemory trace recorded in the unconscious by any action or thought apersonhasdone(Coward,1983).Thetheorizingby(Freud,1954)andexperimentation

    by (Eccles,1977)explainsthephysiologicalcharacterofkarmicsamskaras ( ) andvasanas (); anexplanationwhich inPatanjali's () time involveda longanddetaileddiscussion as tohow theguna () constituentsof consciousness i.e. sattva ( ),rajas (),andtamas (),functioninthevariouskarmicstates.InYoga() terminology, the structuringof amemory trace isdescribed as an accumulationof a

    latentdepositofkarma () whichwillhaveasitsneuralbasisasignificanttamas() orphysicalstructurecomponent,perhapsparalleltoenlargeddendriticspinesinterms

    ofmodernphysiology.TheYogicnotionofhabitpatternsorvasanas() asresulting

    from repetitionsofaparticularmemory traceor samskaras ( ) fitswellwith themodernideaofgrowthatthesynapticspines(Coward,1983).

    BothYoga() andFreudiantheoriesagreethatmemoryandmotivationarepartsofasinglepsychicprocesswhichalsoembodieschoiceorselection.WhiletheYogaSutras

    ( ) agreewithFreudthatthepainandfrustrationsoneexperiencesarecausedbythe klesas () or drives of the unconscious, Yoga () clearly goes beyond theFreudian counsel that one must learn to live intelligently with such tension and

    discomfort.ForPatanjali() thegoalofYoga() isthecompleteovercomingofthekarmictracesandthus,intheend,theannihilationoftheunconscious.

    JungspsychologicalexplanationofmemoryisalsoinfluencedbytheYoga() notionof karma () in importantways. Just as in Yoga () theory the contents of theunconsciousaredescribedasmemorytracessamskaras ( ),soalsoJungconceivesof the unconscious as containing the psychobiologicalmemory of our ancestral past

    (Jacobi, 1973; Coward, 1978, 1979). Yoga () is like amental vacuum cleaner that

    removes from ourminds all the samskaras ( ) collected during the current and

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    previous lives.Patanjali () definesyoga ()astheremovalordestructionofallkarmicsamskaras( ) frompreviouslivesuntilacompletelyclearanddiscriminating

    mind is achieved. As described in Patanjali's Yoga (), samskaras ( ) ormemorytracesfunctionasobstaclestotrueknowledgeofrealityandtheirremovalbyyogicmeditationresultsinomniscience.Thus,thereissignificantsimilaritybetweentheancientYogaconceptionsofkarmawithmodernpsychology(Coward,1983).

    The philosophyof Patanjali ()describeswork as ameans of selfrealization forhumanbeings.Whenapersonworkssimplyforhisself,orforownpersonalgains,hismindwillseldomriseabovethe limitationsofanundevelopedpersonal life.Butwhenoneisinspiredbysomegreaterpurpose,someextraordinaryproject;allthoughtsbreaktheirbonds,themindtranscendslimitations,consciousnessexpandsineverydirection,andonefindsonesselfinanew,greatandwonderfulworld.Dormantforces,facultiesandtalentsbecomealive,andonediscoversonesselftobeagreaterpersonbyfarthanheeverdreamedhimselftobe(Szejely,1973).

    2.1.7.NishkamKarmaYoga( )asDivineActivity

    Divine activity is perfectly nishkama ( ) i.e., nonbinding and unconditioned bydesire;andhumanactivity isa channelingofdivineactivity.Thisgeneralviewcanbe

    refined in themanner of the Buddha's Pratityasamutpida ( ) as in thefollowingversesoftheGeeta ():

    : I

    : SIIDhyayatovishayanpunsahsangasteshupajayateSangaatsanjayatekamahkamatkrodhobhijayate(II/62)

    : :I

    II KrodhatbhavatisammohahsammohatsmritivibhramahSmritibhranshadbuddhinashobuddhinashatpranashyati(II/63)

    Let aman but think, i.e., dhyaya ( ) of the objects of the senses, attachment orsanga() tothemisborn;fromattachmentspringsdesireorkama ();fromdesire

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    isangeror krodha () born; fromanger comesbewildermentor sammoha ( );from bewilderment wandering of the mind or smriti vibhrama ( ); fromwanderingofthemind,destructionofthe intellectbuddhinasa ();onceintellectis destroyed the individual is lost. This explanation aligns with Aristotles and theEuropeanschoolmen'sdoctrineregardingdesire(concupiscentia)andanger(iracundia)astheoriginofallpassions;aswellaswithmanymodernpsychologists'focusonlibidoandaggressiveness(DeSmet,1977).Therefore,theGeetafurthersaysthatkamakrodha

    (-) is theeternal foeornityavairina ( )of thewisemanasgiven in thefollowingverse:

    I

    IIAvritamgyanametengyaninonityavairinaKamrupenkaunteyadushpurenanlencha(III/39).

    Inordertoovercomekamaandkrodha (-),onemustknowthatthey lurk inthesenses,mindandintellect;throughtheseitengulfswisdom,deludingtheembodiedself.Therefore,oneshouldrestrainthesensesfirst.Thisisevidentinthefollowingversesof

    theGeeta ():

    I

    II IndriyanimanobuddhirasyadhishthanamuchyateEtairvimohayatyeshgyanamavrityadehinam(III/40).

    I

    IITasmattvaminindriyanyadauniyamyabharatarshabhaPapmanamprajahihyonamgyanvigyananashanam(III/41).

    Buddhiyoga () makes a man to be controlled by the intellect hence bebuddhiyukta (), insteadofbeing controlledby the senses.Throughbuddhiyoga() or gyanyoga (), one can disentangle the discriminative faculty or

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    intellect from doubts, distracting thoughts, and erroneous beliefs so as to fix it

    exclusivelyon the trueviewof realityespecially concerning selfandkarma ().Thisculminates in samatva ( ),a samenessandindifferencewith regard toallpairsofopposites or dwandwa ( ) which reflects the equalmindedness of God as udasin ().Thatyogi () iscalled integrated i.e.,yukta () towhomclodsofearth,stones,goldarethesame,asisgiveninthefollowingverse:

    :I

    :IIGyanvigyantriptatmakootasthovijitendriyahYuktaityuchyateyogisamaloshtashmkanchanah(VI/8).

    Withthisequalmindedness,comesserenity,unityofvisionandeternalblissinaperson,asisgiveninthefollowingverses:

    I

    IIPrashantamanasamhyonamyoginamsukhamuttamamUpaitishantarajasambrahmabhutamkalmasham(VI/27).

    :I

    IIYunjannevamsadatmanamyogivigatakalmashahSukhenbrahmasansparshamatyantamsukhamshrute(VI/28).

    Karma yoga ( ) however, is higher. It integrates the samatva ( ) obtainedthrough buddhiyoga () but expresses itself in man's voluntary resolution to

    devotehimself tonishkamakarma ( ) for it iskarmasukausalam ( ),i.e.,wisdominactions,asgivenintheverse(II,50).Betterisapersonwhoconsciouslyandthroughgreatdiscipline,controlshisorgansofactionandusingthem,embarkson

    karma yoga () yet remaining detached (III, 7). Thus, indeed, he acts like God,withoutphalakama () andonly for theuniversalgoodor loksangraha ()(DeSmet, 1977).Karma yoga ( ) demands suchpurification that it seems tobe

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    difficulttofollowforcommonpeople.ThesacrificialdimensionofKarmayoga( )brings about three results: itmakes one devote himself to his duties, itmakes his

    actionstotallynishkama ( )anditresultsintheculminationofhisbhakti()asanunswervingdevotiontowardstheSupremeBeing.

    2.1.8.LeadershipandMotivationthroughNishkamKarmaYoga ( )In the present information age,managers need tomotivateworkers and the Geeta

    ()isarichresource. Inparticular,Geeta()mentionsthatallworkdonewithoutfaithisnothing.Sincerityisvitalforallinterconnectivitiesbetweendeedsandneeds.Abusinessneeds tomaintaina cultureof integrity inorder to sustain trust, inside and

    outside (Chow Hoi Hee and Gurd, 2010). In the application of the Geeta () toleadership, results are usually intangible and invisible; work becomes worship, thusincreasing the resilience in ones self to be able to see opportunities in adversities,chances in crises and adopting a positive perspective to the same situation (Rarick,2007). Transformational leadership characteristics, which emanate exclusively frompersonal qualities of the leader, have a very strong positive relationshipwith Karma

    Yoga (). Managers practicing Karma Yoga () can very easily practice

    transformational leadershipandviceversa.Thus theconceptsofKarmaYoga () and transformational leadership are highly correlated and have great promise fororganizational development. A manager can become a transformational leader by

    adoptingtheprinciplesofKarmaYoga ()inhisworking(Satpathy,2008).

    TheGeeta () advocates leaderstoact intheroleofservant(Rarick,2007),which isnot inconsistentwiththeServantLeadershipmodel(Greenleaf,2002).Themessageof

    theGeeta() canbeanenduringtoolforuniqueleadershipinadversetimeslikethe

    global recession (Rarick,2007).KarmaYoga () constitutes the Indianwork idealand can be harnessed by leaders tomotivate their followers. Leaders who possess

    attributesofKarmaYoga() arelikelytoberolemodelsfortheirsubordinatesandthusenhance theircharismaticpotential.Rather thanadopt theconventionalwesternmodelsofmotivationwhichhaveanindividualistichedonisticbiasandarelargelybasedon cognitive calculative processes (Shamir, 1991), Indian managers can use more

    indigenousmotivationalmodelslikeKarmaYoga ().Selfsacrificeandaltruismareextremely effective leadership behaviors in the Indian context (Singh and Krishnan,

    2005a,2005b).ThetheoryofNishkamKarma( ) wasfoundworkableinotherprofessionalscenariostoo.IncaseofNGOs,itwasfoundthattheiroveralleffectiveness

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    can be greatly enhanced through the application of Nishkam Karma Yoga ( )amongemployees(Sharma,2012).

    InKarmaYoga () it isnot theactions,but the frameofmind inwhich theyare

    performed is important. The attributes of Karma Yoga () were reported as efficiency, equanimity, absence of expectation, egolessness, renunciation of limited

    desires,positivethinking,anddutyordharma ().Thesearetheattributesofagood

    managertoo (MenonandKrishnan,2004).TheKarmayogi () isonewhohighlyvalues the welfare of others, is empathic, who can understand the feelings andemotions of others without getting personally ruffled, and who executes his dutywithout worrying about personal achievements (Mulla and Krishnan, 2006a, 2006b,

    2008). Karma Yoga () can be deemed as the Indian equivalent of altruistic

    motivation (Mulla and Krishnan, 2008). Karma Yoga () is related to highdutifulness and low achievement striving (Mulla and Krishnan, 2006a). Karma Yoga

    () is related to otheroriented values and moral values (Mulla and Krishnan2006b).

    The cognitive, affective and behavioral aspects of Karma Yoga () can beincorporated into leadership selection criteria and into education for leadershipdevelopment. Training programmes on leadership should be able to generate theaspects of empathic concern in participants and help them to overcome personal

    distress so that theyareable toachieve the idealofKarmaYoga () (Mullaand

    Krishnan,2008).KarmaYoga()impliesbeingdutyorientedwhichinturnleadstobeing indifferent to the rewards, andbeingequallyopen topleasure andpain.Mostmoderntheoriesofmotivationarebasedontheprincipleofhedonismandtheyfocusonthe individualseffortstomaximizepersonalutility.A limitationofthesetheories isthat they focuson the individualwho isassumed tobea rationalmaximizerofutility(Shamir, 1991). In other words, most motivation theories implicitly assume thatindividuals are driven only by hedonistic goals and utilitarian considerations indetermining thedirectionandextentof theireffort.Thisapproach tomotivation isat

    oddswiththeKarmaYoga() philosophywhichadvocatesthatindividualsoughttoworkwithnoconcernfortherewardsthattheyarelikelytogetfromtheirefforts(MullaandKrishnan,2011).

    The concept of Karma Yoga () has received attention from scholars inorganizationalbehaviortoo(MenonandKrishnan,2004;Narayanan&Krishnan,2003).

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    A content analysis based on a contemporary version of the Geeta () (Gandhi,1946/2001)wasdoneandthreedimensionsofKarmaYoga() wereidentified viz.,

    dutyorientation, indifferencetorewards,andequanimity.AKarmaYoga() scale

    wasdeveloped(MullaandKrishnan2006,2007)andtheKarmaYoga() constructhasbeenvalidatedwiththepersonalityfactorofconscientiousness(MullaandKrishnan,2006), dimensions of empathy (Mulla and Krishnan, 2008b), and terminal andinstrumentalvalues(MullaandKrishnan,2007). Inaddition,studieson leaderfollowerpairsinorganizationshaveshownthatintheIndiancontext,individualswhoarehighon

    KarmaYoga () areperceived tobehigheron transformational leadership (MullaandKrishnan,2008a)andfollowersoftransformationalleadersareseentohavehigher

    levelsofKarmaYoga()(Krishnan,2007;2008;MullaandKrishnan,2009).

    Some theosophists have regarded karma () as fate; Karma () also has beenassociatedwiththenotionofreincarnation;thatis,actionsofthepastdetermineone'spresentbirthandactionsofthepresenthaveadecisiveinfluenceondeterminingone's

    futurebirth.Theidentificationofkarma() withfateorreincarnationfitswellwiththeWesternbiased perspectivewhich regards theHindu view of life as pessimistic. The

    right perspective is to consider karma () as creative action through which anindividual breaks the shackles of reincarnation, making spiritual liberation possible

    (Chappell, 1986). Nishkam Karma ( ) is disinterested action that leads todetachment,alongwithtitiksha() i.e.,enduranceandselfcontrol.TheconceptofNishkamKarma( ) iscomparabletothetheoryofthecategoricalimperativeofKant, although, it fails to do justice to all the factors of the ethical situation

    (Srinivasachary,1966), (Nikam,1953).The terms yoga () andKarmaYoga ( )

    areused interchangeablyatvarious instances intheGeeta().KarmaYoga( )isatechniqueforperformingactionsintelligently,inamannerthatthesoulisnotboundbytheeffectsoftheaction(Tilak,1916/2010).

    Managerscaneffectively leadtheirteamthroughthepracticeofKarmaYoga( )

    because thegistofKarmaYoga ( ) isNishkamaKarma ( ) thatmeans,actionconductedwithaspiritofsacrifice.PeoplepracticingthephilosophyofNishkama

    Karma ( ),work inthe levelofselfactualizationasdescribed inthehierarchyof needs professed by Maslow. Such people work for their commitment to theorganizationandthetaskentrustedtothem.Theyarenotmotivatedbytheresultsthatthe task would beget, particularly of the personal variety. It leads to psychologicalsatisfaction since theworker is devoid of egoismwhile carrying out thework. Such

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    peoplenaturallybecometherolemodelforothers.Societiesvaryintheextenttowhichthey inculcate in theirmembers the importance ofwork relative to other life roles (Sinha,2000).The largersocietalculturemaysocialize themembersofasocietysuchthattheyremaindedicatedtoworkwithoutbotheringaboutwhattheygainfromtheireffort,i.e.workisadutytobedischarged.Thepeoplewhoaresocializedinthiscultureconsiderthemselvestobebornwithdutiesratherthanwithrights(SinhaandKanungo,1997).2.2.ManagerialEffectivenessThe success of organizations depend upon effective and efficient principles,effectivenessandefficiencybeingdistincttermsthatareoftenconfused;inthelightofthis view, perspectives, approaches and strategies for improving managerialeffectiveness can be discussed afresh (Farahbakhsh, 2007). Effective managerialperformance isthebehaviorthatallmanagersshoulddisplayifandwhenfacedwithasimilar circumstance; ineffective managerial performance is that behavior whichoccurring repeatedly or once, may cause one to doubt the ability of a particularmanager in an instance (Hamlin and Patel, 2011). Effectiveness of managers as anorganizationalphenomenonhasbeendeemedasillusiveinnature(MoresandWagner,1978); known and labeled as a concept which is difficult to quantify (Brodie andBennett,1979)andevenmoredifficulttomeasure(Dunnette,1971;Drucker,1988);yetit isoftentalkedaboutandhasalsoattractedmuchinterestby lateralandmultilateralagencies (World Bank, 1994). It has also been acknowledged by researchers such as(Mintzberg,1973;Kirchoff,1977;Langford,1979;Margerison,1984).

    2.2.1.ManagerialEffectivenessTraitsEffectiveness of its executives is very important for the success of an organizationsbusiness(Bao,2009).Therolebehaviorsandpersonaltraitsofmanagersarethemajorcriteriafortheireffectiveness(TsuiandOhlott,1988).Tobeeffective,thedevelopmentmanagerialskillsshouldcatertothecurrentandprojectedneedsoftheorganization.Itisthecriticalresponsibilityofseniormanagementtoidentifythecorecompetenciesoftheenterpriseand toensure that thecompetencies requiredbymanagers,specialistsandtheworkforceingeneralareadequateandappropriate.Competentpeoplearethekey to future success and offer organizations their only sustainable competitiveadvantage(Pickett,1998).Amanager is confronted with numerous instances in which tight deadlines call forintenseandextendedperiodsofwork.Themannerofamanagersresponsetostressfulsituationsandcircumstances thatmaydemandchangecan influencehiseffectiveness

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    (Gillard and Price, 2005). Managers possessing stamina and adaptability, have theenergy to endure longworking hours,while continuing to sustain high performancelevels.Theyarenotmerely flexibleandreadilyadaptable tochangebutareproactivechange agents too (Boyatzis, 1982; Goodings, 1999; Gebelein, 2001; Potter, 2001;Schettler,2002).Effective managers are efficiency oriented and emphasize on performance in theircommunicationwithothers.Theyareproactive, initiatingaction, rather thanwait foreventstounfold.Theydisplayastrongneedforcontroloversituationalfactorsaffectingwork. Theymake things happen by obtaining information from all relevant sources,circumventing obstacles, and accepting responsibility for success or failure (Boyatzis,1982; Goodings, 1999; Gebelein, 2001; Schettler, 2002; Zenger and Folkman, 2003).Effectivemanagementdependsuponhowwellmanagersdotheirjob;thatis,howwellthey perform the management functions in seeking to accomplish predeterminedobjectives.Themanagerisrequiredtoemployhisspecializedknowledgeinthedecisionmakingprocess.Managersmusthavethecapacitytobalancetheneedsandgoalsofallorganizationalpeople(Haynes,1995).Aneffectivemanagerpossessesdistinctqualitieslike theability toapplyhisskillsasperworkplace requirementsandcarryoutvariousmanagerialrolesdiligently(Ivancevich,DonnellyandGilson,1991).Amanagersprimary responsibility is tocarryout themanagementprocess.He is theonewho plans andmakes decisions, organizes, leads and controls human, financial,physical, and information resources; possesses good planning skills, effectivecommunication,goodhumanrelations,organizingabilityandsupervisoryskills(Griffin,1997). Managers should have physical qualities, mental qualities, moral qualities,general education, special knowledge related to specific operations and experience(Fayol,1916).Thesemaketheeffectivemanageradistinctpersonality,belongingtoanelitegroup,enjoying respect, statusauthoritybyperforming complex jobs (Murugan,2004). In the case of project managers certain competencies were identified thatensuredtheireffectiveness.Themanager'sabilitytokeepsiteoftheprojectmissionandto initiate action to efficiently achieve the goals;beingdeductive and analytical; andhavinganefficiencyorientationwereclusteredundergoalandactionmanagement.Selfconfidence; belief in the mission; and communication skills were clustered underleadership. Facilitating and encouraging coordination; cohesion; emphasizing oncommon interests; recognition of achievements; developing networks, alliances andteamswitha larger socialgroupwereclusteredunderhuman resourcemanagement.The ability touse authority andorganizationalpowerpolitics to influence individualsand accomplish project goals; and an ability to develop otherswere clustered under

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    directing subordinates. Endurance; adaptability; sustained high performance; andreceptivenessand sensitivity to changewere clusteredunder focusonothers (GillardandPrice,2005).Effectivemanagers are generallyexcellentpeoplemanagers. Just like thebest sportscoaches,thebestmanagerknowshowtomotivatepeople,developthemandgetthebest out of everyone.Managers in current times are dealingmorewith knowledgeworkers, hence who want to feel valued and important;managers need to be lessdictatorialandcontrollingthantheywereinthepast.Theskillofthebestmanageristobe able to strike the right balance between the demands of efficiency and therequirement to let people think for them. A manager is also an energy processor.Effectivenessofmanagermaybejudgedbyproficiencyattainedinenergyprocessinginthepsychologicalsense.Theinstruments,whichamanagerusesforenergyprocessing,arethebrainandthemind.Thebrainisseenasaphysiologicalconceptandthemindasapsychologicalone.Brainisinvolvedintwotypesofactivitiesrationalandanalytical,andholisticandsynthetic.Ontheotherside,themindisinvolvedinwillingandfeeling

    activity. Thevariousstatesofmindare:mudha (),kshipta ( ),vikshipta ( ),ekagra ()andniruddha ( ).Mindoscillatesbetweenmudha () and vikshipta( ) as these areunstable statesofmind. The goal is to attain ekagra () and

    niruddha( ) states,whicharedifficulttoattain(Chakraborty,2001).Contrary to the above view, taskrelated skills rather than peoplerelated skills areregarded by certain managers as a more important set of skills when it comes toincreasingtheireffectiveness.Thetaskrelatedskillsdemandthatamanagershouldbecapable of setting objectives, planning, decision making and organizational work(AnalouiandHosseini,2001).Thetraitsofaneffectivemanager intermsofembracingchangecanbeenumeratedasattendingtoexternalrealities,creatingpower,promotinga coaching style, expanding job responsibilities, creating expertise, driving out fear,exhibiting readiness for entrepreneurial environment, keeping balance,maintaining asense of continuity and demonstrating emotionalmaturity (Pickett, 2000). Effectiveexecutivesneedtobeabletosimultaneouslymanageamultitudeofrelationshipswithindividualandgroupsdirectlyorindirectlyaffectedbytheiractions(FraserandZarkadaFraser, 2003). Amanager who can tackle a broad range of everyday organizationalproblemswill functionmoreeffectively (BolmanandDeal,1991).Theextent towhichthe manager achieves his output requirements, i.e., goals and objectives of theorganization determines his level ofmanagerial effectiveness (Reddin, 1981; Totala,2006). Itwas also felt that in order tomanage institutions effectively,managerswillneedtounderstandandtakeaccountoftheconcernsoftheirprofessionalcolleagues:

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    the managers of the future will need to incorporate some of the elements ofprofessionalvaluesintotheirapproach(HewisonandWildman,1996).2.2.2.MeasuringManagerialEffectiveness:ChallengesThere is ahighdegreeof similarity in thewaymanagerialeffectiveness isperceived,judged, and defined (Hamlin and Patel, 2011). A lot of work has been done bymanagementscholarsonmanagerialeffectivenessasacauseoraneffecttosomeotherattributeoforganizationaldynamics.Still,theissueofmanagerialeffectivenessremainsasubstantiallyneglectedareaofmanagementresearch(Willcocks,1992;FlanaganandSpurgeon, 1996; Noordegraaf and Stewart, 2000), and there continues to be littleagreementaboutwhatconstitutesandismeantbymanagerialeffectiveness(Cammock,et. al., 1995; Kim and Yukl, 1995; Barker, 2000).Many researchers from the 1950sthroughtothemid1980sconductedmanagerialbehaviorstudies,butfewattemptedtodifferentiatebetweengoodandbadmanagement(Hales,1986).Instead,mostexploredthefrequenciesanddurationofmanagerialactivities(MartinkoandGardner,1985),anduseddifferent typesofdefinitions,predictorsandmeasurementcriteriaofmanagerialeffectiveness(Goodman,et.al.,1983).Theproblemismostlyattributedtothepresenceof a great deal of confusion and ambiguitywhich surrounds the questions:what iseffectiveness; who is an effective manager (Brodie and Bennett, 1979); and howeffectivenesscanberealized,especiallybymeansoftrainingstrategies(Analoui,1997).Thereexistsalackofcomparabilitybetweenvariousstudiesonmanagerialeffectivenessalsocausedbythehaphazardandarbitrarycodingofmanagerialbehaviorsandtheuseofunclearandconfusingmixesofcodingcategories.Thiscanberesolvedifresearchersadoptnew approaches todefineeffectivemanagerialbehavior rather thanusing theexisting techniques (Stewart, 1989). The major endeavors to study managerialeffectiveness canbe categorized firstly as theworkof theorists and researcherswhoshow concern for objectivity and order by operating within the boundaries offunctionalism secondly as the contribution ofwriters (Wilcocks, 1992;Analoui, 1997,1999a;) who have attempted to understand managerial effectiveness from analternativeperspective.The lattertheoristsplaceemphasisontheneedtounderstandand considermanagers viewpoints and the level of awarenessof their effectiveness(AnalouiandHosseini,2001).Furthermore,thisincludesthemanagersownperceptionand understanding ofwhat constitutes effectiveness in a particular context (Analoui,1997;Kakabadse,et.al.,1987).Anotheraspectofmanagerialeffectivenessthatmakesitdifficulttomeasureisthatitissituationalandvariesfromoneorganizationtoanotheras found in a study conducted in thehealth services sector (Flanagan and Spurgeon,1996).

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    2.2.3.ManagerialEffectivenessandLeadershipLeadershipqualitiesand commitment toeffectivenessofan individualareoneof themost importantaspectsofmanagerialeffectiveness.Although thetermsmanagerandmanagementaredifferent from leaderand leadershipand seldom takeadvantageofeach others contributions (House and Aditya, 1997); these terms can be usedinterchangeably(Kotter,1988,Hickman,1990,Yukl,1998,Barker,2000,AlimoMetcalfeandLawler,2001,Bolden,2004;Raelin,2004).Leadership isan imperativemanagerialtraitdesirableatalllevelswithinandacrossorganizationalhierarchiesincludingsenior,middleandfirstlinelevelsofmanagement.Thisisreferredtoasmanagerialleadership;and is to an extent different from organizational leadership and the organizationalleaderroleofdirectors,seniorexecutivesandtopmanagers(RussEft,et.al.,1996).Thecurrentandfuturesuccessofanorganization isareflectionoftheeffectivenessoftheseniormanagement team, their vision and leadership, and the combined knowledgeand skills of the organizations work force. Much attention has been given to theeffectiveness of senior managers and their performance by theorists, managementresearchers, developers and practitioners, in developing countries and developingeconomies(Copeman,1971;Kotter,1982;McCallandLombardo,1983;MargerisonandKakabadse,1984).Thecausalandbehavioralinfluencesdeterminingthemanagerialeffectivenessofseniormanagerscanbeasclusteredasfactorsamountingtotheparametersofeffectivenessatwork.These includethemanagersperception,awareness,competencyskills,needsand motivation and the inherent constraints and demands which determine seniormanagerseffectiveness(Analoui,1998).Managerswhocommunicateeffectivelyoftentheyusesymbols,verbalcommunication,nonverbalbehavior,andvisualaidstomakeclearand convincingpresentations toothers (Boyatzis,1982;Goodings,1999;Potter,2001; Schettler, 2002; Zenger and Folkman, 2003). Subordinates perception ofleadership qualities in a manager has an important role in the effectiveness ofmanagerialleadershipfunction.TheImplicitLeadershipTheory(ILT)advocatesthatindividualshavebeliefs,convictionsandassumptionsabouttheattributesandbehaviorsthatdistinguisheffectivemanagersor leaders from ineffective managers or leaders (Eden and Leviatan, 1975). Theseimplicit theoriesareusedby individuals toencode,process,and recall specificeventsandbehavior (Shaw,1990).Thebetter the fitbetweenmanagerialor leaderbehaviorandtheinternalmanagerialorleadershipprototypesheldbysubordinatesorfollowersi.e., theperceivers, themore the likelihoodof the concernedbehaviorbeing seenas

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    effective.Employeesperceptionsofandsatisfactionwiththeirrespectivemanagerscanpositively or negatively affect their attitude,which in turn can determine how theyperformandeffectivelyengagewiththeorganization(Hall,et.al.,2004).Adiscrepancybetweenthesubordinatesimplicitleadershiptheorieswiththoseoftheirrespective managers or leaders may result in dissatisfaction, disengagement, andincreased employee turnover (Engle and Lord, 1997). Thus effectiveness amongmanagers can be increased by conscious selfperception and perceptions andexpectationsof interestedgroupsorpeople.Therearemanyattributeswhichare thenecessitiesoftimeandcriticaltodeliveringimprovedresults,effectiveoperations,andprograms (Hacker and Washington, 2003). Hence it is evident that impressionmanagement also plays a critical role inmanagerial effectiveness (Tsui, et. al., 1995;Fraser,2000). Additionally, subordinatesor followersperceptionsofmanagerialandleadership behaviors and cognitive prototypes are thought to be developed andinfluencedby theorganizationalenvironmentand situation (GerstnerandDay,1994),and by the national culture (Helgstrand and Stuhlmacher, 1999). This implies thatsubordinatesor followers fromdifferent culturalbackgroundsmayperceivedifferentlevels ofmanagerial and leadership effectiveness from the samemanager or leader,because of the different prototypes that are guiding their expectations (Chong andThomas,1997).2.2.4.MeasurementofManagerialEffectivenessManagement lends itself well to prescriptions for improving organization function.Manytechniqueshavebeenadoptedgloballyinanattempttomanageeffectively,e.g.,TotalQualityManagement(TQM),ManagementbyObjectives(MBO),ManagementByWalkingAround (MBWA),ManagementbyException (MBE), ISO9000,SixSigma,etc.(ThompsonandStrickland,2001;Peters,2003).Buttechniquesalonecanneitherensurenorprovideameasurementofmanagerialeffectivenesswhichisakeytoorganizationalsuccess (FloresandUtley,2000).Amanagerialapproachof focusonpopularmethodsand toolswith analysis or integration into a strategic planwill only lead tomarginalimprovements(Sandholm,1999).Managerial effectiveness has beenmeasured by experts in several differentways atdifferent times. Some models focus on individual competencies of managerialeffectiveness, while some of the studies have taken performance measure andsuperior'sappraisalsratherthanselfreportmeasureswhiledecidingtheeffectivenessofamanager.Managerialeffectiveness isathreedimensionalconstructwhichrelatestheeffectivenessofmanagerialstyletospecificsituations(Reddin,1970).Effectiveness

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    is contingent upon the situation that is available to amanager, job position, tasksassignedaswellastheorganizationalandthesocioeconomicenvironment (Langford,1979). Effectiveness can be measured by obtaining the difference between actualoutputandtargetedoutput(BlackandEdward,1979).Ifthesituationisimportantandmanagerbehavesappropriatelyintunewiththesituation,thenactionsarelikelytobehighly effective (Margerison, 1981). Managerial performance requirements can beclassified based on dimensions derived from critical incidents and job activitystatements(BormanandBrush,1993).An empirical approach to understand managers perception effective behavior, thecriteria,dimensions,andcharacteristicstheyusethatinfluenceboththeirownbehaviorand leadthemtoviewothersaseffectiveorotherwiseneedtobeexplored(FlanaganandSpurgeon,1996).TheCritical IncidentTechnique (CIT) isonesuch technique, thatcollectsconcreteexamplesi.e.,criticalincidentsofeffectiveandineffectivemanagerialbehavior,asobservedandsojudgedbymanagersandnonmanagerialstaff(Flanagan,1954). It isanexcellentmethod for focusingonthemore importanteffectivenessandperformance aspects of managerial behavior (Campbell, et. al., 1970; Latham andWexley,1981).ItisfurtherclaimedthatCITisperhapsthebesttechniqueforsamplingimportantperformancerelatedmanagerialbehavior(BormanandBrush,1993)andforconductingmultiplecaseorcrossnationstudiesinsearchofevidenceofcommonalitiesin themes i.e., incidents in order to increase the universal applicability of researchfindings(Chell,1999).To ascertain the link between performance of the activities and the perceivedmanagerial effectiveness, a typology of managerial behavior was developed andmanager and subordinate perceptions of managerial activities were obtained.Frequencyoftaskperformancewasessentiallyunrelatedtoperceivedcompetence,buthow well managers performed in various tasks, particularly motivation andreinforcementofsubordinates,anddecisionmaking,predictedthesubordinateratingsofmanagerialcompetence.Discipliningandplanningemergedas themostprominentcontributorstosubordinateratingsofsectioneffectiveness(Luthans,WelshandTaylor,1988). Consistentwith themodel ofmanagerial effectiveness, perceived quality andquantity of section functioning was linked with differentmanagerial behaviors. Thefindings support the utilization of the typology and highlight the importance ofexaminingthedifferentialimpactofarangeofmanagerialactivitiesondifferentfacetsoforganizationaleffectiveness(O'Driscoll,HumphriesandHenrik,1991).

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    InanattempttomeasurethemanagerialeffectivenessofSMEsintheUnitedStatesofAmericaitwasstatedthateffectivenesscouldbeassessedbyfocusingonbehaviorandactionforexecutives(Metts,2007).Inastudyconductedinthemanufacturingsector,managerial effectiveness was found to be constituted of three dimensions i.e.,productivity, adaptability and flexibility (Mott, 1971).On the applicationof the samemodelintheIndiancontext,itwasfoundthat itdidnotreplicate itsfactors intotality;factorssuchasfunctionaleffectivenessandpersonaleffectivenessweremorerelevantandtherewasanimpactofculturetooonmanagerialeffectiveness(Chauhan,DharandPathak, 2005). These results alignwith another studywheremanagers performancewasfoundtobe inevitablycontingentuponandaffectedbythecausalandbehavioralinfluences within their immediate and wider socioeconomic and cultural settings(Stewart,1982,1991).Managerialbehaviorandstylesofmanagementaredominantlycontingentontheculturalaspectsofspecificcountries(House,et.al.,2004;Wendt,et.al.,2009).Nationalspecificities,includingnationalculture,haveamajorimpactonhowemployeesperceivethebehavioroftheirmanagers,which inturndeterminewhetherornot theywillacceptand follow the leadershipof theirmanagers (Brodbeck,et.al.,2000;Morrison,2000;Alas,et.al.,2007).Thecontingencymodelsofpredictorcriterionrelationships spell out the factors that affect managerial effectiveness. Two suchcomparative management models are the FarmerRichman and NeghandiPrashadmodel.TheFarmerRichmanmodelassumesthatenvironmentalandculturalfactorsaremaindeterminantsofmanagementpracticesandeffectiveness,whereas,theNeghandiPrashadmodelinadditiontotheexternalenvironmentalsorecognizesthemanagementphilosophyasanotherimportantpredictorvariable(KelleyandWorthley,1981).2.2.5.NeedtoDevelopGlobalNormsManagerialworkisdifferentindifferentpartsoftheworldandonaglobalscalethereisno singularly bestway of doing anything. Behavioral roles describewhat amanagerdoes.Managersact,ratherthancontemplatingonthewhyorhowbehindtheactivitiesthat comprises the complete set ofmanagerial roles. Despite the variations in theircultural beliefs, values and norms, managers more directly reflect the content ofmanagerialwork.Beyondsocietalculture,theorganizationalclimateandcultureaffectmanagerial roles, as do the variations inmanagerial style. Researchers expect thesedifferences to influence the extent towhich certain role behaviors aremore or lessdescriptiveofmanagerialeffectiveness. Inaglobally complexenvironment,managersare challenged to perform more roles and devise new roles. Managerial rolesdemonstrate nonconstancy of means, variances, and correlations across situations(Bass,1997).

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    The impactofcultureonmanagerialeffectivenesswasproposedbymanyresearchers.In an era of increasing globalization of business and the concomitant high rates ofimmigration,emigrationandexpatriation, there isadireneed toestablish stableandrelevanttestingnormsforamanagementpopulationandbusinesscontextthat is inaconstantstateofflux.Suchascale,ifprovedvalid,couldbeusedtotesteffectivenessofmanagers globally (Oswald, 2008). One approach may be to identify and createclusterednorms,globalaswellas localtocomparemanagersuniversally (Ramesh,et.al.,2008).Managerialeffectivenesswasalsofoundtobeconstitutedofthreeimportantaspects: activities of themanagerial position, achieving the results, and developingfurtherpotential(Gupta,1996).Astudyonmiddlelevelgovernmentemployeesshowedthat significant predictors of theirmanagerial effectiveness includedmanagerial selfawarenessandtheirabilitytoinfluenceothers(Church,et.al.,1999).An organization is effective to the extent it satisfies the interests of one or moreconstituencies or stakeholders associated with the organization (Tsui, 1990). In thecontextofmanagerialbehaviorresearch,managersareperceivedasoperatingwithinasocial structure consisting of multiple constituencies or stakeholders e.g. superiors,peers,subordinates,eachofwhomhashisorherownexpectationsofandreactionstothemanager (Tsui, 1984). These perceptions and judgments are influenced by theirrespectiveimplicitleadershiptheoriesandimplicitcognitiveprototypesofeffectiveandineffectivebehavior.Specificmanagerialbehaviorsthatare instrumentalforgainingorlosingreputationaleffectivenesswillvarybyamanagersconstituenciesorstakeholders(Tsui,1984).Among InformationSystemsmanagers,apositiverelationshipwas foundbetweentheperceived level of managerial effectiveness among subordinates to that of theirsuperiors on the basis of the amount of technical andmanagerial training received(Ligon, et. al., 2007). The major dimensions of managerial effectiveness have beendefined in terms of a Balanced Management Theory (BMT), which has ease ofapplication and also gives managers a direction regarding the necessary balancebetweenthemandfoundamoderateyetpositivecorrelationbetweenthestrengthofmanagers perceivedmanagement style and employees satisfaction (Liccione, 2005).Factorssuchastraininganddevelopmentandasupportiveandmotivatingculturearekey elements to develop competencies, supported by performance managementprogrammes, is conducive to enterprise and individual growth and an increasedshareholder value (Pickett, 1998). For the purpose training of managers, a threedimensional competing valuesmodelwas constructed, based on organizational andmanagerial effectiveness (Quinn, 1991). In the context of women managers

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    communication skills, it was found that women are perceived to possess listening,verbalandnonverbalcommunicationskills,necessaryforeffectivemanagement;atthesametime,mayneedtraininginassertiveness,confidencebuildingandpublicspeakingandindealingwiththeoppositegender(BerrymanFink,1982).2.3.ProfessionalismProfessionalism is an issue that has engaged thinkers from disciplines as diverse asmedicine(Castellani,2000;Cruess,2000;Rothman,2000),accounting(Sergenian,1998;Fogarty, 2000), politics (Mancini, 1999) and education (Bennett, 1998; Coulter andOrme,2000).Businessandeconomicsaregrapplingwith the issue too (ExworthyandHalford,1998;RobertsandDietrich,1999;Donaldson,2000).Evencommunicationandcertainlypublicrelationsscholarshaveaddressedtheissue(Kruckeberg,1998;Sallot,et.al., 1998; Saunders, 1998). MerriamWebsters defines professionalism as a set ofattitudes and behaviors believed to be appropriate to a particular occupation. Socialscientists have separated professions and occupations, describing professions aspossessing certain sets of structural and attitudinal attributes (Hammer, 2000); andprofessionalsaspractitionersoftheirrespectiveprofessions.Thebasicphilosophyofaprofessionmaybedescribedasan institutionthatconfronts individualsasarealitytowhichtheymustrelatewithouttheabilitytochangeitsignificantly.Individualsusually,submittotherequirementsoftheirprofessions;therearefewwhounderstand itwellenough to make significant changes in conventions. Professionalism describes thequality of practice; it describes the manner of conduct within an occupation, howmembers integrate their obligations with their knowledge and skill in a context ofcollegiality, and their contractual and ethical relations with clients (Hoyle, 1980).Emphasizingonthe individualaspects,professionalismcanbedefinedastheextenttowhichone is committed toone'sprofession,andnoting that individualmembers canvary in thedegree towhich they identifywith theirprofessionandendorse itsvalues(Morrow,1988).Professionals are not only members from the traditional learned professions forexample,medicine, law, architecture, etc., but also peoplewho are experts in theirfields, or are holding expertise in particular skill, trade or body of knowledge e.g.scholars and teachers, engineers and scientists, accountants and business specialists,psychotherapistsandcounselors,journalists,governmentofficials,militaryofficers,etc.(Kultgen, 1988). The concept of professionalism has been explained in differentperspectives, by thinkers from different fields. In connection with the academics,profession may be viewed as depoliticized in contrast to being an intellectual;professionalismwouldmeanasconsideringonesworkasintellectualone,assomething

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    onedoesforaliving,withindefinedworkinghoursandexhibitingprofessionalbehaviorbynotstrayingoutsidetheacceptedparadigmsorlimits,makingonesselfmarketable,presentable, uncontroversial, apolitical and objective (Said, 1994). A professional instrictterms, isonewhomaintainsloyaltytoacodeofethicsthattranscends loyaltytotherestoftheorganization(Follet,1941).Accordingtothisstrictusageoftheterm,veryfewemployeeswouldqualifyasaprofessional.Inmorepopularterms,professionalsarelikely tobedefined as employeeswith specializedor technical educationwhoutilizethat knowledge in performing their regularwork.A professional is onewho creates,processes,anddistributesashisorherprimaryjob(Naisbitt,1982).Contrarytothisview,professionalismhasalsobeenconsideredasatension:findingtheleastuncomfortableplaceonacontinuumononehand;andbeingdependenton thestate,andgovernment imposed formsofexpertprofessionalism focusedon skillandstandards,which can stripprofessionalworkof itsmoraland creativeaspectson theotherhand.This view is supportedby thehistoryof social trusteeprofessionalism inmanyprofessions(McLean,et.al.,2008).Anovelviewofprofessionalismisthatwhichexpectsprofessionalgroupstobeaccountabletothestateandpublic,andatthesametime, retain the freedom to think, speakandactas they think right.This ideologyofprofessionalismhas the strength to stand against compromises that aremade in thefaceofsocioeconomicpoliticalconditions, includingmarket forces,which threaten it.The rise of professionalism was a response to the increasingly complex social andeconomicneedsofthemodernsocietywhichcalledforspecializedexpertise(Freidson,2004;Sullivan,2005).An ideal typeofprofessionaloccupation isanautonomyandprestigegrantedby thestateinreturnfortheexpertiseinareascentraltotheneedsofthesocialsystem;andinreturn fordevotion topublicservice.But thisprestigeandautonomy thatprofessionsenjoy,haveoften ledthemtobecomecommunitieswithcommonorvested interests,identityandcommitments (Larson,1977).Professionalismhasneverbeenneutralandapolitical andmay be understood as a discourse, as part of an ongoing politics ofknowledge,powerandsocialorganization(McLean,et.al.,2008).Identifyingthemajorthree interrelated constituent features of professionalism, it may be defined asprofessionalskills ishumancapital that isalwaysdependent for itsnegotiabilityuponsome collective enterprise,which itself is the outcome of civic politics inwhich thefreedomofagrouptoorganizeforaspecificpurposeisbalancedbytheaccountabilityof that group to othermembers of the civic community for furtherance of publiclyestablishedgoalsandstandards(Sullivan,2005).

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    Individualdisciplinesareconcernedwithdifferentaspectsofthatgood, insomecasesthe immediate good of individual patients, students or clients, in others of firms orgroups and inothers the general good.But such servicemust alwaysbe judged andbalanced against a larger public good, sometimes one anticipated in the future.Practitionersand theirassociationshave theduty toappraisewhat theydo in lightofthat largergood,adutywhich licenses them tobemore thanpassiveservantsof thestate,ofcapitalofthefirm,oftheclient,orevenoftheimmediategeneralpublic.Suchaviewofprofessionalismplacespublicgoodinamorecentralposition(Freidson,2004).Manybusinessproblemsandfailurescanbeattributedeitherdirectlyorindirectlytoalackofbasicprofessionalismorworkethics,affectingnotonlycustomerservice,groupmorale,businessresults,etc.,butalsohasanimpactonthemotivation,enthusiasmandmoraleoftheindividualemployee.2.3.1.MeasuringProfessionalismThere is a need for valid and reliable assessment tools that evaluate professionalbehaviors (Chisholm, et. al., 2006). Teachers professionalism wasmeasured on thefollowing components: independent practice, code of ethics, licensing, single majorprofessional association, exclusive practice rights, body of specialized knowledge,application of knowledge in professional practice, collaboration among members,candidate selection, rigorous and protracted study/training period, high status, highcompensationandlifelongcommitment.Contrarytoanearlierworkonprofessionalismandbureaucratization (Hall,1968), itwasargued thatprofessionalismbeexaminedattwo levels: the individual level and the organizational level (Miros, 1990). At theindividual level, five attributes were identified as being important: use of theprofessionalorganizationasamajor referent,belief in service to thepublic,belief inselfregulation,senseofcallingtothefieldandautonomyfordecisionmaking.At the organizational level, four distinct types of setting for professionalism wererecognizedtobedemonstrated:firstly,theautonomousindividualinprivatepracticeorbusinesswhere theprofessional ishisownboss. Insuchcases, theprofessional is thecomplete determiner of the course of action for each event and also the personresponsible for all possible outcomes. Secondly, the autonomous professionalorganization inwhichtheworkoftheprofessional issubjecttohisownratherthantoexternaloradministrative jurisdiction; theprofessional togetherwithhispartnersarethemajor determiners, as they are the dominant source of authority. Thirdly, theprofessional as an employee subordinated to an externally derived system withconsiderably lesser professional autonomy, e.g., professionals employed in publicschools,librariesandsocialworkagencies,allofwhichareaffectedbyexternally,often

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    legislativelybasedstructuring.Lastly,theprofessionalworkinginadepartmentisapartof a large organization e.g., the legal, training or research departments of manyorganizations(Miros,1990).

    While a particular occupationmay not bear the general appellation: profession, yetindividuals in itcancertainlyexhibitdifferent levelsofprofessionalism(Teasley,1993).Professionalism is amurky concept open tomultiple interpretations. Three separateapproachescanbeadoptedtoexplainprofessionalism,viz.,attributes, functional,andvocational(Rabin,1983).Themostprevalentistheattributesapproach.Severalauthorshave attempted to delineate the attributes of professions (Wilensky, 1964; Caplow,1966;Parsons,1968;Kline,1981).Thestepsrequiredtotransformanoccupationintoaprofessioninclude:creationofafulltimeoccupation;establishmentofatrainingmodel;formation of professional associations; and adoption of a code of ethics (Wilensky,1964). There is normally a close relationship between professions and professionalschoolsoruniversities(Kline,1981).

    Astudyinvolvingthedevelopmentandtestingofaninstrumenttoassessthebehavioralaspects of professionalism in pharmacy students during the advanced experientialtrainingportionoftheirpharmacytrainingwasundertaken.Thefocusofthisstudywastheevaluationofstudentsprofessionalismbasedonpreceptorsobservationsoverthecourseoftheexperientialtraining(Hammer,et.al.,2000).Hall,1968sprofessionalismscalewasmodifiedandadministeredonasampleofpharmacypractitioners(SchackandHepler, 1979). Building on the work of (Schack and Hepler, 1979), Halls scale wasfurthermodifiedtoassesspharmacystudentschanges inprofessionalismovertimeatPrince of SongklaUniversity, Thailand.Results of the survey indicated an increase inmoststudentsbeliefsinprofessionalorganizationsandpublicserviceamongeveryclassexceptforfreshmen(Lerkiatbundit,2000).TheAmericanBoardofInternalMedicine in2001 had established the tenets of professionalism. It was considered that if anindividualpossessesthesetenets,he/shewouldbeabletomeetthenecessaryelementsof professionalism. These tenets as given by ABIM were: professionalism is thecommitmenttothehigheststandardsofexcellence in thepracticeofmedicineand inthe generation and dissemination of knowledge, sustain the interest andwelfare ofpatients,andberesponsivetothehealthneedsofthesociety.Thesetenetswerelateradaptedtodefineandmeasureprofessionalisminpharmacywiththehelpofan18itemPharmacyProfessionalismInstrument(Chisholm,et.al,2006).Medical schools shouldensure thatprofessionalism shouldbean integralpartof thefour years of medical education (Cohen, 2006). This view is further supported byAAMCs (Association of American Medical Colleges) learning objectives for medical

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    students published in 1998, which outlines the attributes medical students shouldpossess at graduation. Two of the four attributes i.e. altruistic and dutiful focus oncompetenciesandattitudesrelatedtoprofessionalism,e.g.,acommitmenttoadvocacy,respect for patient privacy and honesty and integrity in all interactions. A study todevelop an instrument to measure professionalism among medical school entrantsassessed the following characteristics as the major components of professionalismamongthem:image,interpersonalandcommunicationskills,leadershipskills,altruism,respectforothers,toleranceandappreciationofcultural/genderdifferencesandoverallprofessionalism(Elam,et.al.,2009).Itwasfurthersuggestedthatinordertoensureprofessionalbehavioramongdoctors,itshouldbeensuredthatonlythosestudentswhoarelikelytobehaveprofessionallyareadmittedtomedicalschools(Cohen,2006;Stern,et.al,2005).Itwassoughttodevelopanadmissions instrumenttoassessdemographicandnoncognitivequalities indicativeofprofessionalism,thatwouldbelesslaborintensiveandcostlythanthemultipleminiinterview (MMI) designed to provide information about a medical students noncognitive qualities (Eva, et. al., 2004); and also themultistation admissions protocol(MOR)designed toassesspsychometricpropertiesof theprospectivecandidates (Ziv,et.al.,2008). AssessingProfessionalism inMedicalSchoolApplicants isaseven itemprofessionalisminstrumenttoassessthefollowingcharacteristics:image,interpersonalandcommunication skills, leadership skills,altruism, respect forothers, toleranceandappreciationofculturalorgenderdifferencesandoverallprofessionalism(Elam,et.al.,2009).

    TheInternationalAssociationofDefenseCounsel,inordertoattainthehighestidealsofprofessionalism, adopted certain tenets and agreed to abide by them in theperformanceoftheirprofessionalservicesforclients.Thesetenetswereanadditiontotheapplicable rulesorcodesofprofessionalresponsibility,as theassociation felt thattheygenerallyprovidedonlyminimum standardsofacceptable conduct (IADC,2011).Professionalism and professional competition was studied in the context ofcontemporarytheoriesofthelegalprofession,focusingonthetheoreticalformulationsof amarketmonopoly approach, a functionalist approach, and a systems approach(Shamir,1993).

    2.3.2.ProfessionalsasKnowledgeWorkersWith emerging disciplines and their specialized body of knowledge, the demand forprofessionals to be seen as knowledge workers has increased during recent years.

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    Professionalworkersandmanagersareprimarilyinformationpeopleincludinglawyers,teachers, engineers, physicians, software developers, systems analysts, architects,accountants, librarians,newspaper reporters, socialworkers,nurses,andeven clergy.Yet someothercategoryofprofessionalsare theree.g., thehealthprofessionalswhoexhibit another dimension; i.e., in addition to being information people they alsoincorporatea fairlyhigh levelofphysicalwork in theirnormalactivities i.e., theyareusuallysubjected tobothmentalandphysiological fatigue (OkogbaaandShell,1986).Manyof today'sprofessionalshave a specific codeofethics and formalized licensingprocedures,e.g.,physicians, lawyers,accountants,nurses, school teachers,engineers,andmembersoftheclergy.Thereareotherspecializedemployeegroupsthatmaynothave strict or formalized licensing procedures, but do assume many of the samecharacteristicsaslicensedprofessionals(Shell,2003).Professionals face a fundamental dilemma: fulfilling their various specialized tasksrequires a certain degree of insulation from society, but that very insulation fosterspublic skepticism anddistrust. Some respond to thisdilemmawith efforts to restorepublic deference to experts; others reject professional authority as nothing butideology. Amore promising response appears in attempts to involve lay publics incertain aspects of professional practice. Early sociologists likeDurkheim and Parsonsviewedprofessionalsassocialtrusteeswhoprovideexpertise inthepublic interest. Inreturn professionals receive various social privileges, including relative freedom fromgovernment regulation.The social trustee ideal rightlyemphasizes the importanceofprofessionalnormsforresistingthecommercializationandpoliticizationofprofessions,but it neglects questions of politics and democracy. Hence a model that supportspatterns of task sharing, mutual respect, and transparency between laypeople andprofessionals,articulatingelementsofprofessionalism,aswellas its limits is required(Dzur,2010).Whileprofessionalismcontainsattitudinalcomponents, ithascognitivecomponentsaswell.Oneofthegreatestchallengersthatprofessionalorganizations face is instillingasense of professionalism among aspirants i.e., undergraduateswho are preparing tobecomeitsmembers.Asprofessionalismtraitstosomeextentcanbelearned,studentsmustbeexposed toactivitieswhichprovideopportunities forexperimentingwithanddemonstrating professional behavior. For students to have a basic understanding ofprofessionalism they must be provided with relevant active experiences. Educatorsinvolvedwithundergraduates'professionalpreparationcanpromoteprofessionalisminstudentsbyactingasrolemodelsandmentors(Marston,1993).

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    Professionalism implies work with a service ethic, advancement by merit, andautonomous judgmentsonworkrelatedmatters.Reviewing (Liu,2002)sworkon thedevelopment of professionalism among Chinese ambassadors in fifty years of thediplomaticcorpsofthePeople'sRepublicofChina,An insight intoanewdimensionofprofessionalism was obtained, i.e., a personal relationship with stakeholders isantithetical toprofessionalvalues.Professionalismdescribes thequalityofpractice; itdescribes themannerof conductwithinanoccupation,howmembers integrate theirobligations with their knowledge and skill in a context of collegiality, and theircontractualandethical relationswithclients (Hoyle,1980).Placingmoreemphasisonthe individual aspects,professionalismmaybedefinedas theextent towhichone iscommitted to one's profession, and noting that individualmembers can vary in thedegree towhich they identifywith their profession and endorse its values (Morrow,1988). Nonetheless it is also noteworthy that, people in the same occupation orcategoriestendtoholdsimilarvalues(Parashar,et.al.,2004).

    Commitment towards professional development can be ensured through the use oftraining and education aswell as throughmembership in professional organizations(Thai, 1983). It is this commitment that separates professionals frommere positionholders in any public or private system. Thus, professionalism entails a vocationalperspectivebroaderthantheparticularjobathandandnotjustanassessmentofhowefficiently and effectively that particular job is performed. Adding to the functionalimportance of professions and professionalism is the intellectual or knowledgecomponentandaskillsdimensioninapplyingthoseprinciples.Afullfledgedprofessionmusthavesomeinstitutionalmeansofmakingsurethatsuchcompetencewillbeputtosocially responsibleuses.Professions shouldhave somemeansof requiring that theircompetencehaveadiscernibleimpactintheirrespectivecommunities(Parsons,1968).

    2.3.3.ProfessionalismacrossVariousDisciplinesAmongschoolteachers,themostcriticalelementsofprofessionalismwereidentifiedasattitude, behavior and communication. The qualities of positivity, love and care,assertiveness,troubleshooting,risktaking,confidenceand initiativecanbegroupedasthe component of attitudes; preparedness, punctuality, high moral and ethicalstandards,beinga rolemodel,appearanceappropriateness, respectandcourtesyandbeinga teamplayeras thecomponentsof behavior;andcollaboration,cooperation,supportandencouragementa,participationinlearningcommunities,andproperusageof language under the component of communication (Kramer, 2003). Teachersconformtothethirdorganizationalsetting,whichistheheteronomousorganization.Inthissense,theindividual,ratherthantheorganizationalaspectsofprofessionalismare

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    likelytobecomemorerelevant indefiningteacherprofessionalism(Toh,et.al.,1996).Teaching experience, academic and professional qualifications, and professionaldevelopmentactivitiesarethepossibledeterminantsofteacherprofessionalism.Whereteacherprofessionalismdeteriorates, it isdifficulttoseehow thequalityofeducationdemandedby thepublic canbeensured (Lam,1983).Considering thedevelopmentalchangesof teachersduring various stagesof their careers indicate thatpersonal andorganizationalfactorsareresponsibleformidcareerchangesinteacherprofessionalism(Prick, 1989). Themidcareer phase could be one of professional growth, decline orstagnation.Imagesoftheprofessionalteacherproliferatewithineducationalreform literatureandresearch(Etzioni,1969;DarlingHammond,1985;TheHolmesGroup,1986;Lieberman,1988; Popkewitz, 1988; Pratte and Rury, 1991;Malen, 1993; Robbins, 1993; BuildingExcellenceSchoolsforTodayandthe21stCentury,1997;Tom,1997;ValliandRennertAriev,2000). Such images tend to stem fromeitherpsychological (Bandura,1997)orsociohistorical(Etzioni,1969;Apple,1987;Popkewitz,1998)conceptionsofteachingasa profession and teachers as workers. Professionalism as amodel is a complicatedjuxtapositionofbothscientificandmoraldiscoursesontheroleofteachers insociety.Scientific discourses foreground constructions of the teacher as a technocrat,whoseknowledge and methods can be rationalized and observed through objective andquantifiablemeasures (Labaree,1992).Teachersare consideredboth the subjectandobject of professional development through systemic training and encouragedimplementation of progressive educational efforts such as constructivist pedagogy(Popkewitz,1998).Similarly, the influenceof individualmorality ineducationpersists,such as the vision of teachers asmanagers of virtue (Tyack and Hansot, 1984). Asmanagersofvirtue,teachersarechargedwiththetaskofmoral leadership (Noddings,1984; Sergiovanni,1992).Thisunique configurationofmoraland scientificaspectsofteachers professionalism serves as a dominant factor for planning in the field ofeducation.Reflection on ones performance is a process of critically examining ones past andpresentpracticeasameansofbuildingonesknowledgeandunderstandinginordertoimprovepractice.Aprofessionalpracticeportfoliopromoted thisreflectionwithin theteachingprofessionandasaconsequence,supportedaparadigmshiftinthepracticeofspecial education resource teachers. The effectiveness of practice was assessed ondifferentlevelsteachersatisfaction,studentoutcomesandprofessionaljudgment.Thereflection thatoccurred in theportfolioprocesspromotedboth the competence andconfidenceofthisgroupofprofessionals,andtherebyenhancedboththeirwellbeing

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    andthatoftheirclients i.e.,teachersandstudents(Jones,2010).Teachingexperience,academic and professional qualifications, and professional development activities arethe possible determinants of teacher professionalism (Lam, 1983). Where teacherprofessionalism deteriorates, it is difficult to see how the quality of educationdemandedbythepubliccanbeensured(Lam,1983).Inastudyonthedevelopmentalchangesofteachersduringthevariousstagesoftheircareersitwasfoundthatpersonaland organizational factors were responsible for midcareer changes in teacherprofessionalism.Themidcareerphasecouldbeoneofprofessionalgrowth,declineorstagnation(Prick,1989).Eventhoughacademicqualificationmaynotbeimportantforteacherprofessionalism,itshouldbean importantcriterion in the recruitmentofpotential teachers since soundacademicqualificationinvariablyequateswithmasteryoverthesubjectcontent.Thisisanimportantteacherselectioncriterionandshouldrightlycontinuetobesotoensureconfidence with subject matter delivery. Significant factors contributing to teacherprofessionalism are professional qualifications and professional development.Independent learning, cooperative learning and inservice learning as components ofprofessionaldevelopment,areapplicabletoteacherprofessionalism(Toh,et.al.,1996).

    In the case of Public Relations, it was opined that it is a specialized professionaloccupationwithitsownsetofvaluesandbeliefs;andshouldnotbeseenasasubsetofother specializations such as journalism andmass communications, business, speechandcommunication,socialorbehavioralsciencesor liberalarts.PublicRelations isanoccupation that requires its own identity as well as clearly defined academic andprofessionalparameters(Kruckeberg,1998).

    Inregardtopublicadministration,itwasnotedthat,althoughpublicadministrationwasnot highly evolved as a profession, there was continued development of theaccouterments to it through professional organizations, codes of ethics, and the like(Pugh,1989).The traditional viewofdefiningpublic serviceprofessionals in termsoftechnicalskillshasbeencriticizedwiththeargumentthatpublicserviceprofessionalismlargely involves the acquisition of political values and knowledge. Public serviceprofessionalsshoulddemonstratesoundmoralinsightandjudgmentintheirdecisions,and exhibit integrity and commitment in institutional missions. Education for theaspirants of this profession should include preparation as technically professionalmanagersvestedwithpublicpurposes(Green,KellerandWamsley,1993).Expertise istheessentialcharacteristicofprofessionalisminvirtuallyallundertakings,butmanagersmustinformtheiruseofexpertisewiththreespecificpublicservicevalues(DeHoogand

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    Whitaker,1993).First,theremustbeanacceptanceofdemocraticvalues,andthereforethelegitimacyofelectedofficials,withacorollarydecreaseinindividualautonomyasavalue. Second, theremust be an ethic of responsibility to the public at large. Theproblem indeveloping localgovernmentprofessionalismoften lies inthefailureofthelegislativebody to respect theprofessional judgmentandexpertiseof itsprofessionalemployees, therefore a respect for the expertise of other professionals is required(DeHoog andWhitaker, 1990). Public service professionalism is amatter of extremesignificancetotheachievementofeffective,responsivegovernment(Sherwood,1997).Professionalism and professional competition was studied in the context ofcontemporarytheoriesofthelegalprofession,focusingonthetheoreticalformulationsof amarketmonopoly approach, a functionalist approach, and a systems approach.Legalprofessionalismappearedasamultidimensionalconstruct.It includesthevalues,goalsandroleexpectationscrucialforfulfillingtheworkroleofalegalprofessionalanddefines the core values that lawyers should aspire to (Terrell andWildman, 1992;Richard, 2002; Lui, et. al., 2003). Legal professionalism goes beyond legal ethics; itrepresents the deeper values that lie beneath those rules (Terrell, 2009).Professionalismincludestheideasofcompetenceandintegrity,includingpossessionoftheappropriatebodyofknowledgeandmaintainingtheproperdemeanorwithclients,colleagues, and others (Lively, 2001). The core professional values of expertise,autonomy,collegiality,commitmenttopublicserviceandsocietalimpactarepresumedtobeuniversal(HazardandDondi,2004;Terrell,2009).Theyreflectthe idealsof legalprofessionalism,andareessentialtothecompetent,responsible,andeffectivedeliveryof legalservices (Evetts,2011).Professionalsbelongtotheirprofessionalcommunitiesandsharecollectiveidentities(Goode,1957).Professionalcommunitiesaregovernedbyprofessionalorganizationsthatplayakeyroleinthesocializationoftheirmembersandsustain theircommon identity throughcollectivebehavior (Sharma,1997).Apart fromreinforcingexistingprofessionalnorms,professionalassociationscanalsotakeamoreproactiveapproachandhelp institutionalize changewithinaprofessionby facilitatinginteraction among its members and developing agreement on the professionsboundaries,membershipandbehavior(Greenwood,et.al.,2002).Professionalism is considered as a central tenet in the nursing profession too.Nightingale considered nursing as an honorable vocation which became a skilledprofession in 1887when the BritishNursesAssociationwas founded (Porter, 1997).Nursing, mostly opted for by females was earlier characterized by an old styleprofessionalismwhich,wastiedtotheidealsthatstressmasteryofknowledge,control,detachment, competition and autonomy (Finlay, 2000). A demonstration of

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    professionalism inactionat the clinicalandoperational level is requiredonbehalfofnurses, to enhance the quality of patient care and in turn empower the nurses andensure better clinical governance (Bellman, 2001). Essential requisites forprofessionalism inactionarenotonlycourageandfaith,buttheneedforallnursestoparticipateinactionresearch.Thiswillenablepoliticalconsciousnessraising,individualand collective change and development in practice, and somuchmore. In order tomanageeffectively,managerswillneedtounderstandandtakeaccountoftheconcernsoftheirprofessionalcolleagues,i.e.,themanagersofthefuturewillneedtoincorporatesome of the elements of nursing values into their approach (Hewison andWildman,1996).Amoreprofessionalbehaviormeanssubstitutinganswers invented inrealtimefornewproblemstoroutinebasedanswerstoproblemswhichisvainlytriedtoassess(Degot,1986).Theefficiencyof the implementationofprofessionalism improvementprocess is linked to the conditions inwhich it takes place and thewillingness of theactors. This willingness is not always sufficient. Such a process must be global,integrating theministerial, organizational and individual level andmust concern thewholeorganizationasarepresentationofastrategicvehicle.Considering thecaseof theNationalHealthService (NHS) in theUnitedKingdom, thetechnical rational view appears to reflect the dominantmanagement perception ofprofessionalismwithin theNHS,which labelsalmosteverything inmechanistic terms.Professional practice is viewed as a basic matter of delivering a service to clientsthrough a predetermined set of clearcut routines and behaviors. Theprofessional isviewed solelyasadeliverer, i.e.,anagent for conveying safely something createdbyonebodytoanother.Hence,thetermservicedeliverycouldbeviewedasaprocessforthe deintellectualization and downgrading of professionalism. Conversely, theprofessionalartistryviewofprofessionalismrecognizestheconstraintsofthetechnicalrationalviewandacknowledgesthedynamic,complexcontextofprofessionalpractice,professional judgments, and intuitive processes, which are so difficult to capture,measure,teachandresearch.Thedifferencesbetweenthetwoarepotentialsourcesofconflictandnoncollaboration(Finlay,2000).Thus, professionalism reflects a commitment to specialized competence andconventionality (Steiner, 1998; Steiner andGaskin, 1998).A push for professionalismalways involves a degree of homogenization and a reduction in diversity, which isprobably desirable in professions like medicine or law that are mostly based onempiricalsciencesandcenturiesofconvention.Butmandatedconformitydoesnotsitwellwithinthecapitalistparadigmtowhichmostmodernbusinessessubscribe(Steiner,2000). Modern management encourages unconventional behavior, creativity and

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    personalempowerment inbothmanagersandstaff (Story,1995;ForsterandBrowne,1996;Katzenbach,1996;SpreitzerandQuinn,1996).Professionalismiscritiquedonthegroundthat itcanalso involveanarrowingofvision,adenialofhumancapacities likeintuition, feelingandcreativity,a restrictionon interpretiveandoperational freedom,andan impositionofan identity thatdenies thevalueofhumanuniqueness,becauseprofessionalismisequatedwithmasteryorefficiencyoreffectivenessattainedthroughmechanistic following prescribed protocols and techniques that can be appliedmindlessly (Steiner, 2000). Yet, professionalism is an imperative factor of sustainedsuccessandgrowthnotonly for individualsworking invariousorganizations,butalsotheorganizationsthemselvesasasocialinstitution.