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CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE AND CONCEPTUAL ISSUES

A plethora of western and eastern studies have

been conducted on ‘Motivation’. This chapter reviews

some of the most relevant and important work on the topic.

2.1 WESTERN THEORIES AND PHILOSOPHIES OF

MOTIVATION:

There are several theories of (different kinds) of motivation:

Motivation is what moves us from boredom to interest. It is what energizes us and

directs our activity. Motivation is sometimes likened to the engine and steering-wheel

of an automobile. Energy and direction are at the centre of the concept of motivation.

Needs, interests, values, attitudes, aspirations and incentives influence our energy and

the direction of our behaviour.

There are whole books devoted to the topic (Korman, 1974; Lawler, 1973; Ryan,

1970; Vroom, 1964; Weiner, 1972), books of readings (McClelland & Steele, 1973;

Steers & Porter, 1979; Tosi, House, & Dunnette, 1972), and many review articles

(Campbell & Pritchard, 1976; Korman et al., 1977; Locke, 1975; Mitchell, 1979;

Staw, 1977).

First, motivation traditionally has been cast as an individual phenomenon. Each

individual is unique and all of the major motivational theories allow in one way or

another for this uniqueness to be demonstrated (e.g., different people have different

needs, expectations, values, attitudes, reinforcement histories, and goals).

Second, motivation usually is described as intentional. That is, motivation supposedly

is under the employee's control. Most behaviours that are seen as influenced by

motivation (e.g., effort on the job) typically are viewed as actions the individual has

chosen to do.

A third point is that motivation is multifaceted. The two factors of greatest importance

have been the arousal (activation, energizers) and direction (choice) of behavior. The

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question of persistence has been of minor importance, partly because the issue of

maintenance of behavior (once it is started and directed) has received less attention

and partly because some authors have defined persistence simply as the reaffirmation

of the initial choice of action (March & Simon, 1958).

The fourth point to make is that the purpose of motivational theories is to predict

behavior. Motivation is concerned with action and the internal and external forces that

influence one's choice of action. Motivation is not the behavior itself, and it is not

performance. The behavior is the criterion - that which is chosen.

Maslow proposed that employees have five levels of needs (Maslow, 1943):

physiological, safety, social, ego, and self- actualizing. Maslow argued that lower

level needs had to be satisfied before the next higher level need would motivate

employees. He proposed the needs as:

(i) Physiological needs :

These are important needs for sustaining the human life. Food, water, warmth, shelter,

sleep, medicine and education are the basic physiological needs which fall in the

primary list of need satisfaction. Until these needs are satisfied to a degree to maintain

life, no other motivating factors can work.

(ii) Security or Safety needs :

These are the needs to be free of physical danger and of the fear of losing a job,

property, food or shelter. It also includes protection against any emotional harm.

(iii) Social need :

Since people are social beings, they need to belong and be accepted by others. People

try to satisfy their need for affection, acceptance and friendship.

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(iv) Esteem need :

According to Maslow, once people begin to satisfy their need to belong, they tend to

want to be held in esteem both by themselves and by others. This kind of need

produces such satisfaction as power, prestige status and self-confidence. It includes

both internal esteem factors like self-respect, autonomy and achievements and

external esteem factors such as appreciation, recognition and attention.

v) Self-actualization need:

Maslow regards this as the highest need in his hierarchy. It is the drive to become

what one is capable of becoming. It includes growth, achieving one’s potential and

self-fulfillment to maximum level.

Fig. 2.1: Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory of Motivation

Herzberg's work categorized motivation into two factors: motivators and hygienes

(Herzberg, Mausner, & Snyderman, 1959). Frederick has tried to modify Maslow’s

need Hierarchy theory. His theory is also known as Two-Factor Theory or Hygiene

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Theory. He stated that there are certain satisfiers and dissatisfiers for employees at

work.

Motivation factors: the factors that lead to job satisfaction. They are mostly intrinsic

factors such as achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility, advancement,

and growth. They (work content) are on a continuum that ranges from satisfaction to

no satisfaction.

Hygiene factors: the factors that lead to the prevention of dissatisfaction. They are

mostly extrinsic factors such as company policy and administration, supervision, work

condition, and salary. They (work environment) are on a separate continuum that

ranges from dissatisfaction to no dissatisfaction.

Fig. 2.2: Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory of Motivation

Vroom's theory is based on the belief that employee effort will lead to performance

and performance will lead to rewards (Vroom, 1964). Rewards may be either positive

or negative. The more positive the reward, the more likely the employee will be

highly motivated. Conversely, the more negative the reward, the less likely the

employee will be motivated. Propounded by Victor Vroom, the Expectancy Theory

argues that the strength of a tendency to act in a specific way depends on the strength

of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the

attractiveness of that outcome to the individual to make this simple, expectancy

theory says that an employee can be motivated to perform better when their is a belief

that the better performance will lead to good performance appraisal and that this shall

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result into realization of personal goal in form of some reward. Therefore an

employee is :

Motivation = Valence x Expectancy.

The theory focuses on three things :

• Efforts and performance relationship

• Performance and reward relationship

• Rewards and personal goal relationship

This leads us to a conclusion that:

Fig. 2.3: Expectancy Theory of Motivation

Hersey maintains that “people differ not only in their ability to do but also in their

will to do, or motivation”. The motivation of a person depends on the strengths of

his/her motives. Motives are sometimes defined as needs, wants, drives or impulses

within the individual. Motives are directed towards goals which may be conscious or

subconscious. His model proposes that the behaviour in a motivating situation

becomes a new input by the sum of past experience and by the perception of the

availability of the goal. The model also illuminates the difficulty of changing

personalities because past experience influences the behaviour of the future. “The

longer the behaviour is reinforced, the more difficult it is to change. The older a

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person gets, the more time and new experiences are necessary to effect a change in

behaviour”.

Handy stresses that it is generally agreed that money is the major mechanism for

rewarding and modifying behaviour in industry. He regards money as instrumental in

satisfying everyone’s needs, from hunger to self-actualization. “Unlike the other

motivating agents, money can be measured precisely and is therefore useful as a

measure.” He emphasized the role of money as a basis for comparisons. He also refers

to money as a means of reinforcement, e.g. reaching a high degree of motivation by

providing money to particular pieces of effort or as extra money. His statements are in

line with Guest, who summarized the “expectancy theory”, arguing that employees

perform well when they see a link between effort, performance and rewards.

Adams' theory states that employees strive for equity between themselves and other

workers. Equity is achieved when the ratio of an employee outcomes over inputs is

equal to other employee outcomes over inputs (Adams, 1965).

Jim Collins (2001) teaches how even the dowdiest of companies can make the leap to

outperform market leaders, the likes of Coca-Cola, Intel, General Electric, and Merck

through channelising the energies into action plans.

Rowan Gibson (1997) ponders the disappearing structure of organizations and what

it means to individuals searching for something more than salaries from their jobs.

There is a need to change the meaning of business from being an instrument of the

owners to make them rich. Doing so will create greater loyalty from employees, more

satisfaction and higher productivity.

James Collins & Jerry Porras (2001) proposed that the visionary companies didn't

simply follow others in their fields (watching the clock), but tended to lead the way.

Everyone in the company must be committed to following the path of the leader

(similar to a cult leader). They must commit to the same core ideology, must be

indoctrinated into the company culture, must develop a tight fit with others in the

company, and must think of themselves as the 'elite' in their field.

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Harzing and Ruysseveldt (2004) believe that it is important to understand the

motivation and incentive structure, and to highlight any differences that may impact

retention. It is necessary to link individual performance, skills and position with

income in order to generate motivation for greater production.

Morgan W. McCall, Jr., and Michael M. Lombardo (1998) propose that people

rarely come into management, possessing all the knowledge, skills, and abilities

necessary to advance. They must develop, and most development occurs not in the

classroom, but on the job.

Watson, C, & Hoffman (1996) explored that high-power managers, of both genders,

attempted to engage in cooperative behaviour with their partners, and believed they

achieved cooperative outcomes. But low-power managers were more competitive and

felt they gained their own ends at the expense of the other party.

C. Bartlett (1997) focuses on the work of managers in new forms of organizations

which are flexible, horizontally integrated, and decentralized. Although much has

been written about managers, including their roles, functions, and skills, the

organizational context is changing, and new perspectives are needed. A process

perspective is a way of understanding the work of managers in these contexts.

Clayton Alderfer gave ERG Model, proposing 3 groups of core needs, i.e. Existence

– Relatedness – Growth. The existence group is concerned mainly with providing

basic material existence. The second group is the individuals need to maintain

interpersonal relationship with other members in the group. The final group is the

intrinsic desire to grow and develop personally. The major conclusions of this theory

being:

• In an individual, more than one need may be operative at the same time.

• If a higher need goes unsatisfied than the desire to satisfy a lower need

intensifies.

• It also contains the frustration-regression dimension.

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B.F. Skinner, who propounded the Reinforcement Theory, holds that by designing

the environment properly, individuals can be motivated. Instead of considering

internal factors like impressions, feelings, attitudes and other cognitive behaviour,

individuals are directed by what happens in the environment external to them. Those

employees' behaviours that lead to positive outcomes will be repeated and behaviours

that lead to negative outcomes will not be repeated (Skinner, 1953). Managers should

positively reinforce employee behaviours that lead to positive outcomes. Managers

should negatively reinforce employee behaviour that leads to negative outcomes.

Edwin Locke, in his Goal Setting Theory states that instead of giving vague tasks to

people, specific and pronounced objectives help in achieving them faster. As the

clarity is high, goal orientation also avoids any misunderstandings in the work of the

employees. The goal setting theory states that when the goals to be achieved are set at

a higher standard, then in that case, employees are motivated to perform better and put

in maximum effort. It revolves around the concept of “Self-efficacy” i.e. individual’s

belief that he or she is capable of performing a hard task.

Lyman W. Porter and Edward E. Lawler developed a more complete version of

motivation depending upon expectancy theory.

Fig. 2.4: Porter and Lawler’s Theory of Motivation

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Actual performance in a job is primarily determined by the effort spent. But it is also

affected by the person’s ability to do the job and also by individual’s perception of

what the required task is. So performance is the responsible factor that leads to

intrinsic as well as extrinsic rewards. These rewards, along with the equity of

individual lead to satisfaction. Hence, satisfaction of the individual depends upon the

fairness of the reward.

David McClelland has developed a theory on three types of motivating needs:

1. Need for Power (Basically people for high need for power are inclined

towards influence and control. They like to be at the centre and are good

orators. They are demanding in nature, forceful in manners and ambitious in

life. They can be motivated to perform if they are given key positions or

power positions.)

2. Need for Affiliation (In the second category are the people who are social in

nature. They try to affiliate themselves with individuals and groups. They are

driven by love and faith. They like to build a friendly environment around

themselves. Social recognition and affiliation with others provides them

motivation.)

3. Need for Achievement (People in the third area are driven by the challenge of

success and the fear of failure. Their need for achievement is moderate and

they set for themselves moderately difficult tasks. They are analytical in nature

and take calculated risks. Such people are motivated to perform when they see

atleast some chances of success.)

McClelland observed that with the advancement in hierarchy, the need for power and

achievement increased rather than Affiliation. He also observed that people who were

at the top, later ceased to be motivated by these drives.

As per Cognitive Evaluation Theory, a shift from external rewards to internal

rewards results into motivation. It believes that even after the stoppage of external

stimulus, internal stimulus survives. It relates to the pay structure in the organization.

Instead of treating external factors like pay, incentives, promotion etc and internal

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factors like interests, drives, responsibility etc, separately should be treated as

contemporary to each other. The cognition is to be such that even when external

motivators are not there the internal motivation continues. However, practically

extrinsic rewards are given much more weightage.

J. Stacey Adams’s Equity Theory propagates that people are motivated by their

beliefs about the reward structure as being fair or unfair, relative to the inputs.

Fig. 2.5: Equity Theory of Motivation

People have a tendency to use subjective judgment to balance the outcomes and

inputs in the relationship for comparisons between different individuals. Accordingly,

if people feel that they are not equally rewarded, they either reduce the quantity or

quality of work or migrate to some other organization. However, if people perceive

that they are rewarded higher, they may be motivated to work harder.

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Turner and Lawrence developed Requisite Task Attributes Model, a classification

of job characteristics that were believed to lead to higher levels of satisfaction and

attendance on the job. Six important task characteristics were identified: (a) variety;

(b) autonomy; (c) responsibility; (d) knowledge and skill; (e) optional interaction; and

(f) required interaction. The model does not provide clues concerning the process

through which task characteristics influence employee attitudes and behavior. In

addition, the task characteristics they identified were based on an a priori

classification scheme and little attention was given to establishing empirically their

importance to respondents. In the absence of such information, it is not possible to

conclude that the six task attributes they identified are the most salient ones from a

motivational standpoint.

Trist offered a set of general Socio-Technical Principles of job design based on the

"psychological requirements" of the job. These pyschological requirements are

described as the need for the job to provide: (a) reasonably demanding content; (b) an

opportunity to learn; (c) some autonomy or discretion in decision making; (d) social

support and recognition; (e) a relationship between what is produced and the

employee's social life; and (f) the feeling that the job leads to a desirable future.

Activation theory by Scott presents an intriguing explanation for the effects of job

design on individual reactions. But at this time, its utility in the work place appears

limited. At its present level of development, Scott concludes that activation theory

does not allow precise statements concerning how or when to enrich jobs in the work

place.

People are guided by four basic emotional needs, or drives, that are the product of our

common evolutionary heritage. As set out by Paul R. Lawrence and Nitin Nohria in

their (2002) book Driven: How Human Nature Shapes Our Choices, they are the

drives to acquire (obtain scarce goods, including intangibles such as social status);

bond (form connections with individuals and groups); comprehend (satisfy our

curiosity and master the world around us); and defend (protect against external threats

and promote justice). These drives underlie everything we do.

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To define overall motivation, four commonly measured workplace indicators of it

were focused by Nitin Nohria, Boris Groysberg and Linda-Eling Lee (2008):

engagement, satisfaction, commitment, and intention to quit. Engagement represents

the energy, effort, and initiative employees bring to their jobs. Satisfaction reflects the

extent to which they feel that the company meets their expectations at work and

satisfies its implicit and explicit contracts with them. Commitment captures the extent

to which employees engage in corporate citizenship. Intention to quit is the best proxy

for employee turnover.

2.2 EASTERN PHILOSOPHIES OF MOTIVATION:

Richard Lannoy (1971) examines India's capacity for innovation and creativity, its

receptivity to change in social and family relations, and the ability to utilize human,

technical and physical resources for social reconstruction.

Swami Sivananda emphasizes the necessity of a ‘Guru’ and believes that Guru or a

spiritual preceptor is necessary for aspirants. It is the duty of the Guru to set each of

his disciples upon that path of spiritual development which is best suited to the Chela.

Guru in the physical form is the main source and embodiment of all good and

happiness that can accrue to the Chela.

Bhai Santokh Singh ji (2000) narrates the glory of Sikh Gurus, who as a leader

motivated the followers to commit and devote themselves fully for a cause. With the

symbolic meaning summed up in the cosmic metaphor of suraj, i.e. the sun, the poet

explains, "As the sun rises, the darkness of the night vanishes, thieves and thugs hide

themselves, owls and bats go to slumber and the stars disappear. So, with the advent

of the Gurus, the rays of their spiritual light spread all around dispelling the darkness

of ignorance." The examples of sacrifice of Bhai Dyalaji, Bhai Sati Das and Bhai Mati

Das further translates the need to explore the cause behind motivation for such

supreme sacrifice.

Guru Gobind Singh Ji in “Dasam Granth” gave a universal appeal to the masses

(from all religions) to promote truth. Through these writings, Guru Ji performed the

miraculous transformation of people who had lost all courage and become timid and

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fearful into lion-hearted warriors who would stand undaunted in the face of any

‘challen’. It, hence, points to the fact that motivation is relationship based (i.e. the

Guru-Disciple relation and commitment).

Brigadier Jaspal (2006) provides a glimpse of the spiritual personality and inspiring

life of the sage of Kaleran. The book is primarily based on his father’s intuitive

experiences and face-to-face conversation with Baba Nand Singh ji, who prayed to

the Nami. the Rachanhaar to show Himself up, to appear face to face, to emerge in

person before the naked eye from His permanent abode, in Sri Guru Granth Sahib.

Maj Gen Rajinder Nath, PVSM (Retd.) gave his views (1990) on military

leadership. His studies throw light on the fact that a soldier doesn’t even cry when in

pain in the battlefield, while a common man yells even on a small cut/bruise. It further

strengthens the need to explore the fact that motivation is relationship based.

Dr. S Radhakrishnan (1968) gives the reference of the growing starvation of modern

man from spiritual faith, preparing the ground for the hedonistic attitude towards the

life that leads to inactivity, listlessness and apathy. He argued that Western

philosophers, despite all claims to objectivity, were biased by theological influences

from their wider culture. In one of his major works, he also showed that Indian

Philosophy, once translated into standard academic language, is worthy of being

called philosophy by Western standards. His main contribution to Indian thought,

therefore, is that he placed it "on the map", thereby earning Indian philosophy a

respect in the West that it had not had before. In his major work on the Idealist View

of Life, he made a powerful case for the importance of instinctive thinking as opposed

to purely intellectual forms of thought.

Rajaj Gopal Chari (Rajaji) in his Translation of Bhagwat Gita (1965) quoted Lord

Krishna saying that knowledge is hidden by the desire of self-satisfaction, the selfish

desire resides in ones senses, mind and ones intelligence and that the forces of selfish

greed through the means of mind, intelligence and senses completely overpower the

basic wisdom of man and his desire to do good of others. Lord Krishna calls upon

Arjun to overcome the evil forces of individualistic actions by keeping the strength of

senses under control. Atma is supreme being over and above the body and therefore

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heeding the voice of atma, Arjun must subdue the abominable enemy in the shape of

selfish desire.

Pareek (1968) developed a matrix to diagnose the motivational climate of an

organization. In his Role Motivation model, he identified six major needs of workers

relevant in Indian context (achievement, affiliation, expert influence, control,

extension and dependency), and 12 organizational climate dimensions.

J.B.P. Sinha (1990) extensively studied the power dynamics of superior-subordinate

relationships in the Indian context. According to him, the presence of pervasive

poverty in society, close and continuous interaction among organizational members, a

hierarchical social structure, and a centralized authority structure in organizations

jointly contribute to a strong need for power among managers and a strong need for

security among subordinates. These needs are manifested in a reciprocal influence

process that is characterized by paternalism and nurturance on the part of supervisors

and dependence and deference on the part of subordinates.

Kanungo and Mendonca (1994) suggest that models of motivation for India should

attempt to study and assimilate the deeper sub-spectrum of what may be broadly

called the spiritually-oriented and socially centered value-system.

Kanungo and Mendonca suggest a three-pronged approach:

(a) to question the relevance of western work motivational models;

(b) to identify the distinctive factors of the socio-cultural environment in developing

countries;

(c) to develop conceptual models and motivational practices which are consistent

with the cultural features of countries like India.

S.K.Chakraborty (1987) gave the a motivation model for India, based on her

spirituo-social ethos, which is ‘giving oriented’, compared to ‘need oriented’ thrust of

the western ethos. His ‘Giving model of motivation’ has the potential to provide a

vital harmonizing link between Cosmic work and human work. The organized,

urbanized industrial and government sectors in India constitute a very small

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proportion of employment and gross domestic product. And the problem of

unsatisfactory work-motivation is primarily confined to this relatively small segment.

Unfortunately, the educational sector also appears to be largely afflicted by such poor

work culture. On the other hand, if we consider the agricultural sector, it is well-

known that this sector has made India self-sufficient in food. This self-sufficiency has

been sustained for over two decades even in the face of rapidly growing population.

Similarly, work-motivation in the small scale and cottage industry sector, among the

self-employed, and in the domestic sector is quite strong, even exemplary.

Y.W.Zhao, a Chinese researcher, (1994) argues that both the ‘materialistic’ and

‘spiritual’ aspects have to be synthesized for improving work-motivation, and named

his theory as ‘synchronization’ or ‘s’ theory of work-motivation, revealing the

retention of a strong cultural self-esteem in China as compared to individualistic self-

esteem. The ‘s’ theory is presented by him in this manner:

Motivational Force = Materialistic Motivation x Spiritual Motivation

Zhao treats Theory X assumptions as an analogue to materialistic motivation, while

those of Theory Y as analogous to spiritual motivation. Using the results of three field

studies he argues that exclusive reliance upon Theory Y would be inadequate and

simply wishful for eliciting high work-motivation. Motivational style employing

Theory X assumptions would be equally necessary. Problems of loose work

discipline, weak moral consciousness, haphazard production system, feeble industrial

safety are widespread in Chinese enterprises. Therefore, ‘hard work’ by the labour

force cannot be taken for granted. So, Theory X motivators have to be consciously

applied. At the same time ‘spiritual’ methods of ideological education to inculcate

dedication, discipline and control have also to be used.

S S Kaptan and Latha S K Murthy (2006) refer a military axiom, `It is the man

behind the machine that matters', has come to focus in the organizations nowadays. In

keeping with modern technology and organizational behaviour, the value of Human

Resource Development (HRD) remains vital. The importance of achieving

motivational levels right from the top to grass roots level is essential for success and

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remains imperative for sustainability of the organization. This can only be achieved

by inspired and dedicated leadership at all levels.

Kittu Reddy (2002) highlights that the whole world, and probably we, in India today

are almost totally dominated by the European and Western civilisation and concept of

life. "The man who most finds and lives from the inner Self, can most embrace the

universal and become one with it; the Svarat (independent, self-possessed and self-

ruler), can most be the Samrat (Emperor), possessor and shaper of the world in which

he lives, can most grow one with all in the Atman. That is the truth this developing

existence teaches us, and it is one of the greatest secrets of the old Indian spiritual

knowledge".

Managers can also affect motivation by structuring the interdependence and

interaction between themselves and their employees (Leavitt and Lipman-Blumen,

1995). This study uses Deutsch’s (1980, 1973) Theory of Co-operation and

Competition to study how managers can develop interaction and relationships that

enhance motivation. Deutsch (1973, 1980) in his theory of co-operation and

competition proposed that perceived goal interdependence critically alters the

dynamics and outcomes of interaction.

In McGregor’s (1960) terms, a preponderance of management styles and techniques

favour Theory Y, rather than Theory X. The later assumes that most workers dislike

work and therefore try to avoid it. They must be controlled and coerced into achieving

organizational goals. The former assumes that employees seek responsibility, can

make decisions and will exercise self-control when properly motivated. Evans et al.

(1989) suggest that Theory X is more applicable in the West, whereas Theory Y may

be more applicable in the East.

To understand more fully why Western assumptions of employee motivation may not

work in India, it is important to first understand Indian work values within the context

of broader theories of cultural differences. We can then move on to propose

approaches to the ways in which companies may formulate motivational policies and

practices by reviewing motivational processes in the Indian context.

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It appears that research on work-motivation in India has not been able to de-

contextualise the subject in a holistic and indigenous way. The terminology, idioms,

conceptual categories, questionnaire designs used in these studies and analyses reflect

the ethos of advanced economies of the west. Therefore, a fair degree of empathy with

the indigenous cultural foundation seems necessary.

Chakraborty has labelled this approach to explore the motivational roots of Indian

managers as the ‘giving model of motivation’. It has the potential to provide a vital

harmonizing link between Cosmic work and human work. This holistic treatment of

work is handled elaborately in chapter 3 of Bhagwad Gita, and has been alluded to

earlier from Bede Griffitt’s interpretation of the same. The Cosmic/Divine

Purusha/Being is actualizing/fulfilling itself by ceaseless ‘giving’. It is an intrinsically

joyful process not calling for need satisfactions. Therefore, the Cosmic-human/social

exchange process should be synchronized upon a single principle. Fulfilment of

necessary human needs will then become a natural by-product.

2.3 Indian Work Ethos and Values

The normally cited “classic” work on cultural values (Hofstede, 1980) is applicable in

Indian subcontinent. Indian thought tradition emphasizes indulging in right action

positively with all one’s strength and energy without worrying much about the results

of such action. Quoting here in translation, five stanzas from the Rigveda which

exhort people to get involved vigorously in positive action (Agrawal 2002):

(1) One is blessed with name and fame only after doing hard and sincere efforts; God

is with those who go forward in their thoughts and deeds. So keep moving.

(2) A person without getting perturbed from hindrances and difficulties in life but

goes on moving forward with hard work is sure to move on paths of flowers of

success. So keep moving.

(3) One who himself sits down, his progress and prosperity stops. One who stands up,

progresses. One who lies down and sleeps, his future also sleeps. One who moves

forward, his future also moves forward and meets him later on. Keep doing good

work without pining for results. So keep moving.

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(4) One who sleeps is of lowest category (kaliyuga). One who is ready to leave

slumber and ready to get up is better than the first (dwaparayuga); one who does gets

up and is ready for action is better than the second (treatayuga) and one who moves

forward with enthusiasm is the best (satayuga).

(5) One who moves forward gets honey; he gets tasty fruits. Look at the sun; it

continuously moves without ever being idle. So move forward. (Rig Veda, Aitareya

Brahmana 33.3)

The quest of mankind is placed at the highest level of needs in ancient Indian thought.

Moksha (enlightenment) is the highest goal of human life. One has to realize the

higher levels of being which gives man greater fulfilment and deep satisfaction. This

spiritually developmental approach gives direction and meaning to the whole of

human life. The 5,000-year-old cultural wisdom of India is highly useful in

understanding the importance of co-existence.

Though efficient perhaps in the short-term, power-based relationships have proven to

be very costly in the long-term. Long-term, open and trust-based relationships with

employees, customers, suppliers and others are the means for maximizing shareholder

value. The major differences underlying these two kinds of relationships are as under:

Fig. 2.6: Kinds of Relationships

The Housing Development Finance Corporation (HDFC) is one such company,

which has been founded on such a philosophy. HDFC also has demonstrated that it is

possible to build a cooperation-based relationship even with competitors. H.T.

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Parekh, the founder Chairman of HDFC, had committed the company to ‘building

long-term, mutually supportive relationships with all its key constituencies;

employees, investors, depositors, borrowers and regulators’.

Brijmohan Lall Munjal, Chairman of Hero Honda, is another person who firmly

believes in cooperation-based relationship as a core business philosophy. He says,

‘We are one of the four partners in this business: the workers, the dealers, the

suppliers and the management’ (Ghoshal et al. 2000).

India’s grand old industrialist, the late JRD Tata, says, ’There is a belief in our

country that our culture and our character cannot allow our people to attain

consistently high standards; that shoddiness and carelessness are our God-given ways

of life. But if with faith in them, you ask our men for their best, they rise to a belief in

their work and create a momentum towards improvement.

Kewal K. Nohriya, Chairman and Managing Director of Crompton Greaves

Limited, Bombay, who is credited with the company’s recent turnaround, expresses

the opinion that basically people are good and they like to develop themselves. People

are triggered more by the actions of the management than by its words. When people

join an organization, they are full of aspirations, dreams and visions, and like to

develop themselves. Unfortunately lack of concern, opportunities and development

programmes, and unduly stifling rules and hierarchies diminish their enthusiasm and

frustrate their aspirations. The management then tries to devise various external

stimuli to motivate them. ‘If managers were to concern themselves more with the

creation of an environment where employees have the opportunity to stretch their

capabilities and achieve their dreams, they would motivate themselves on their own

and develop a trust in the management’ (Nohriya 1999: 22).

The experiences of JRD Tata, Kewal Nohriya and Suresh Krishna prove beyond

doubt that the culture is not at fault, but it is the management of a particular company

which is at fault when its employees fail to get motivated to give their best to their

company.

The main work values and group orientation determining Eastern part of the Globe’s

employees’ motivations and implications in the corporate strategy are:

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• Harmony: avoid conflicts and social behaviours damaging the cohesiveness

within the organization.

• Collectiveness: foster the linkage between individual interests and group

interests to determine a corporate strategy promoting the current

organizational culture.

• Value of hard work: deeply ingrained in the mind of Japanese people is the

belief that individual ethic is formed through the process of working within

the organization. The closer this linkage, the more effective is the corporate

organizational system.

• Team work and group decision making are considered crucial to successful

management.

Indians seek advice from others but customarily emphasize reaching the actual

decision independent of outside pressure. Indian social values prize personal

independence over dominance. Only in those few cases where the welfare of others is

seriously threatened will Indian society reluctantly condone forcing an adult to take

any action.

In an Indian community, the ideal is to discuss a problem until a consensus is reached

on a resolution. Majority decisions which would leave part of the community in

disagreement are not valued, because such a situation would violate the rights of the

minority and possibly cause friction in the community (Vogt and Albert 1966:221).

Independence in Indian society is practiced within the context of strong social

consciousness. Independence frees the individual from outside control, but in order to

obtain the approval of the group, he has to act with its welfare in mind. Positive

encouragement and reward, as opposed to punishment, are the preferred means of

obtaining desired behaviour.

Indian culture does not emphasize the Western ideal of exploiting and manipulating

the environment; power and control over the realm of nature are not rewarded. In the

Indian view, man is a part of the world and made from it.

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Mo Yuet-Ha emphasizes many companies setting up operations in East Asia have

found that it is not possible simply to transplant western management methods and

values and expect local staff to adapt. In selecting the right qualities of an individual

for a job, it is important to understand that knowledge and behavioral skills are the

easiest to teach.

To be cost-effective, the most practical approach when recruiting people is to identify

their core traits, and then to develop the knowledge and skills required to do specific

jobs. It is of paramount importance that the company selects employees in the host

country whose motivation, traits, attitudes and values are similar to, or aligned with,

its own core values and beliefs. The competency of interpersonal sensitivity and

teamwork is critical for the selection of expatriate managers.

At a metatheoretical level, Pranjpe (1984) has shown the possibility of relating and

contrasting eastern and western concepts of self, identity and consciousness. Varma

(in press) has approached the possibility of developing a social constructionist

framework for psychology in India.

Misra and Gergen (1993) have explored the possibility of articulating Indian

(Hindu) construals of psychological functioning. They have noted that the ontology of

personhood in the Indian (Hindu) cultural context is rooted in both the spiritual as

well as the natural worlds. An indigenous psychology, from this standpoint, would

emphasize: a holistic-organic worldview, coherence and order across all life forms,

the socially constituted/embedded nature of the person, non-linear growth and

continuity in life, behaviour as transaction, the temporal and atemporal existence of

human beings, spatio-temporally contextualized action, the search for eternity in life,

the desirability of self-discipline, the transitory nature of human experience,

distributed rather than personalized control, and a belief in multiple worlds (material

and spiritual).

A fruitful interface between indigenous Indian thought and psychological discourse is

found in the Guru-Chela paradigm of therapy (Neki, 1973), the nurturant task style

of leadership (J.B.P. Sinha, 1980), analyses of self and personality (Naidu, 1994;

Tipathi, 1988), the reconceptualization of achievement (Misra and Agarwal, 1985;

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Dalai, Singh, and Misra, 1988), analyses of the Indian psyche (Kakar, 1978), emotion

(Jain, in press), justice (Krishnan, 1992), morality (Misra, 1991), the concept of well-

being (D. Sinha, 1990), development (Kaur and Sarawsathi, 1992), values (Prakash,

1994), detachment (N. Pande and Naidu, 1992), and methods of organizational

intervention (Ghakraporty, 1985). As Marriott (1992) has envisioned, these

developments suggest, "that alternative social sciences are potentially available in the

materials of many non-western cultures, and their development is essential to serve in

the many places now either left to ad hoc descriptions or badly monopolized by social

sciences borrowed from the West" (p.269).

Even three decades ago, Sinha (1962) indicated a need for an integration of modern

psychology with Indian thought. Indian scholars have been drawn to this possibility

by attempting to mix western and Indian concepts and to adapt western concepts to

suit Indian culture.

The culture of organizations in India has been influenced to a great extent by the

unique socio-cultural ethos of the Indian environment. Some of the major sociological

factors affecting culture of Indian organizations have been:

1. The Caste System – Castes are a hereditary ascribed status which is

intimately linked with religious structure. This deep rooted system dividing

Hindu Society into hierarchical groups, at the top of which are the Brahmins

and at the lowest rung the Shudras, causes stagnation and a lowering of

ambition and expectations. This concept of fatalism can also cause a resistance

to change, because there is lack of conviction that man can shape his future by

human choices rather than blind destiny.

2. The Joint Family System – The Joint family system concentrates all

authority and responsibility in the Karta or the Head of the family. Moreover,

the children brought up in joint families grow up with a number of other

children and parental authorities diffused in a number of other adults.

Therefore, they acquire considerable familiarity, practice and skills in dealing

with peer relationships. This also leads to an evasion of responsibility.

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3. The Concepts of Dharma and Karma – The concept of Dharma is one of

‘divine will’ or the duties expected from a person born to a certain caste.

Karma is the fruit of following one’s pattern of duty in the next birth. A

deviation from one’s Dharma can lead to retribution in the form of Karma,

where in the next birth of cosmic cycle, one gets one’s just rewards by being

born in the lower caste. Kapp (1963) puts it as, “By connecting the actual

finite human situation with the individual’s previous incarnations, cause and

effect are spread over totally different lives, as a result causation tends to lose

all continuity and assumes a fatalistic tinge.”

Managerial culture in India has been authoritarian in nature because of the joint

family system in India. The same pattern is carried to the organizations where there is

paternalistic attitude of the superiors towards subordinates, the superiors tend to act as

protectors and do not allow subordinates to take decisions of their own.

Chattopadhyay (1975) advocated that an organization’s culture was strongly

influenced by the societal culture because of the fact that the human resources

available for an enterprise come from the society in which it is located and no

organization can be studied in isolation from its cultural environment.

Bhandari and Bhatnagar (1998) in an empirical study of six organizations, three

from the private sector, two from the public sector and a government department

found hierarchy as the predominant culture form. The use of competing values

framework in organizations was proposed to increase efficiency, dynamism and to

change the organization culture due to the possible existence of different cultures in

the different parts of the same organization.

Panda and Gupta (2002) used integrative approach to uncover the gaps between

espoused and prevailing culture and the challenges before leadership in bridging the

gap. The researchers suggested through qualitative study of organization culture that

the leaders should integrate the sub-cultural diversities through social interaction,

formal and informal socialization processes and action based feedback mechanism.

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It is important to ask question: Have all the self-actualizing or achievement or

intrinsic motivations behind human activities since 1946 till 2002 helped mankind to

go nearer to his ultimate/final end? Of course the Yoga-Vedantic principles of human

motivation have been saying this for ages. Huxley’s is a modern echo of that ancient

call. The principle reason for the general failure to pass this test seems to be that we

have not incorporated the Aurobindovian type of critique of ego in our ego-centric

work environments.

In sum, the keynote of Indian ethos on work is this: unless motivation theories can

break out of rigid adherence to egocentric work models, even socio-centric work may

not be possible. Corporate citizenship etc., may remain pious hopes, while unethically

and meaninglessness in work go on increasing. Of course Cosmo-centric work (to

reach the Divine ground or spirit — Huxley and Aurobindo) will remain a distant

‘cry.

Perhaps the first significant Indian contribution to motivation research was by Udai

Pareek in 1968. He accepted McClelland’s ‘achievement motivation’ as relevant for

India, deriving from his work for training future entrepreneurs for India’s economic

development. But he also concluded that two other culture-specific motivations,

namely, ‘extension’ and ‘dependence’ motivations should be integrated into the

theory. Extension motivation is explained as concern for other people or society.

Some kind of a superordinate goal can facilitate extension of the self and relate it to

larger groups and their goals. This has positive effect on performance. Dependence

motivation, on the other hand, is a negative force because it implies concern for

direction from others during action. Pareek has suggested the following theoretical

relationship among these three motivations:

D= (AM x EM)-DM,

Where D is development, AM is achievement motivation, EM is extension motivation

and DM is dependence motivation.

Udai Pareek (2002) argued that the organization culture can be studied in terms of

eight values or Ethos: openness, confrontation, trust, authenticity, pro-action,

autonomy, collaboration, experimentation.

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In the holistic or integral depth psychology of Sri Aurobindo we get a key insight:

‘The ego was the helper, the ego is the bar.’ Nature had to create the ego element as

an initial nucleus for a distinct personality to form around it. The essence of this ego-

nucleus is separative and divisive. Competitive national, corporate, group and

individual rivalries, dominations, exploitations, deceptions — all these originate from

the struggles among separative egos. At the level of organizational leaders and

members, the pursuit of name, fame, money, career, power and so on constitute

egocentric work, driven by secular work-motivation. Perpetuation of the ego-nucleus

as the sole basis of human development throughout life therefore reflects a wrong

principle. It mistakes the starting point for the ultimate destination. None of the

modern motivational theories seems to be aware of this flaw.

The central concept for ‘socio-centric’ work is that of lokasamgraha (verse 3.20 in

Bhagwad Gita).

Lokasamgraha is a comprehensive concept with several shades of allied meanings:

world maintenance, holding together of people, welfare of society etc. There are two

major reasons for recommending the lokasamgraha mode of motivation in work-life:

(1) It is capable of providing a sense of higher purpose to every kind of work. This

elevation of attitude towards work can further have two objectives: (i) to make work

‘meaningful’, irrespective of the outer form of work; (ii) to reduce growing

‘unethicality’ in human activities and organizations.

(2) It is an unavoidable fact of social existence that the common people always tend to

follow the actions and behaviours of those in higher or leadership positions. To them

the ‘person’ seems to naturally become more relevant than the ‘principle.’ Therefore,

in verse 3.21 Bhagwad Gita reminds us: ‘Yad Yad acharati shrestha, tat tad eva itaro

janah’. The shrestha is the leader, the itar janah are the vast numbers of common

people or followers. If the acharan, actions and behaviours, of leaders are lowly or

unethical, then the rest will follow in their footsteps.

The theoretical basis of work-motivation in all sustainable, continuous civilizations

and cultures like India’s may be expressed as a three-layered hierarchy of orientation:

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(a) Spiritual work-motivation

(b) Existential work-motivation

(c) Secular work-motivation

Spiritual work-motivation implies doing work as a means to the goal of realizing the

eternal spirit-core within and manifesting it without. This motive is independent of the

nature of work one is doing. The dictum ‘atinano mokshartha, jagat hitaya cha’

(realizing the spirit or soul by doing work for the welfare of the world) expresses the

psychological motive in spiritual work-motivation. It propagates learning to work in

such a manner that there is growing inner space and freedom to perceive, to unite with

the spirit/soul/divine ground. The secular framework of motivation ignores altogether

this higher motive.

Existential work-motivation applies to that category of people who may not be

actuated by the motive to experience the spirit or divine ground, and yet possess a

deeper impulse to work in a manner which may preserve inner poise and peace, and

save them from psychological suffering and stress. It may be mentioned here that the

modern gospel of ‘seek pleasure, avoid pain’ is existentially unrealistic and

misleading. This may be a natural animal instinct, but it is not an optimal human

motive. The fabric of work life is inevitably a mixture of favourable and unfavourable

experiences.

The struggle to secure only the favourable events as legitimate and deserved, and to

reject the unfavourable ones as illegitimate and undeserved reveals our existential

immaturity. This is not to suggest that one should seek out unfavourable events. But

as and when they come, and they will, one should cultivate the motivation to develop

a growing capacity for psychological insulation from within. Spells of de-motivation

or reduction of enthusiasm in work will then become shorter, and recovery of balance

quicker.

The Bhagwad Gita, which is a treatise on spiritual psychology, gives a technical

word for the above existential problem: dwandwa. Our phenomenal existence is an

endless series of dwandwas — dualities, opposites, contraries. Bhagwad Gita advises

us to accept this reality squarely and to handle it by learning and practicing the

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discipline of equality or samatwa towards the dualities. Verses 1.56, 11.57 and X1I.18

lay down the following rules for psychological self-culture:

(1) ‘Dukheshu Anudvigna Manah, Sukhesu Vigataspriha’.

(2) ‘Prapya Shubha-Ashubham, Na Abhinandati, Na Dweshti’.

(3) ‘Samah mana-apamanyoh’.

The meanings in English are respectively: (1) remain unperturbed in sorrow, do not

crave for pleasure; (2) be not too elated when the good comes, nor be too agitated

when the bad comes; and (3) cultivate equality towards honour and insult alike.

2.4 Gaps in the existing literature

The preceding brief analysis of a three-tier work- motivation theory indicates that

there may be some vital gap in even the well-accepted modern theories of motivation

from Maslow et al. One should start first with the most important question, ‘What

motivates the leaders?’, before coming to motivation among lower level white collar

and blue collar employees. For this priority problem of the leader’s motivation to be

properly handled, the true nature of the ‘vital gap’ in the theories currently may be

identified.

The literature review of the studies related to motivation led to the conclusion that

there have been few studies related with motivation, but no such study was found to

be relating motivation in the Indian context. Likewise, there have been numerous

studies which relate motivation, but no such study was found to be relating motivation

in Defence personnel. Similarly, there have been numerous studies which relate

motivation with leadership behaviour and organization effectiveness, but no such

study was found to be relating motivation with leadership behaviour, organizational

culture, team spirit and personal effectiveness of the managers/Army Officers.

Though some studies quoted here discussed it theoretically, but no empirical study

was found to establish the relationship between the five. No single study was found

which related motivation levels of managers in public and private sector and officers

in Defence sector with leadership behaviour, organizational culture, team spirit and

personal effectiveness.