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Chapter 2 Book 1 Kings, Farmers and Towns : Early States and Economies ( c. 600 BCE to 600 CE)
2018
10 x 10 Learning TM Page 1
THEME TWO
1. What were the developments during these 1500 years, after the phasing out
of the Harappan civilization?
1. Rigveda composed by people living along River Indus. Evidence from Inscriptions on iron pillars, stones, pottery and metal
plates, texts, coins and archtectural remains
2. Agricultural settlements in many parts of north and
deccan India.
Clearing of the denser forests in
Ganga Yamuna doab was possible only
with an iron axe and tools.
3. Iron age replaces the Copper and Bronze culture and red pottery of
Harappan.
Furnaces with higher temperatures were needed to melt iron.
Therefore, Polished Black Pottery emerged.
4. In Deccan and South India, evidence of pastoral settlements and megalith culture . Changes in disposal of dead , who were now buried with a range of
iron tools and weapons.
5. Evidence of early states called Janapadas, and 16 mahajanapadas, Ganas or sanghas called rajaya, empires. Political changes and new towns. Artisans guilds specialize in manufacture.
Chapter 2 Book 1 Kings, Farmers and Towns : Early States and Economies ( c. 600 BCE to 600 CE)
2018
10 x 10 Learning TM Page 2
2. Epigraphy is the study of inscriptions.
3. Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts were used for inscriptions.
4. Languages used were Pali, Prakrit, Tamil, Sanskrit.
5. Prakrit was the spoken language of the masses. Sanskrit was the language of
the elite.
1. Janapadas
16 Mahajanapada where large areas in which people of
one tribe settled permanently for agriculture. No
single person was the head
No single person or group was in control. Guild
system was prevalent for all professions that developed the
skills and trained youngsters.
2. Sangha
Was a smaller than mahajanapada. It
was a more closely knit tribe that had
not fully adopted to agriculture. Both
Mahavir and Buddha belonged to
ruling dynasty of their Sangha.
Headed by a king.
Vajji Sangha is recorded to have had a king who controlled resources on behalf of the tribe
3. Ganas
Were oligarchies. A small group controlled all resources and
made all decisions.
'Gana' means 'people' who could be counted. It was the smallest of the three groups and partly pastoral.
Chapter 2 Book 1 Kings, Farmers and Towns : Early States and Economies ( c. 600 BCE to 600 CE)
2018
10 x 10 Learning TM Page 3
Most frequently recorded of the 16 Mahajanapadas included
Questions at the end of the Chapter
Answer in 100 to 150 words:
1. Discuss the evidence of craft production in Early Historic cities. In
what ways is this different from the evidence from Harappan cities?
Answer. Evidence of black polished pottery bowls and dishes, with a
glossy finish has been found from Early Historic Cities.
Ornaments, tools, weapons, vessels, figurines made of gold,
silver, copper, bronze, ivory, glass, shell and terracotta have been
found. Inscriptions from a number of early cities tell about people
from various occupations, such as washing folks, weavers, scribes,
carpenters, potters, goldsmiths, blacksmiths, officials, religious
1. Vajji
2. Magadha
3.Koshala
4. Kuru
5. Panchala
6. Gandhara
7. Avanti
Chapter 2 Book 1 Kings, Farmers and Towns : Early States and Economies ( c. 600 BCE to 600 CE)
2018
10 x 10 Learning TM Page 4
teachers, merchants and kings. Craft production was organized in
guilds that procured raw material, regulated production and quality,
marketed the produce, paid taxes.
They differ from Harappan cities in the wider range of
products and organisation of production.
(101 words)
2. Describe the salient features of Mahajanapadas.
Answer. The Mahajanapadas had the following salient features:
a) They had clearly defined outer boundaries. With it a single tribe
with a common culture had settled to practice agriculture.
b) Each had a capital city as its seat of sangha or raja
c) The capital city was fortified by an outer wall and the main gates
were controlled.
d) Punch marked coins of metals were issued by the mahajanapadas.
e) There was an increasing use of iron and growth in trade and
commerce.
f) Each Mahajanapada had its own army to defend its borders and raid
its neighbours. The administration collected taxes and carried out
orders.
g) Mahajapadas named in Jaina and Buddhist texts include Vajji,
Magadha, Anga, Koshala, Kuru, Panchala, Vatsy, Matsya, Avanti
and Chedi.
h) Work was organized in artisan guilds. The guilds created work
norms and specialized in one form of art.
(144 words)
3. How do historians reconstruct the lives of ordinary people?
Answer. Historians reconstruct the social history of lives of ordinary
people through a variety of archeological and literary sources.
Inscriptions on rocks, stones, pottery, coins, sculptures and metal plates
convey the maximum information. The range of metals and materials
Chapter 2 Book 1 Kings, Farmers and Towns : Early States and Economies ( c. 600 BCE to 600 CE)
2018
10 x 10 Learning TM Page 5
used also convey the diversity of social life. How the raw materials
would have been obtained indicates the trade links to other places.
The quality of pottery indicates the growing distinction in society.
Harappan red pottery was of the same in quality. This continued in early
cities, when a new class of black polished pottery was found. This was
glossy artistic and limited in number. This indicates that it was expensive
and made only for the rich.
From inscriptions of early cities, historians know that washing folks,
weavers, scribes, carpenters, potters, goldsmiths, blacksmiths, officials,
religious teachers, merchants and kings lived in these early cities. Craft
production was organized in guilds. (148 words)
4. Compare and contrast the list of things given to the Pandyan chief
(Source 3) with those produced in the village of Danguna (Source 8).
Do you notice any similarities or differences?
Answer. As per Source 3 the Pandyan chief was given gifts of ivory,
fragrant wood, fans made of the hair of deer, honey , sandalwood, red
ochre, antimony, turmeric, cardamom, pepper, coconut, mangoes,
medicinal plants, fruits, onions, sugarcane, flowers. Areca nut,
bananas, baby tigers, lions, elephants, monkeys, bear, deer, musk
deer, fox, peacocks, musk cat, wild cocks, speaking parrots.
As per source 8 the Danguna village produced flowers and
milk, grass for animals and hides for seats, charcoal, salt, fermented
liquors, mining products, and khadira trees.
The similarities are that both lists include natural produce such as
flowers, tree products and animal based products. The differences are
that the Pandyan chief is gifted live animals as well and a wider range
of natural produce.
(123 words)
Chapter 2 Book 1 Kings, Farmers and Towns : Early States and Economies ( c. 600 BCE to 600 CE)
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5. List some of the problems faced by epigraphists.
Answer. The epigraphists have first to locate and interpret the
equivalent alphabets in the modern scripts with ancient scripts. Most
of the modern Indian scripts have been derived from Brahmi script in
which the edicts of Emperor Ashoka have been inscribed. The
assumptions made by epigraphists also matter. For example, the
earliest scripts are in Prakrit, but scholars assumed them to be in the
early version of Sanskrit, because most of the texts that have survived
were in Sanskrit. As such a wrong assumption can also become an
obstruction.
The script to be deciphered has also to be compared with other
ancient scripts. For example the Kharosthi script used in Ashoka
inscriptions in the North-west was similar to script on coins of Indo
Greek kings. Names of the kings on coins facilitated the deciphering
of Kharosthi, only after it was seen to be Prakrit and not Sanskrit.
(147 words)
Write short essays of about 500 words on the following:
6. Discuss the main features of Mauryan administration. Which of these
elements are evident in the Asokan inscriptions that you have studied?
Answer. The Magadha Mahajanapada emerged as the first empire in
ancient India under King Chandragupta Maurya. He extended his
control from Rajgir to Afghanistan and Baluchistan. His grandson,
Emperor Ashoka extended the empire further to Kalinga and beyond
into South. Such a vast empire needed a regular administration for its
functioning.
At first, militia was maintained for security of the king who lived
in a fortified settlement called ‘Rajagaha or Rajgir. This separated the
king and his administration from the people. As resources increased,
Chapter 2 Book 1 Kings, Farmers and Towns : Early States and Economies ( c. 600 BCE to 600 CE)
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standing armies began to be maintained and the capital city of
Magadha was shifted to Pataliputra.
Two main functions dominated the organisation of the
administration, one, collection of taxes and two, maintaining of the
army. The administration of the empire was organized into five major
administration centres mentioned in the rock and pillar inscriptions of
Ashoka.
These five centres were the capital city of Pataliputra, Taxila in
northwest, Ujjaiyini in southwest, Tosali and Suvarnagiri in the
southeast. These centres were on the major trade routes.
Communication through land and rivers routes was important. The
army maintained security on all channels of communications. Six
branches of administration coordinated all military activities, transport
and provisions for the army, and one each for foot soldiers, horses,
chariots, and elephants. Spies were an important part of the
administration and security of the empire. They were the only ones
authorized to meet the king at any time of the day or night. As they
reported directly to the king only, their role was secret.
Rock and pillar inscriptions have been found at places where
people gathered frequently such as transit points on rivers and roads.
Special persons were appointed as dhamma mahamatta to spread the
message of dhamma. One person was employed to read aloud the
dhamma messages on the inscriptions.
The inscription of Ashoka mention him as ‘King Ashoka’ and by
the term ‘Piyadassi’ that means ‘pleasant to behold or look at’. This
indicates that the Mauryan administration was headed by a King. The
inscriptions are mostly in Prakrit and a few are in Pali language, but
the script is Brahmi. Only in the north west Kharoshti script is used for
the inscriptions. This indicates Prakrit to be the language of the
Chapter 2 Book 1 Kings, Farmers and Towns : Early States and Economies ( c. 600 BCE to 600 CE)
2018
10 x 10 Learning TM Page 8
common people. ‘Ajatasattu’ as the ruler before King Ashoka is
mentioned. This shows that the kingship was dynasty based.
The inscriptions also convey that the king and his administration
collected taxes from the cultivators, traders, and artisans. Tributes were
collected from pastoralists and forest peoples.
In conclusion, it can be said that the administration was organized for
the purpose of security of the king and of the empire. The requirements
of army with its branches of horses, chariots, elephants, foot soldiers,
spies, were seen by special branches of administration. Similarly,
function of the river navy was organized. Roads and river routes of
transportation were created and maintained. The second major function
of administration was collection of taxes and tributes, The third
function was communication and propagation of Dhamma across the
empire. For this special officers were appointed and rock and pillar
inscriptions were created.
(515 words)
7. This is a statement made by one of the best-known epigraphists of the
twentieth century, D.C. Sircar: “There is no aspect of life, culture and
activities of the Indians that is not reflected in inscriptions.” Discuss.
Answer. Ashokan inscriptions are on natural rocks, part of which was
polished to inscribe the message. The second group of inscriptions is
on marble pillars.
The inscriptions were essentially a means of communication
between the ruler and the people. This is concluded from the fact that
the Prakrit and Pali that were the languages of the ordinary people
were used. The inscriptions were located on main routes and at places
where people gathered frequently for transit or trade.
All inscriptions taken together deal with various aspects of life,
because they convey the message of ‘Dhamma’ or dharma or faith
Ashoka’s Dhamma was based on the teachings of Gautam Budda who
Chapter 2 Book 1 Kings, Farmers and Towns : Early States and Economies ( c. 600 BCE to 600 CE)
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conveyed the ‘eight fold middle path’ for attaining ‘nirvana’ or
moksha from the cycle of rebirth. For this reason, Asoka as the ruler
attempted to communicate the truth of his faith to his people. He
sought their welfare in all forms, physical, financial and religious.
After his deep felt remorse at the loss of lives in the Kalinga war,
Ashokan inscription give details of the loss as well as the booty
captured and brought back to Pataliputra. In the earliest inscriptions the
communication with the people is political to convey the strength of
the Mauryan Empire.
The Dhamma messages on inscriptions, that deal with social
and economic activities come after his sense of remorse on realizing
that the military might is transitory. The change that came in his
mindset from a valorous king to a renouncer of violence is conveyed
through the inscriptions.
In the inscriptions, Ashoka is not referred to by name, but by
two titles of ‘dvanampiya’ meaning ‘beloved of the gods’ and
‘piyadassi’ meaning ‘pleasant to behold’. The inscriptions were
matched for content, style, language, and paleography it was concluded
that they were all inscribed by the same ruler.
(301 words)
8. Discuss the notions of kingship that developed in the post-Mauryan
period.
Answer. The chiefs and kings in the south who had become a
part of the Mauryan Empire during the reign of Ashoka, developed
new notions of kingship after Ashoka’s death.
During the post – Mauryan period, Tamilakam was the
region extending from present day Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil
Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala. The Cholas, the Cheras, and the Pandyas
emerged as three separate and powerful kingdoms in this region.
The first new notion was that of the Chiefs and Chiefdoms. The
chief was a powerful man in a tribe or a group of villages. He
performed many functions such as special rituals, leadership in
Chapter 2 Book 1 Kings, Farmers and Towns : Early States and Economies ( c. 600 BCE to 600 CE)
2018
10 x 10 Learning TM Page 10
warfare, and settlement of disputes. He did not collect taxes but
received gifts from members of his chiefdom. He re-distributed these
gifts among his people. His post was not hereditary, and he did not
maintain any standing army or militia group.
In the present day Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and
Rajasthan regions of the Mauryan Empire, tribal chiefs of
Satavahanas and Shakas became prosperous as they carried out long
distance trade with Central Asia. Due to their prosperity, in the post
Mauryan period they were able to acquire political power and become
kings.
The second new notion was of ‘Divine Kings’. The status of
chief of a chiefdom was not hereditary. But as their wealth and
political influence grew, the chiefs began claiming higher status by
aligning themselves with various deities.
In the Tamilakam kingdoms, this led to the building of
temples and establishment of traditions of associating the temple deity
with the ruling dynasty through various rituals. This was possible
through donation of land for development of agriculture. Agriculture
was the prime source of revenue for these kingdoms. The
archeological sites of major dynastic temple complexes built by the
Cholas, the Cheras and the Pandyas, still exist.
In the Satvahana and Shaka kingdoms of western and central
Deccan, more forts were built than large temples because their
revenue came from long distance trade that needed to be protected.
In the north western parts of the former Mauryan empire, the
Kushan kingdom was established from Central Asia to north-west
parts up to Mathura region. Kushans traded and controlled the Silk
Trade Route trade and became prosperous. Their most important king
Kanishka, adopted the title of ‘devaputra’ or ‘son of god’, and built
colossal stone statues of himself in a shrine in Mat, near Mathura.
Statues of Buddha were built in present day Afghanistan region.
The third new notion was that of the ‘samantas’ who were
controllers of local land revenues and resources. Powerful samantas
Chapter 2 Book 1 Kings, Farmers and Towns : Early States and Economies ( c. 600 BCE to 600 CE)
2018
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could become kings and kings could be dethroned to make them
subordinate samantas. The next empire to rise was the Gupta Empire
that had its beginning in a powerful Samanta.
(455 words)
9. To what extent were agricultural practices transformed in the period
under consideration?
Answer. During the post Mauryan period there was no
central authority to control or protect the ordinary people. Traders
and cultivators were attacked by robbers at night and by tax
collectors during the day. Therefore, many cultivators left their
village and began living in the forests.
Control by new kings and samantas, was uncertain and most
wanted to accumulate wealth as quickly as possible to become more
powerful. Therefore, they demanded very high taxes from cultivators
as well as traders. Trades left towns and villages or changed their
routes. As an increasing number of villages were abandoned, revenue
from agriculture dried up.
The frequently changing new kings and samantas therefore
began adopting new strategies to resettle the villages and increase
production. One of these was the use of iron plough in place of
wooden ploughs. The iron or iron tipped plough was better suited in
cultivating the thick alluvial soils in the valleys of River Ganga and
River Kaveri. Cultivation of paddy was introduced in river valleys
with a new method of transplantation. This increased agricultural
production in the river valleys but the semi- arid soil regions did not
adopt this new system.
Another new technology in agriculture was the starting of field
irrigation system through tanks and wells. Tanks were more popular
in the three kingdoms of Tamilakam region. This was because new
villages were created on land donated to temples. The tanks were
Chapter 2 Book 1 Kings, Farmers and Towns : Early States and Economies ( c. 600 BCE to 600 CE)
2018
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constructed as a part of the new villages. Well irrigation was more
popular in other parts. Entire communities and richer individuals
organized the construction of irrigation works. The kings and more
powerful samantas have left metal inscriptions of such activities that
were undertaken as part of their faith.
(282 words)