Chapter 2
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31 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction The literature review discusses the following ten sections: (a) possible causes of deterioration in the standard of English (b) types of ICT tools and their role in education (c) benefits of utilizing ICT tools (d) e-learning readiness and e-learning initiatives in Malaysia (e) common ICT tools and applications used by teachers (f) problems in English Language teaching and learning in Malaysian schools. (g) the need for technology and ICT integration in English Language teaching and learning (h) pedagogy, ICT integration and using instant messaging (IM) for improving listening and speaking skills (i) home-school partnership and (j) learning management system. 2.2. Possible Causes of Deterioration (RQ1) (a) Not Compulsory to Pass English Language In 1970, it was stipulated by the Examination Syndicate that a candidate must have the minimum of a pass in Bahasa Malaysia in order to qualify for the school leaving certificate called the Malaysian Certificate of Education. Furthermore, a candidate has to obtain a credit in Bahasa Malaysia before he is awarded a Grade One (Jamil Adimin and Shahril Mohd Kharib, 2001). The Examinations Syndicate Malaysia in an article in their yearly bulletin in 2001 made the following comments. “In the old system, in order to obtain Grade One in SPM, one had to obtain distinction (Grade 1 or 2) or credit (Grade 3, 4, 5 or 6) in Bahasa Melayu. Those who had lower than credit grades in Bahasa Melayu, would only obtain either grades Two, Three or Four. In the new open certification system introduced in 2000, overall grade reporting and subject grouping requirements are no longer practiced.” (Source: Jamil Adimin and Shahril Mohd Kharib, 2001)
Transcript of Chapter 2
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CHAPTER 2:
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction The literature review discusses the following ten sections: (a) possible causes of
deterioration in the standard of English (b) types of ICT tools and their role in education
(c) benefits of utilizing ICT tools (d) e-learning readiness and e-learning initiatives in
Malaysia (e) common ICT tools and applications used by teachers (f) problems in
English Language teaching and learning in Malaysian schools. (g) the need for
technology and ICT integration in English Language teaching and learning (h)
pedagogy, ICT integration and using instant messaging (IM) for improving listening
and speaking skills (i) home-school partnership and (j) learning management system.
2.2. Possible Causes of Deterioration (RQ1)
(a) Not Compulsory to Pass English Language
In 1970, it was stipulated by the Examination Syndicate that a candidate must have the
minimum of a pass in Bahasa Malaysia in order to qualify for the school leaving
certificate called the Malaysian Certificate of Education. Furthermore, a candidate has
to obtain a credit in Bahasa Malaysia before he is awarded a Grade One (Jamil Adimin
and Shahril Mohd Kharib, 2001). The Examinations Syndicate Malaysia in an article in
their yearly bulletin in 2001 made the following comments.
“In the old system, in order to obtain Grade One in SPM, one had to obtain distinction (Grade 1 or 2) or credit (Grade 3, 4, 5 or 6) in Bahasa Melayu. Those who had lower than credit grades in Bahasa Melayu, would only obtain either grades Two, Three or Four. In the new open certification system introduced in 2000, overall grade reporting and subject grouping requirements are no longer practiced.”
(Source: Jamil Adimin and Shahril Mohd Kharib, 2001)
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Students both primary as well as secondary took great pains in mastering Bahasa
Malaysia. English Language was considered a second language and has been relegated
to the status of a subject in the school curriculum (Pillay, 1998). It was compulsory for
all pupils to learn the subject but however it was not compulsory for them to pass. Since
there was no compulsion for students to pass the English subject, students as a result did
not concentrate in acquiring English communication skills. Students generally
concentrated in studying Bahasa Malaysia which was compulsory and furthermore a
credit in Bahasa Malaysia became a prerequisite to all Government jobs. Students
lacked motivation in studying English and once the subject period was over, students
generally communicated with one another either in Bahasa Malaysia or in their own
vernacular language. It can be observed that as the end-of-semester examination
approached students ‘dumped English’ and concentrated on compulsory core subjects.
(b) Lack of Exposure
Another fundamental reason for deterioration is the lack of exposure to English and
usage of the language beyond the classroom. This has given rise to disparity in levels of
competency amongst students. Case studies of five different schools (Pillay, 1995)
indicate that this divide is along lines of socio-economic status and between urban and
rural schools. When one looks at the results of rural students’ performance as depicted
in Table 2.1 and Table 2.2 at the Lower Secondary Assessment (Penilaian Menengah
Rendah) and Malaysian School Certificate (Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia) level from 1999 to
2001, one can see that the failure rate for English is consistently high and it ranges from
44.0% to 50.4%. These results are not encouraging and the lack of exposure to English
is one of the important problems that pupils in many rural schools face (Fairus, 2003).
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Table 2.1: English Language Performance Analysis (Rural Areas) for Lower Secondary Assessment (Penilaian Menengah Rendah) : National Level from 1999 - 2001
Year Number of Candidates
Grade Level shown in percentage A B C D ABCD E(Fail)
1999 198250 6.0 10.0 14.5 23.1 53.6 46.4 2000 210747 4.3 9.1 13.6 22.6 49.6 50.4 2001 212301 4.4 9.5 15.4 23.9 53.2 46.8
(Source: Malaysia. Ministry of Education (2002b). Table 2.2: English Language Performance Analysis (Rural Areas) for Malaysian School
Certificate (Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia): National Level from 1999 – 2001
Year Number of Candidates
Grade Level shown in percentage 1A & 2A 3B,4B,5C & 6C 7D & 8E 1A - 8E 9G (Fail)
1999 155836 2.4 16.0 31.9 50.3 49.7 2000 173358 1.5 17.7 33.3 52.2 47.5 2001 171101 2.6 16.9 36.5 56.0 44.0
(Source: Malaysia. Ministry of Education (2002c).
Students who have high levels of competency tend to come from English speaking
homes, have greater exposure to English outside the classroom and tend to come from
the higher socio-economic status group. Those with lower levels of competence come
from either rural schools where exposure to English is limited or from low socio-
economic groups in urban areas. There is a definite link between students’ exposure to
English and their competence in the language (Krashen, 1976). This has serious long
term implications, as a low competence level in English would hinder progress of
individuals educationally and economically.
(c) Lack of Interest and Motivation
Students in schools generally find it difficult to maintain their interest in English
Language learning as English is not seen as important for their immediate needs other
than to pass their examination. Teachers on their part are unable to sustain students’
genuine interest in continuing to learn English and to use the language once the
examination is over (Hussein et al., 2002). Motivation is another significant factor in
second language acquisition. Integrative motivation contributes to learner’s success in
second language learning (Gardner & Lambert, 1972). This lack of motivation is
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another reason for falling standards in English. Students learn English because it is part
of their curriculum but there is neither genuine interest nor motivation to learn this
foreign language.
(d) Negative Attitudes
Attitude has been defined as the inclination to act or to be in a state of ‘readiness’ to act
(Gagne, 1985).The second language learner benefits from positive attitudes and
negative attitudes may lead to decreased motivation and a high possibility of
unsuccessful attainment of proficiency. A lot of negative attitudes build up from
unfamiliarity with the culture of the target language (Tucker and Lambert, 1973).
Negative attitudes are prevalent among school students towards English Language
learning. The researcher is of the opinion that this is in fact the main reason for the rapid
decline in English Language competency among students. “One of the most important
attitudinal factors is the attitude of the learners to the language and to its learners”
(Spolsky, 1969). Studies done on Universiti Utara Malaysia matriculation students in
learning English revealed that the attitudes of students towards language and the culture
of the English speaking people are negative throughout (Hamidah, 1996). Similar
negative attitudes are apparent amongst primary and secondary school students.
Gaudart (1987) is of the opinion that today the acquisition of English is seen as a
necessary evil by most of the community. This attitude spills over to the children in
school, making it more difficult for them to have any intrinsic desire to acquire English.
This animosity towards the study of English Language could be probably due to anti-
colonial feelings built-up over decades of British rule.
2.3 The Role of ICT Tools in Education (RQ3)
Globalization and technological development have markedly transformed our ways of
learning and teaching English as a lingua franca in the 21st century (Block and
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Cameron, 2002). New technologies and ICT tools have dramatically increased the
possibility of interaction and mobility among people around the globe, overcoming
many barriers of time and space. It is appropriate to say ICT tools are a force to be
reckoned with as they have changed many aspects of the way we live. In the fields of
medicine, tourism, travel, business, law, banking, engineering and architecture, the
impact of ICT tools for the past three decades has been tremendous. The way these
fields operate today is vastly different from the ways they operated in the past. But
when one looks at education, there seems to have been an uncanny lack of influence and
far less change than other fields have experienced (Oliver, 2002). In recent times,
however, factors have emerged which have strengthened and encouraged moves to
adopt ICT tools into classroom teaching and learning. These have included a growing
need to explore efficiencies in terms of content delivery, the opportunities for flexible
delivery provided by ICT tools, the capacity of technology to provide support for
customized educational programmes to meet the needs of individual learners and the
growing use of the Internet and World Wide Web as tools for information access and
communication (Oliver and Towers, 2000).
Presently, ICT tools are not only influencing and supporting what is being learned in
schools, colleges and universities but it is also supporting changes to the way students
are learning. Contemporary learning settings now encourage students to take
responsibility for their own learning, support independent learning and cater to
individual learning styles. ICT tools provide many opportunities for constructivist
learning through their provision and support for resource-based, student-centred settings
and by enabling learning to be related to context and to practice (Barron, 1998). ICT
tools are continuing to play an ever increasing role in distance education programmes.
Online learning or e-learning is made feasible by ICT tools. Students are starting to
appreciate the capability to undertake education anywhere, anytime and any place. This
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flexibility has heightened the availability of just-in-time learning and provided learning
opportunities for many more learners who previously were constrained by other
commitments (Young, 2002).
Web-based learning is gaining popularity among students of all levels. On the part of
the teacher the web and its associated technology is a new delivery channel and it must
be exploited so that students treat education as a life-long venture and are motivated
towards self-discovery guided by personal goals. Apart from disseminating information
or knowledge, the web is an excellent medium for teacher-student and student-student
interaction and communication. This can take the form of academic discussions through
on-line electronic forums, e-mailing list or collaborative web-based projects. The
benefits of the web as a media to facilitate teaching and learning is well documented
(Rosenberg, 2001). Sharing of resources is of course the main attraction of the web.
Lecture notes and multimedia presentation can be used by lecturers and students from
across the world. Asynchronous online discussion boards are increasingly being used in
web-based learning environment to facilitate interactions to support the shared
construction of knowledge among members of the learning community (Cecez-
Kecmanovic and Webb, 2000). Findings in a research involving 100 undergraduates
who used the web to learn, download lecture notes, do exercises and quizzes revealed
positive comments from the point of pedagogical strategy (Phillips, 2001).
2.4 Types of ICT Tools (RQ3)
Information and Communication Technology comprises a range of tools and systems
that can be utilized by capable and creative teachers to enhance teaching and learning
situations. Lim and Tay (2003) classify ICT tools under the following sub-headings:
o Informative tools – Internet, Virtual Drive Network, Intranet systems,
Homepage etc
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o Situating tools – CD-ROMs, etc.
o Constructive tools – MS Word, PowerPoint, FrontPage, Adobe Photoshop, Lego
Mindstorm, etc.
o Communicative tools – email, SMS etc.
o Collaborative tools – discussion boards (e.g. Blackboard 5), forum etc
The five categories of ICT tools listed above are discussed in more detail under the
following headings.
Informative Tools
Informative tools are applications that provide vast amount of information in various
formats (e.g. text, sound, graphics or video). Informative tools do not really ‘do’
anything but rather they can be considered as huge passive repositories of information
(Chen & Hsu, 1999). Examples of informative tools include multimedia encyclopedia
and resources available in the Internet. The Internet is an enormous electronic database
and the researcher considers the Internet as the most significant ICT tool in an e-
learning environment. Pew Internet & American Life Project who did a survey in 2002
shows that three in five children under the age of 18 and more than 78% of children
between the ages of 12 and 17 go online. Key findings from this study found in Levin
& Arafeh (2002) show that Internet-savvy students rely on the Internet to help them do
their schoolwork. In short, students consider the Internet as a virtual textbook, a
reference library, a virtual tutor, a study shortcut and as a virtual study group (McNeely,
2005).
Situating Tools
Situating tools are systems which situate learners in an environment where they may
experience the context and happenings of a situation. Examples of such systems include
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simulations, virtual reality and multi-user domains. Situating tools such as software are
in the form of CD-ROMs. CD-ROMs which have hypermedia applications offer
teachers opportunities to enhance learning. A hypermedia application includes more
than one of the following media: text, audio, graphic image (still picture), animation and
video clip. Hypermedia applications when well-integrated in the learning environment
enhance learner autonomy and thinking skills of students (Cheung & Lim, 2000). A
multimedia presentation of a topic helps students to relate concepts and ideas to real-
world examples. Students are then able to see the practical application of theories and
the relationship between theories and the real-world situation. As learning is entrenched
in situated cognition, it is enhanced when students are able to use the conceptual tools of
the disciplines in authentic practice (Phillips, 2004). Multimedia is capable of placing
an astonishing array of resources at the instructors and learners' control. Active
multimedia learning environments make learning more vibrant, interactive,
collaborative, and satisfying (Supyian, 1996).
Constructive Tools
Constructive tools are general-purpose tools that can be used for manipulating
information, constructing one’s own knowledge or visualizing one’s own
understanding. Constructive tools such as Word and PowerPoint tools have a powerful
impact not only in the field of education but in almost all organization in the form of
making reports, letters, memos, presentation, recording of information and in almost
everything we do. Modern word processors do not only include spell checks and
dictionaries but also grammar checks. In Second language learning Word can help
students to compose correct sentences and texts. Teachers can use this software tool to
encourage writing across the curriculum. PowerPoint is a presentation graphics
programme packaged as a part of Microsoft Office for Windows or Macintosh. It can be
used to quickly create and deliver quality presentations. Even though this tool was
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developed for business presentations, it can be very useful in the language classroom.
While word processing programs are the most commonly used computer applications,
the use of spreadsheets such as Excel is equally important in the teaching and learning
of English. Excel can be used to design multiple choice questions and the marking and
awarding of marks can be automated through formulas.
Communicative Tools
Communicative tools are systems which enable easy communication between the
teacher and the students or among students beyond the physical barrier of the classroom.
Examples of communicative tools include e-mail, electronic bulletin boards, chat,
teleconferencing and electronic whiteboards. Synchronous communicative tools (e.g.
chat or video conferencing) enable real-time communication while asynchronous
communicative tools (e.g. e-mail and electronic whiteboards) are messaging systems in
which the exchange of information between people is not ‘live’ but is delayed
somehow. Communicative tools are most appropriate for activities that require more
time in thinking before responding. The use of electronic mail is increasing day by day.
E-mail is the most commonly used part of the Internet. It is simple to use for it is
primarily text based.
Collaborative Tools
The use of ICT tools for collaboration is currently the focus of much interest and
development and many interesting new tools are appearing which make online
collaborative projects a realistic option for distributed work-groups. The Internet can be
used for many collaborative activities such as holding meetings, ongoing discussions,
working on documents, information dissemination and a range of other tasks. The
electronic interactive whiteboard is not only used as a tool for meetings and
development but is now increasingly being utilized by more and more teachers. The
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whiteboard is an electronic device that interfaces with a computer where the computer
images are displayed on the board so they can be manipulated interactively (Weiser and
Jay, 1996). This tool gained popularity with teachers when used simultaneously with a
computer and video projector as it creates an interactive learning community. Instead of
having to crowd around one or two computers, the interactive whiteboard can not only
display material on a screen but also respond to human interaction, responding to both
computer commands and touch commands on the screen. Being touch-sensitive, means
students can control the board and manipulate applications with their finger or pens.
Students can annotate notes on the screen or compose original material that can be
saved, printed or disseminated electronically.
Electronic whiteboards provide ubiquitous computing that leads to ubiquitous learning.
This technology is believed to provide abundant opportunities for sharing information,
constructing knowledge and stimulating personal growth (Mona, 2004). E-mail
messaging is another internet tool that facilitates collaboration between students or
between students and teachers. The computer screen itself allows pupils to do things
together and bring about collaboration or co-operation. Two or three (or even a whole
class, if the screen is big enough) can participate in the same activity like solving a
problem, finding answers to a question or writing a story. The Voice Chat and text chat
function in MSN Messenger and Yahoo Messenger enable one to speak with other
partners using your computer. Other collaborative tools include intra project tools (i.e.
internal working spaces shared by all project partners), bulletin board, network
discussion, network calendar and shared folders for organizing project materials. New
communication technologies such as Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) and General
Packet Radio Services (GPRS) embedded in micro-browser equipped mobile phones or
GPRS enabled handheld computers are other ICT tools that can connect learners at
different geographical locations beyond the boundaries of classroom. Mobile phones
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and PDA’s which incorporate these new communication technologies allow learners to
exchange information within a short period of time synchronously and asynchronously
and provide the flexibility for one-to-one, one-to-many and many-to-many
communications (Lim & Lee, 2002). Web enabled handsets and GPRS enabled handsets
allow online discussion forum. Thus “learning is no longer seen as a solitary activity but
is described as occurring through social interaction with peers, mentors and experts”
(Kings, 1998).
2.5 Benefits of utilizing ICT tools (RQ3)
The utilization of ICT tools in education is increasingly felt in recent times and the
appropriate utilization can bring a lot of advantages to the learner. The primary
advantage of using ICT tools is that it facilitates retrieval of up-to-date information at a
click of a mouse. According to Ofsted (2002), ICT tools can perform four important
functions and they are as follows:
the speed and automatic functions of ICT can enable a teacher to
demonstrate, explore or explain aspects of his teaching and his pupils’
learning more effectively;
the capacity and range of ICT can help a teacher and his pupils to gain
access to historical, recent or current information;
the provisional nature of information stored, processed and presented using
ICT allows the work of teachers and pupils’ work to be changed and
improved easily, for example writing materials which require corrections or
several edits;
the interactive way in which information is stored, processed and presented
can enable teachers and pupils to explore models, communicate effectively
with others and present information effectively for different audiences.
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Brian Oliver (2003) of Stavanger University College explains seven distinct advantages
of using ICT in English classrooms. The advantages are as follows:
Catalysts
Computers acts as a catalyst for pupil activity. Unlike television, computers
invite learners to be active. Pupils cannot just sit staring at a computer
screen. They have to do something. Related to this point is the idea of
challenge. Working with computers offers an almost continual series of minor
(and sometimes major) problems that have to be solved – in many cases, before
the user can continue.
Collaboration
Another key concept is collaboration or co-operation. The computer screen
allows pupils to do things together. Two or three or even a whole class, if the
screen is big enough can participate in the same activity.
Creativity
Computers also encourage creativity. Sound, pictures, animations, video and text
can be put together in new and different ways to make stories more convincing
and explanations clearer than they would have been without this multi-media
tool.
Complementary function
Computers seem to work best as tools for learning and teaching when they
complement other teaching and learning activity. Many computer programmes
for young learners can be used as sources of teaching materials such as
flashcards for oral activities, materials for wall charts and classroom displays.
Electronic reference materials such as dictionaries can be consulted when
needed for writing.
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Control
Most uses of ICT do not lend themselves to teacher control. The Internet is a
good example. Millions of texts are available. Once pupils have learned basic
ways of obtaining information, they can find out many things for themselves that
the teacher may not know much (Perelman, 1992).
Competence
Competence is a key concept, both linguistic and technical. The computer is not
a mechanical surrogate teacher. Teachers cannot get pupils to create Internet
web pages if they have no idea how to do web pages themselves. It is no use
teachers telling pupils to use an electronic dictionary if they do not know what it
contains, how to get at it or (not least) how to interpret it. Some pupils already
know a lot about computers and teachers should invite them to help where this
makes sense. Whenever computers are used in English teaching, there are
golden opportunities for teachers to communicate informally and purposefully
with their pupils.
Communication
The primary purpose of ICT in foreign language teaching is to stimulate real
communication between pupils within a class and communication between
teachers and their pupils. ICT has an obvious role in furthering communication
between learners from different countries who are learning English as a vehicle
for international contact and understanding (Crook, 1994).
In addition, ICT tools allow multimedia and hypermedia applications to be used in
the teaching and learning of English. These have a significant impact upon the
learners because they can incorporate a wide variety of visual and audio data forms
to help the learner to learn. Multimedia and hypermedia software can provide
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interesting learning environment and can simulate authentic tasks for students.
Research in the neural sciences supports the view that multimedia exercises can be
designed to take advantage of how neural processes work together in the learning
process (Knowles, 2004).
2.6 The Use of ICT Tools in Language Learning and Teaching (RQ5) The innovative development and fast spread of the ICTs have resulted in ten important
shifts in our daily lives related to language learning: a move (a) from phone-based to
wireless communication, (b) from dial-up Internet connections to permanent, direct
online connections, (c) from the use of mainly personal computers to the use of portable
computing and online devices (e.g., laptops, personal digital assistances and cell
phones), (d) from narrowband to broadband, (e) from expensive personal computing
systems to widely affordable computers and other hardware, (f) from seeing the Internet
as an exclusive form of communication and information to viewing it as a mass form of
communication accessible to the world, (g) from text-based information and
communication to audiovisual forms of information and communication, (h) from use of
English as the main online language to multilingual Internet use, (i) from non-native to
native users of information technology (e.g., children growing up with digital media and
having native-like fluency in online communication), and (j) from the language
laboratory to the classroom as a result of making computers and wireless access
available almost everywhere (Warschauer,2004).
These shifts have brought about new contexts, new literacies, new genres, new identities
and new pedagogies in the field of English Language teaching and learning
(Warschauer, 2000). This means that recent technological revolution allows both
language learners and teachers to have “multi-tasking experiences, involving in its
fullest form four modes- listening, speaking, reading and writing” (Crystal, 2004).
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Learners of English as a foreign language have had unparalleled opportunities to
practice English and engage with authentic real-world contexts of language use by
making the most of new emerging technologies (Kramsch and Thorne, 2002). In fact,
the range of emerging ICTs used in the field of language education is fast growing and
language professionals are getting more creative and adaptive in using new technologies
in their classroom. Students’ acceptance and use of new technologies in formal and
informal language learning are also noticeably increasing (Godwin-Jones, 2005). Yet,
there is still room for creativity and flexibility in making the most of ICT to nourish the
language learning experience of the Net Generation. The idea of language partnering
and cultural exchange through instant messengers, email, cell phones, electronic
message boards, video conferences, web blogs is not totally new but has been proved by
numerous research as a very effective way of indulging language learners in the target
language and culture (Chism, 2003; Greenfield, 2003) The use of web quests,
simulations, educational games and virtual field trips online is gradually increasing as
well (Pururshotma, 2005). In addition, the use of disruptive technologies (e.g., skype
and podcasting) in language teaching and learning has made an impact in language
within the last few years. Thus, the resulting interaction between technology and
language learners can bring benefits to the language learner.
2.7 ICT tools Facilitate E-Learning (RQ3 & RQ5)
The unparalleled development of information and communication technology tools
within the last thirty years has given a tremendous boost to e-learning. In an e-learning
lesson there is usually heavy pedagogical input when course content is designed. E-
learning is more convenient than class-based lessons which fix a person in terms of time
and space. The lessons can be replayed, studied at leisure or at one’s own pace.
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2.7.1 E-learning Initiatives in Malaysia
In Malaysia, Muhammad Rais Abdul Karim and Yusup Hashim (2004) noted that there
have been some attempts to incorporate e-learning into the educational system. They
include the following:
• The Smart Schools project under the Multimedia Super Corridor (MSC)
flagship. Apart from the Smart Schools, teachers in normal schools are provided
with laptops and LCD projectors to teach selected subjects, namely,
mathematics, science and English using standalone multimedia.
• The setting up of the virtual universities – the Universiti Tun Abd Razak
(UNITAR) in 1998 and the Open University of Malaysia (OUM) in 2000.
• The establishment of the Multimedia University in 1999 to support the MSC
projects.
• The establishment of the National Digital Library.The usage among higher
institutions of learning of various forms of technology to support or supplement
the delivery of traditional courses.The usage of e-learning in the distance
learning programmes made available by universities.
The Ministry of Education has set up the MySchoolNet website
(www.myschoolnet.ppk.kpm.my) to help increase the use of ICT in education. For
those aspiring to learn English during their free time, the MySchoolNet website in
Malaysia offers links to two great free e-learning websites namely ‘Guide to Grammar
& Writing (http://cctc2.commnet.edu/grammar/index.htm)’ and ‘The Learning Centre
(http://www.edufind.com/learning/index.cfm)’. This website is now open for the general
public to use for free. The Malaysian MyschoolNet website is depicted in Figure 2.1.
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Figure 2.1: Myschoolnet Website (http://myschoolnet.ppk.kpm.my/index.htm)
The local universities have made tremendous progress in e-learning. The 11 public and
9 private universities in Malaysia (Malaysia Handbook, 2002) are equipped with up-to-
date ICT infrastructure and equipment. The Multimedia University as of July 1998 has
been providing e-learning programs. It has developed a unique e-learning engine called
Multimedia Learning System (MMLS) for use in the Bachelor of Management Degree
programme. The delivery format is web-based, using MMLS. This system which
conforms to SCORM standards has various functions such as registration of staff and
students, management of the learning contents, templates for quizzes, intelligent
function, e-mail, on-line chatting, news groups and bulletin board. The Distance
Education Centre has many e-learning facilities. Remote sites are connected via wireless
LAN. A terminal, for example can simultaneously display both a live broadcast of a
lecture and a screen on which a teacher writes down some lecture notes (David et al.,
2003).
Universiti Tun Abdul Razak (UNITAR) in December 1998 became the first virtual
university to be approved by Ministry of Education. The University provides academic
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degrees to students using e-learning by providing courses for business and information
technology through the use of advanced multimedia communication and an electronic
environment. The delivery format is the use of CD ROM and web materials. Activities
related to e-learning include Virtual Online Instructional Support System (VOISS)
Version 2.0, electronic library, Customer Relations Management (CRM) and online
tutorials. VOISS provides functions such as providing online tutorial, forum, Frequently
Asked Questions (FAQ), e-mails, bulletin board, notification to students, assignment,
exercises and examinations. Open University Malaysia, Universiti Sains Malaysia,
UiTM, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris (UPSI) and Universiti Putra Malaysia have
similarly developed distance learning programmes that provide e-learning facilities such
as online tutorials, chatting, e-mail, interactive whiteboard and electronic forums.
2.7.2 Use of Computers by Language Teachers (RQ5)
IT infrastructure facilities have been steadily increasing in schools, colleges and
universities in Malaysia. During the Eighth Malaysia Plan (2001-2005), a colossal
amount of RM5.2 billion were spent on ICT-related programmes and projects.
However, there has not been a corresponding increase in ICT integrated classroom
activities used for the ultimate benefit of pupils. ICT integration pertaining to the
teaching and learning of English has been lagging behind compared to the teaching of
Science and Mathematics.
A quantitative study undertaken by faculty members of Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
involving 188 students in 90 Smart schools in Malaysia revealed a number of
interesting findings (Azizah et al., 2005). The study findings showed that students were
found to be confident and ready to use computers in English lessons. However,
opportunities for them to use computers were very limited. About 18.6% (35) students
said that they were never taken to the computer lab for English lessons while 70
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students (37.2 %) indicated that they seldom used the computer to learn English. In
addition, online learning where learning occurs through the web was seldom conducted.
The teachers interviewed confirmed this fact. It was further observed that the English
lessons were not carried out frequently at the lab. The reasons given were as follows:
• there was only one functioning computer lab in the school. This limits the
opportunity to use the computers as the lab would have to be shared with other
classes and subject matter such as Bahasa Melayu, Mathematics and Science at
the same time.
• server failure was experienced quite frequently and this disrupted lessons or
rendered the Internet inaccessible. Additionally, the limited number of
computers available for students’ use at the schools have forced teachers to
resort to using hard copy teaching materials such as ‘worksheets’ or printed
materials from the courseware and the Internet.
The findings significantly revealed that the lack of sufficient deployment of information
technology to these schools have not enabled the Smart School to function properly.
2.7.3 English Language Teaching and Learning in Malaysian Schools. What is Wrong? The New Integrated Primary School Curriculum (KBSR)
The New Primary School Curriculum (KBSR) as depicted in Figure 2.2 adopts a
double-pronged approach to satisfy the educational requirements of the Malaysian
school-going child: one is to raise the literacy level of the pupil and the other is to
develop his cognitive and thinking skills. The English language syllabus for primary
schools aims to equip learners with basic skills and knowledge of the English language
so as to enable them to communicate, both orally and in writing, in and out of school.
The learning outcomes are based on the four language skills of Listening, Speaking,
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Reading, and Writing. These four language skills in turn also incorporate the use of
good grammar, the English sound system, and the use of appropriate vocabulary.
COMMUNICATION Basic Skills
(Reading, Writing and Arithmetic) Languages, Mathematics
Figure 2.2: The New Integrated Primary School Syllabus (KBSR) (Source: KBSR – Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia, 1983)
The New Integrated Secondary School Curriculum (KBSM)
The introduction and the implementation of the Integrated Secondary School
Curriculum, commonly known as the `KBSM’ for language subjects began in 1988. The
syllabus known as the KBSM English Language Programme for all national secondary
schools, is planned in accordance with the National Education Philosophy. The aim of
the KBSM English Language Programme is to equip students with communicational
ability and competency to perform language functions, using correct language forms
and structures. Besides developing the four language skills of listening, speaking,
reading and writing as well as the accompanying grammar, sound system and
vocabulary, it also seeks to educate students in the larger context of life towards
producing citizens who are knowledgeable, who have high moral standards and who are
able to contribute to the betterment of society and the nation (Malaysia. Ministry of
Education, 1991a). The KBSM syllabus aims to extend learners’ English language
PUPIL
Man & his Environment Spiritual education Humanitarian Values & Attitudes, Environment Religious & Moral Education
INDIVIDUAL DEVELOPMENT Arts & Recreation Music & Physical Education
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proficiency in order to meet their needs to use English in certain situations in everyday
life, for knowledge acquisition, and for future workplace needs. The English Language
Syllabus is detailed out in the Curriculum Specifications. These have been prepared as
separate documents for each year of the secondary school and these are termed as
Huraian Sukatan Pelajaran. Each document serves as a guide to teachers with regard to
the skills to be achieved, the topics or themes to be dealt with, and the vocabulary,
grammar items, and the sound system to be learnt (Malaysia. Ministry of Education,
2003a). The central focus of the Secondary School English Language Programme in
KBSM is the development of the four language skills i.e. reading, writing, listening and
speaking. In fact, it is stipulated in the curriculum specifications that teaching is to
emphasize both the oracy (listening and speaking) and the literacy (reading and writing)
skills. The objectives of ESL teaching are to enable the learners to listen to and
understand spoken English in the school and in real life situations, speak effectively on
a variety of topics, read and understand prose and poetry for information and
enjoyment and finally to write effectively for different purpose (Malaysia. Ministry of
Education, 1989).
In 2000, content-based instruction (CBI) was introduced in Malaysian schools and it is
seen as a methodology to develop students’ English language proficiency (Shah, 2003).
This methodology brings together subject-matter learning and content learning. It refers
specifically to “the concurrent study of language and subject-matter, with the form and
sequence of language presentation dictated by content material (Brinton et al., 1989).
Richards and Rodgers (2001) explain that content-based instruction (CBI) is an
approach to second language teaching in which teaching is organized around content or
information that students will acquire, rather than around a linguistic syllabus. Content
refers to the substance or subject matter that is learnt or communicated through
language rather than the language used to convey it. One of the advantages of learning
52
through content is that it allows for the integration of higher order thinking skills and
enables communication to take place (Jacobs et al., 1998). The KBSM syllabus content
is arranged according to topics. The topics to be taught for each year of the secondary
school are specified. Topics are drawn from the contexts of home, school, community,
the ASEAN region and the world. The topics provide the context in which language
skills, language contents and moral values are taught and developed in an integrated
manner. The Form Five Curriculum Specifications state that, along with language skills,
“topics are recycled”. In recycling, some of the topics stipulated for each year are
repeated but are dealt with from different perspectives and at different levels of
difficulty to cater to the intellect and maturity level of students (Malaysia. Ministry of
Education, 1991b).
2.7.4 What are the Existing Problems? (RQ1) The objectives and skills as outlined in the English syllabus and curriculum
specifications looks good and one would think that classroom practice would reflect the
suggested activities and skills as outlined in the curriculum specifications. In actual fact,
practice appears to be different. The salient factor in Malaysian classroom practice is
that the lessons are examination-oriented. It is common for teachers to focus entirely on
the examination especially for learners who are sitting for national examinations such as
the Lower Secondary School Assessment (PMR) and the School Certificate
Examination (SPM). Lewey (1977) points out that the Malaysian education system is
very examination-oriented and teachers in general are compelled to teach according to
what will be tested in the examination. In Ratnawati’s (1996) study to assess the
attitudes of ESL secondary school teachers towards the different aspects of the KBSM
English Language Syllabus, teachers said that the organization of the syllabus into
themes and topics made it difficult to teach language items systematically.
53
Lim (1994) studied fluency and accuracy in spoken English through a survey
questionnaire conducted among English as a Foreign Language (EFL) in-service
teachers. Her survey revealed 84.1% of the respondents who taught at the primary,
secondary and tertiary levels, agreed that their learners were not able to speak English
well and that speaking is the weakest skill among the four language skills. The results
also showed that 73.3% of the respondents named speaking as the skill learners got the
least practice in at the individual level and 50% cited speaking as the skill in which
learners needed more practice. She also identified certain classroom practices, which
she believed were the possible causes for low spoken English proficiency. The
practices in classes were the widespread use of Malay in teacher-talk, the use of mother
tongue in peer interaction and the motor-perceptive nature of speaking activities like
reading aloud and drilling.
Rosli and Malachi (1990) investigated if there was a significant difference between the
English proficiency of rural and urban school learners. They conducted a
comprehensive proficiency test on the learners and also analyzed their Lower Certificate
of Education Examination (SRP) results. It was found that the proficiency test results
differed significantly. Urban school learners were more proficient than their rural
counterparts. The same was evident in the English Lower Certificate of Education
Examination (SRP) results which showed a higher percentage of failure (47.7%) in the
rural schools while there was only 13.4% failure in the urban schools. This reflects that
lack of English usage among rural students account for the higher percentage of failures.
The recent introduction in 2000 of content-based instruction (CBI) in Malaysian schools
has been increasingly seen as a methodology to develop students' English language
proficiency. Presently in Malaysian secondary schools, 25% of class time in a week is
devoted to the teaching of English through literature. In a week, 5 periods of 40 minutes
54
each are allocated for the teaching and learning of English in secondary schools. A
qualitative study on content-based instruction was recently undertaken by Shah (2003)
from the International Islamic University. The participants in this study were two
teachers and their 80 students from literature-based content classes at a secondary
school in Malaysia. The teachers possessed bachelor degrees in English and Diploma in
Education in the teaching of English as a Second Language. Results of the study show
that the teachers provided negative feedback and feedback focused on form consistent
with theoretical claims made in Second Language Acquisition (SLA). However, the
negative feedback and feedback focused on form provided by the teachers were minimal
compared to feedback on content. This means that teachers provided overwhelming
correction of errors of content of students and minimal corrections of errors of linguistic
form. The results of the study therefore suggest that the teachers need to focus more on
form, particularly syntactic forms, when providing feedback. Similar studies carried out
by Thang and Kumarasamy (2006) confirm the finding that in content-based English
Language Teaching, pupils learn more content knowledge than language skills.
Another quantitative study involving 58 ESL teachers undertaken by Fauziah and Nita
(2002) of Universiti Putra Malaysia on low ESL proficiency revealed a number of
useful findings on teachers’ perceptions of their classroom practices. This study
glaringly showed that the 3 most utilized materials in the ESL classroom were
workbooks (mean=0.91; s.d.=0.28), followed by textbooks (mean=0.81; s.d.=0.40) and
newspapers (mean=0.79; s.d.=0.40). The three least used materials were listening tapes
(mean=0.14; s.d.=0.35), TV programmes (mean=0.0069; s.d.=0.26), and videos
(mean=0.0052; s.d.=0.22). The second finding relating to language tasks employed in
class showed that writing exercise is the most frequently used activity (mean=4.38;
s.d.=0.70) in the respondents’ lessons. This is followed by grammar exercise
(mean=4.09; s.d=0.94) and reading comprehension (mean=3.97; s.d=0.72). Listening
55
and speaking activities appear to be the least employed classroom task. The third
finding on teachers’ perceptions on the effectiveness of the KBSM syllabus in
developing the following skills namely listening, speaking, reading, writing, grammar
report that the KBSM is effective in developing the reading skill, followed by writing
and grammar. The skills of speaking and listening were ranked as least effectively
developed. This suggests that teachers perceive the KBSM to focus mainly on reading
and writing.
The same study listed the factors that contributed to low proficiency in English among
most learners. As depicted in Table 2.3, the main reason reported is limited opportunity
to use English outside the classroom (mean=4.24; s.d=0.90). The second reason is
negative attitude towards the English language (mean=4.21; s.d=0.98) and lack of
confidence in using the language (mean=4.21; s.d.=0.86). In third place is lack of
motivation to learn the language.
Table 2.3: Factors Contributing to Low English Proficiency among most Learners
Factor Mean Standard Deviation
Limited opportunity to use English outside the classroom 4.24 0.90 Negative attitude towards English 4.21 0.98 Lack of confidence 4.21 0.86 Lack of motivation 4.19 0,91 Insufficient exposure to English 3.74 1.10 Imbalanced focus of language skills 3.37 0.88 Ineffective syllabus 3.21 0.99 Inadequate teaching material 3.02 1.16 Ineffective teaching methodology 2.95 1.06 Lack of time to study 2.76 1.40
(Source: Fauziah and Nita, 2002)
The same study carried out semi-structured interviews to find out the teaching
approaches carried out in class, their evaluation of the KBSM syllabus, the focus of the
Penilaian Menengah Rendah (Lower Secondary School Assessment), and the reasons
behind the learners’ weakness in English. The respondents interviewed revealed that
56
their lessons focused on writing or reading. As far as the focus of English papers in
PMR is concerned, the interviewed respondents unanimously stated that reading and
writing skills are given more weightage in terms of marks. The following excerpts
explain this:
…actually all skills are tested, but it’s the weightage that makes the difference… …listening and speaking skills don’t carry a lot of weight. As long as they can pass the examination it’s okay…normally they don’t fail learners, if they say something.. yes or no.. they get one mark… …you must have the writing skill and the reading skill, because that is the major part…the focus of the examination actually is reading comprehension and writing…
The results of the study through questionnaire and the interview by Fauziah and Nita
(2002) have consistently shown one main finding—that teaching and testing, both in
schools and in the national examinations, focused mainly on two language skills:
writing and reading. Listening and speaking have been found to be much neglected in
the classroom. This is a major concern as it is through speech that children learn to
organize their thinking and focus their ideas (Lyle, 1993). The neglect of oral
communication practice in the classroom will hinder such an important language
learning foundation to emerge and severely obstruct the development of other aspects of
language skills (Zhang & Kortner, 1995).
2.7.5 The Need for Technology and ICT Integration in English Language Teaching
and Learning (RQ2)
With the advent of networked computers and Internet technology, computer-based
instruction has been widely used in language classrooms in many countries. Computer
technologies have dramatically changed the way people gather information, conduct
research and communicate with others worldwide (Wang, 2005). Is there a need for
technology and ICT integration in language classrooms? Yes, of course. In a study
57
designed to examine the effectiveness of Web-based instruction in the writing of
freshman EFL students, Al-Jarf (2004) found that the use of Web-based lessons as a
supplement to traditional in-class writing instruction was significantly more effective
than teaching which depended on the textbook alone. The experimental group of
students received online instruction in which they posted their own threads, short
paragraphs, stories and poems on a discussion board. They also located information
from the Internet, as well as wrote paragraphs and checked their own spelling using
Microsoft Word. Introduction of laptop computers to teacher trainees and showing them
how to integrate technology into classroom language activities did affect their
achievement and performance during a three-year study. Laptop teacher trainees who
focused on the Integrating Technology for Inquiry (NTeQ) Model (Morrison &
Lowther, 2005) demonstrated significantly higher writing scores than the comparison
groups (Morrison, 2007). In addition to these, the trainees in the laptop classrooms were
more active, autonomous and worked in collaborative groups.
In another study, Hertel (2003) describes an intercultural e-mail exchange at the college
level where U.S. students in a beginning Spanish class and Mexican students in an
intermediate English as a Second Language class corresponded weekly for one
semester. Survey results revealed this student-centred endeavour had the potential to
change cultural attitudes, increase knowledge and awareness of other cultures, foster
language acquisition, as well as boost student interest and motivation in language and
cultural studies. Results from many other studies (Perez-Prado and Thirunarayanan,
2002; Cooper, 2001; Smith et al., 2001) also point out how students benefited from the
technology-enhanced collaborative learning methods and interactive learning process,
while concurrently finding some drawbacks with use of the medium, such as technology
and group-work frustrations. Findings of a study undertaken to find out the extent in
which computer was successfully integrated into a writing class among 36 Diploma of
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Computer Science students in International Islamic University Malaysia, Malaysia
revealed that the students’ writing had improved in terms of vocabulary and grammar.
The same study further indicated that computer had assisted them in producing multiple
drafts, as well as better overall quality essays (Suhaila and Ridwan, 2005).
Li Wang (2005) of the University of Central Florida affirms that designing creative
instruction with ICT tools is the key to successfully integrating technology in language
classrooms. Li Wang explains that technology can help literacy education in five ways:
a) Word processing — Word processing is a great way for students to engage in
writing, prewriting, drafting, revising, editing, saving, printing, inserting tables
and graphics, and publishing. In this information age, word processing is a
necessity for any language class.
b) Technology texts — Electronic books are rich supplements for printed
textbooks, though they will never completely replace traditional books (Leu and
Leu, 1997). Stories on the Internet are enriched by multimedia to dramatically
motivate reading-reluctant students, leading to better literacy results.
c) Publishing students’ work — Because students are motivated and invest
themselves in their work when they are engaged in authentic tasks, a primary
goal in teaching literacy is for students to engage in meaningful and purposeful
assignments (Anderson and Speck, 2001). Computer technologies make
students’ work easy to publish in multiple ways, such as in newsletters, flyers,
Web pages, CD-ROMs, etc.
d) Communication through the Internet — While language is for communication,
the Internet has broken down communication’s distance barrier. Therefore,
students can build up partnerships with learning peers in target languages
through the Internet. The main ways of communicating on the Internet include e-
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mail, instant messaging, chat rooms and bulletin boards. With MSN and Yahoo!
messengers, students can not only send instant messages, but also have audio
and video conversations that greatly motivate and improve their speaking and
listening abilities.
e) Searching for online information - The Web offers valuable resources from
around the world (e.g., databases, online journals, news, instructional materials,
etc.) that enable many teachers to use the Internet as their “virtual library.”
Many studies have shown technology’s positive effects on language learning. The
advantages of using new technology in language classrooms can be interpreted in the
light of the changing goals of language education and the shifting conditions in our
postindustrial society (Warschauer and Meskill, 2000). New technology was part of the
social fabric at the turn of the century. So while one taught foreign language students to
write essays and read magazines a generation ago, one must now teach them to write e-
mail and conduct online research. Thus, integrating technology into language
classrooms is inevitable.
In addition to this, technology integration in foreign language teaching demonstrates the
shift in educational paradigms from a behavioral to a constructivist learning approach.
Language is a living thing, so the best way to learn a language is in interactive,
authentic environments. Computer technologies and the Internet are powerful tools for
assisting these approaches to language teaching. Even though constructivism is not a
theory associated with using technology, constructivist assumptions are guideposts for
developing a vision for integrating technology into the language curriculum (Brown,
1997; Wolffe, 1997).
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2.7.6 Pedagogy and ICT Integration (RQ6 & RQ10)
The advent of digital technology has dramatically changed routines and practices in
many areas but their impact in teaching and learning had lagged behind. Although
widespread technological change has become more apparent, it has been largely
infrastructural rather than pedagogical and the needs of the teachers and the learners
have been marginalized (Johnson et al., 2006). There is a tendency to only look at the
technology and not how it is used. The question of what teachers need to know in order
to appropriately incorporate technology in their teaching has received a great deal of
attention recently (Zhao, 2003).
A new model on technology integration called the Technological Pedagogical Content
Knowledge (TPCK) was formulated by Mishra and Koehler (2003) and it is depicted in
Figure 2.3. This model of technology integration in teaching and learning argues that
developing good content requires a thoughtful interweaving all three key sources of
knowledge - technology, pedagogy and content. TPCK is a framework to understand
and describe the kinds of knowledge needed by a teacher for effective technology
integration. The idea of pedagogical content knowledge was first described by Lee
Shulman (1987). Shulman (1999) defines Pedagogical Content Knowledge as ‘the
blending of content and pedagogy into an understanding of how particular topics,
problems or issues are organized, represented and adapted to the diverse interests and
abilities of learners and presented for instruction’. TPCK builds on those core ideas
through the inclusion of technology. The TPCK framework aruges that effective
technology integration for teaching specific content or subject matter requires
understanding and negotiating the relationships between these all three components:
Technology, Pedagogy and Content. TPCK attempts to capture some of the essential
qualities of knowledge required by teachers for technology integration in their teaching,
while addressing the complex, multifaceted and situated nature of teacher knowledge.
61
At the heart of the TPCK framework, is the complex interplay of three primary forms of
knowledge: Content, Pedagogy, and Technology.
Figure 2.3: Pedagogical Technological Content Knowledge. The three circles Content, Pedagogy and Technology overlap to lead to four more kinds of inter-related knowledge. (Source: Mishra and Koehler, 2003).
Learning and teaching with technology is hard. It can be overwhelming and the field is
always changing (Jacobsen et al., 2001). Many teachers generally do have a degree of
knowledge with regard to ICT but they have little know-how or techno-pedagogical
ability with which to integrate those technologies into their teaching practice" (Karsenti,
2001). Therefore ICT integration in the teaching and learning process needs to be taught
to trained teachers as well as to pre-service teachers. Many studies have revealed the
importance of attitudes for learning to use technologies (Cox et al., 1988; Key, 1990).
Further studies have found that individuals' attitudes toward computers may improve as
a result of well-planned instruction (Kluever et al., 1994; Madsen & Sebastiani, 1987;
Woodrow, 1992). Another factor that is noted to have a profound effect on the teacher's
learning technology and its integration is computer anxiety. Computer anxiety, as
defined by Rohmer and Simonson (1981), is "the mixture of fear, apprehension, and
62
hope that people feel while planning to interact or while actually interacting with a
computer". McInerney et al. (1994) reported that some student teachers experienced
reduced levels of computer anxiety at the end of a computer training class while other
students experienced continuing anxiety. The level of anxiety could be reduced with
increased experience in using and working with computers and thereby succeeding in
reaching goals. Over and above the attitude of teachers, self-efficacy is also an
important aspect to consider. Researchers have indicated that although teachers may
have positive attitudes toward technology, they may still not consider themselves
qualified to teach with it or comfortable using it. If teachers are to integrate technology
into their teaching, they must feel self-efficacious about using it (Office of Technology
Assessment, 1995). Bandura (1986, p. 391) defined perceived self-efficacy as "people's
judgments of their capabilities to organize and execute courses of action required to
attain designated types of performances. It is concerned not with the skills one has but
with the judgments of what one can do with whatever skills one possesses". When the
concept of computer-efficacy is applied to the domain of learning to use computers in
teaching, hands-on computer experience becomes an important component in effective
instruction. Therefore, it is crucial that teacher training and in-service programmes
should develop conducive environments that will help teachers feel efficacious and in
control of learning to teach with technology.
Moseley and Higgins (1999) studied the attitudes of a small sample of teachers who
taught through ICT. They found that teachers who successfully made use of ICT had the
following characteristics:
A positive rather than a negative attitude towards ICT. Clearly, teachers who have
positive attitudes towards ICT itself will be positively disposed towards using it in
the classroom.
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Pupil choice rather than teacher direction. Teachers who preferred directive styles of
teaching tended to rate their own competence as low and made use of helpers with
ICT.
Pupil empowerment as learners rather than pupils receiving instruction.
A preference for individual study rather than pupils receiving instruction.
From the pedagogical point of view, it is clear that the empowerment which ICT can
bring is best suited to teaching which also empowers the learner. This will, inevitably,
present difficulties for teachers who feel challenged by the loss of control which a high
level of pupil autonomy will bring. ICT will also present challenges to ‘school
knowledge’ as pupils discover sources of information and inspiration outside of the
confines of the classroom through ICT (Cloke and Sabariah, 2001). Lorraine Beaudin
and Corey Hadden (2004) have come out with a successful way of creating an
innovative learning environment for student-teachers to explore technology and devise
creative and meaningful approaches to integrate technology into their teaching and
learning process in their future classroom. Figure 2.4 illustrates the three components
that develop techno-pedagogically skilled teachers. They are (a) meta-teaching, (b)
technology exposure and (c) critical reflection. Meta-teaching helps prepare techno-
pedagogically skilled teachers because it allows them to develop a holistic
understanding of the process of teaching with technology. A focus on the process
involves the premise that there are different forms of knowledge that can be fostered by
the instructional use of technology. For example, cognitive and developmental
psychologists have examined types of knowledge that that change as learners advance
from being intermediate learners to advanced learners and the three major types include
declarative knowledge (knowing that), procedural knowledge (knowing how), and
conditional knowledge (knowing when and why) (Paris et al., 1983). The greatest
impact of meta-teaching is that it compels teachers to think about the why questions
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regarding teaching with technology. Why is this technology appropriate for achieving
learning outcomes? Why is this technology likely to improve student learning? Is there
a positive change in student learning as a result of the use of technology? Through the
use of meta-teaching, the pre-service teachers become aware that teaching with
technology is about learning—both teacher learning and student learning (Beaudin and
Hadden, 2004).
Figure 2 .4: Components that develop techno-pedagogical ly ski l led teachers (Source : Beaudin and Hadden, 2004)
Figure 2.5 highlights the fundamental learning process that goes on when teachers begin
to think about what they are doing when using technology for teaching and learning.
They explored the thinking behind the technology. Critical reflection in simple terms is
thinking about what one does when one teaches with technology, requiring reflection on
one’s teaching and on the technology used. Reflective instructors might consider
questions such as: Is this the best approach? Does this technology enhance teaching and
learning? Did student learning improve? How do I know learning occurred or improved
because of the use of technology? How was the level of student engagement influenced
by the infusion of technology?
Technology exposure on the other hand includes all of the following: integration
methods, lab protocol, developing technology skills, and learning how to gather tutorials
65
and learning materials from the Internet. The hybrid approach of meta-teaching,
technology exposure and critical reflection can be used to prepare technology-
pedagogically skilled teachers. Integrating ICT in teaching and learning is important and
teachers need to be taught how to use ICT as a pedagogical tool (Gjorling, 2005).
Emphrical studies undertaken in Norway support the view that ICT as a new tool can
enrich the teacher’s pedagogical repertoire (Almas and Nilsen, 2005).
Figure 2.5: Critical reflections of teachers (Sou rce : Beaudin and Hadden, 2004). 2.7.7 ICT Competency for English Language Teachers in Malaysia (RQ6)
The use of ICT in Malaysian secondary schools and other various computer related
projects started since the early 80’s. One of the first initiatives was the Computer
Literacy Pilot Project (CLPP) introduced by the Ministry of Education in twenty
secondary schools in 1986. The syllabus introduced to form four students included the
computer and its characteristics, the use of LOGO and BASIC programming language
66
and the effect of computer towards life and society (Norhayati, 1995). In 1997, the
Smart school education programme was conceived and implemented in January 1999.
The overarching educational objective of this innovation is to prepare students for life in
the Information Age. The role of IT in the initial 66 Smart Schools is as enabler and
learning will be self-directed, individually paced and contextualized. By the year 2010 it
is planned that all public schools will be Smart Schools and this step is to ensure that by
the year 2020 (Vision 2020) Malaysian are prepared to produce knowledgeable and
skilled workforce for the nation (Malaysia. Prime Minister’s Department, 1997). The
implementation of Smart curriculum requires a paradigm shift in the teaching and
learning process, as illustrated in Figure 2.6. As the teachers are the catalyst in shaping
the knowledge workers of the future, their competence in using IT is crucial in order to
accomplish the vision.
Figure 2.6: Smart Curriculum Implementation
(Source: Malaysia. Prime Minister’s Department, 1997).
A research study (Norizan and Mohamed, 2004) involving 1123 in-service English
Language teachers from 274 schools in West Malaysia was carried out in 2003 to
identify the ICT competencies that are important for the English Language teachers in
Malaysia. The general finding was that language teachers were not competent in
handling the new computing skills, especially those related to ‘Computer Mediated
Communication’ and ‘Web-Based Teaching and Learning.’ This result supports the
findings of Scheffler and Logan (1999) that many educators need exposure and
competency in the use of newer applications of computers. A number of other studies
The Traditional Environment of Teaching and Learning
Transfer of information Memory based learning Isolated units of individual
classroom. Textbooks Teacher oriented
Smart School Curriculum Quest for knowledge Analytical and creative
thinking Student centred – autonomous
learner Global context Integration of technology
67
(Scheffler & Logan, 1999; Shetzer & Warschauer, 2000) have shown for example that
new technical and teaching skills are required in applying computer technology in
teaching. English Language teachers are therefore encouraged to acquire such skills to
remain relevant and effective.
2.8 ICT Tools and the Development of Communication Skills (RQ3)
Oral communication skill is the ability to "impart or interchange thoughts, opinions, or
information by speech between two persons or more. Oral language is the greatest use
of language and is the basis of communication - in fact it is the basis of literacy.Through
listening and speaking students learn about themselves and about their world. Learning
to express their thoughts, ideas and feelings, and being able to respond to the
communications of others, enables students to participate in society successfully. Oral
language development in school does not mean teaching children to speak so much as
providing them with the skills and opportunities to communicate more effectively.
Speech involves thinking, knowledge and skills. Effective communication is developed
through practice and training (Bertram, 2002).
While oral language acquisition is a natural process this does not mean that all children
will automatically acquire effective communication skills. Attention and constant
practice are necessary for optimum development in communication. Holbrook (1983)
specifies three criteria for oral language competence: fluency, clarity and sensitivity.
The responsibility of the teacher lies in helping students to develop these levels of
development. Before students achieve proficiency in reading and writing, oral language
is one of the important means of learning and of acquiring knowledge. In fact
throughout life, oral language skills remain essential for communication of ideas and
intelligent conversation. There is no doubt that there is plenty of oral language used in
the classroom. However, much of that "talking" is done by the teacher, rather than by
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the students, in the course of delivering the classroom programme. Research done by
Stabb (1986) reported that there was a steady decline in the use of oral language in the
classroom. She claimed there was a link between this and inhibition of students' abilities
to reason and to forecast as they moved from lower to higher grades.
Oral language then is a very important link in the process of students' learning and
thinking development. Oral language provides a foundation for the development of
other language skills. As children talk about themselves and their experiences, they are
learning to organize their thinking and to focus their ideas (Lyle, 1993). It is important
to provide opportunities for oral language to continue to grow in the classroom from
those foundations. In fact throughout life, oral language skills remain essential for
communication of ideas and intelligent conversation.
Arthur (1999) claims that:
"Video can give students realistic models to imitate for role-play; can increase awareness of other cultures by teaching appropriateness and suitability; can strengthen audio/visual linguistic perceptions simultaneously; can widen the classroom repertoire and range of activities; can help utilize the latest technology to facilitate language learning; can teach direct observation of the paralinguistic features found in association with the target language; can be used to help when training students in English for Specific Purposes (ESP) related scenarios and language; can offer a visual reinforcement of the target language and can lower anxiety when practicing the skill of listening."
With the increase in educational technology, video is no longer imprisoned in the
traditional classroom; it can easily be expanded into the computer aided learning lab
(Canning 1998). Interactive language learning using video, CD ROM, and computers
allow learners the ability to view and actively participate in lessons at their desired pace.
English rhymes that happen to reveal a lot about spoken English and whose intrinsic
repetition and expansion facilitate retention of the patterns. For example when pupils
listen again and again to a video clip on “The House That Jack Built” and “There Was
an Old Lady Who Swallowed a Fly” , there is better retention on the proper
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pronunciation of the rhymes. When pupils retell the rhymes to another friend, there is
again reinforcement and there improvement in their oral skills. Furthermore, nursery
rhymes and songs may be used in pronunciation practice. Sing "Mary Had a Little
Lamb," for example, to practice the "L" sound or "Row, Row, Row Your Boat" to
practice the "R" sound. The rhymes can also help a student compare how the words
may not look the same but are still homophonic (Brown, 2006).
A tape recorder is another ICT tool that could be utilized to improve communication
skills. A tape recorder can enable the learners to learn a foreign language with proper
accent, when they listen to the voice of the native speaker. Live video conferencing, an
amalgam of telephony and computer-compressed technologies, will lead to the creation
of a centralized pool of tutors (Meenakshi and Jayachandran, 2007). Another use of the
tape recorder and the microphone is partner taping. Partner taping outside of class offers
a simple, practical, "low tech" method of getting students to develop more fluency in a
foreign language and take responsibility for their language practice. Though some
additional work is required by the teacher, it is well rewarded. To give students more
fluency practice, students are required to tape conversations outside of class every week.
The results of this "partner taping" have been encouraging. Students stay in English
while taping, develop greater fluency, gain hours of extra practice, maintain a concrete
record of their progress, and get a sense of responsibility for their learning. The teacher
also gains a better sense of the students and their language problems (Kluge and Taylor,
2000).
2.9 Poor Oral Communication Skills (RQ7, RQ8 & RQ9) Jianing (2007) mentioned three reasons that discourage Chinese students from talking in
class. They are as follows: (a) The students are nervous and afraid of making mistakes.
(b) The classroom atmosphere is not encouraging and (c) The feedback of the listeners
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is not supportive. For many English learners, they believe if they make mistakes or fail
to find suitable words to express themselves, they will lose face. To protect themselves
from being laughed at, they are reluctant to speak English. The fear of "losing face"
prevents the students from speaking English (Zhu, 2003).
The Vietnam Experience
At Hanoi College of Science (HCS), students study English in six out of eight
semesters. The textbooks they use are the Lifeline set (Hutchinson, 2001). The
textbooks cover four skills: speaking, listening, reading and writing. However, at the
end of each semester, students are assessed based on a written test of reading and
writing skills only. As a result, many students and even teachers are 'examination-
oriented'. They spend time developing reading and writing skills while 'ignoring'
listening and speaking skills (Bui, 2006). According to the findings from recent research
at the university, over three quarters of graduate students cannot communicate verbally
in English because of shyness, inadequate vocabulary, or simply lacking the necessary
knowledge. Most of them wish that they had been taught speaking skills more properly
at university (Bui, 2004). Students listed a number of reasons for this. For example,
during lectures, Vietnamese rather than English is mostly spoken, both by teachers and
students. Students do not have opportunities to communicate in English and they may
be shy because the others cannot understand what they wish to communicate. Gorlach
(1995) said that in the case of HCS, the average class size ranges from thirty to fifty
students, which makes it difficult for teachers to arrange activities enabling students to
practice speaking. Over-sized English classes make speaking lessons stiff and unmoving
(Bui, 2004, p.28). Moreover, these English classes are often teacher-dominated, i.e.
teachers speak whilst students listen and take notes - a format greatly lacking in
interaction. Many studies have suggested that teacher-dominated classes instead of
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learner-centered classes prevent students from practicing oral skills effectively (e.g.
Westgate et al., 1985; Edwards, 1987; Pace, 1992).
Using ICT Tools to Improve Students' Oral Skills (RQ3 & RQ8)
Computer-mediated communication (CMC) in the field of Computer Assisted Language
Learning (CALL) has developed rapidly, especially in language learning. CMC is no
longer human-computer interaction, but human-to-human interaction via the computer
(Rosell-Aguilar, 2005). Therefore, CMC can be defined as "communication that takes
place between human beings via the instrumentality of computers" (Herring, 1996, p.
1). CALL can be used in teaching pronunciation. Employing visualization of prosodic
features such as intonation patterns, stress and rhythm is easy for students to understand
(Chun, 2002) and can enhance their awareness and understanding of prosody (Hardison,
2004). Real-Time Pitch program by Kay Elemantrics Computerized Speech Lab (Figure
2.7) which "display pitch contours in real time and offer the option of overlaying one
contour on another in contrasting colours for comparison of learner's utterance with that
of a native speaker" (Hardison and Sonchaeng, 2005, p. 596) could be used to teach
pronunciation skills in particular stress, rhythm and intonation.
Figure 2.7: Visualizations of pitch contours with sustained phonation. In Screen A, the stress was placed on the second syllable of away. On Screen B, stress was on We and year.
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Using Instant Messaging (IM) for Improving Collaborative Language Activities (RQ 8)
Another solution for improving oral communication skills is to use synchronous
environment: oral conversation online. "With the increasing availability of synchronous
voice-based groupware and the additional facilities offered by audio-graphic tools,
language learners have opportunities for collaborating on oral tasks, supported by visual
and textual stimuli via computer-conferencing" (Lamy, 2004, p. 520). Voice-based
synchronous CMC is regarded as "a specific mode supporting conversations that are
both different from face-to-face ones and influenced in significant ways by the
interactions of learners with each other, i.e. human-machine-human interaction" (Lamy,
2004).
Studies in corporate settings have shown the extensive use of Instant Messaging (IM)
for quick task-related consultations among co-workers (Poe, 2001) and as a means of
manipulating social distance between subordinates and superiors (Quan-Haase et al.,
2005). In fact there are potential pedagogical benefits of the various modalities of IM
for ESL learning. Learners using the text, video and audio components of various IM
applications are able to communicate effectively with colleagues and thus there are
potential pedagogical benefits of the various modalities of IM for English language
learning by enabling instructors to interact with and provide immediate feedback to
learners in the second language. In a study of student perceptions about a video
conferencing project between students of German and native speakers in Germany
(Coverdale-Jones, 2000), the students cited two advantages for the use of this
technology. Firstly, there is immediacy of communication with a real person from their
own age group and secondly there is interactivity in the video conferencing. Stepp-
Greany (2002) notes that video conferencing makes a powerful contribution to
communication authenticity and improves students’ confidence in speaking.
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Traditional Video Conferencing versus Internet Desktop Video Conferencing (DVC)
Just as educational institutions and governmental agencies have used traditional, non-
Internet based videoconferencing to bring courses to small rural centers or disseminate
health information and services, second and foreign language instructors have already
utilized videoconferencing tools to overcome the constraints of traditional classroom
settings that rely exclusively on face-to-face (F2F) interaction (O'Dowd, 2003). In a
traditional videoconferencing environment, a dedicated (non-Internet) link makes
teacher-student interaction, student-student exchanges, and supervised group work
possible. This type of videoconferencing is reliable but costly and often takes place in a
distance education room. As a more flexible and cost-effective alternative to traditional
videoconferencing, Internet-based desktop video conferencing (DVC) has become
increasingly popular in foreign and second language instruction. In this environment,
participants connect a webcam and microphone to their personal computers and interact
via fast Internet connections that support IM applications such as Yahoo! Messenger
and MSN Messenger. With the audio component of such Internet-based desktop video
conferencing tools, language learners can receive oral feedback from instructors.
Findings of recent studies on synchronous computer-mediated communication (CMC)
environments indicate that the audio and video-enhanced components of IM
applications have potential benefits for the language learning enterprise (Wang, 2004).
A small-scale exploratory study of negotiated interaction and error correction episodes
in CMC environments among 10 participants undertaken by Sotillo (2005) revealed a
number of interesting findings. In the collaborative activities in this study which
included both the written and oral components, the language learners were provided
with opportunities to request corrective feedback from their tutors or instructors. The
chat logs of text messages and the transcripts of tape recorded exchanges from the 10
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participants in this study showed that there were successful response (or "uptake") when
learners were provided feedback from their tutors. Successful uptake (75%) occurred
when ESL learners incorporated corrective feedback provided by their tutors or
instructors into their written and spoken output in subsequent turns. Unsuccessful
uptake occurred when ESL learners ignored their tutors’ feedback. This study hence
shows that the type of one-on-one focused negotiated interaction available in an IM
environment facilitates learner awareness of linguistic forms or grammatical structures
in second language input. Roux (2000) asserts that the most attractive advantage of
video conferencing technologies for the learning and teaching for languages is that it
allows real time visual contact among students and teachers in different sites. In the case
of English as a second language, video conferencing motivates learners to prepare
projects and presentation for a real out-of-the-classroom audience.
Rosell-Aguilar (2005, p. 418) adds that audio-graphic conferencing systems have
developed into 'multimodal tools' including visual, verbal and written elements, which
can improve communication and interaction. Since there is availability of synchronous
voice-based groupware, it is suggested here that either Skype audio-graphic online
conferencing or Yahoo Messenger be used for students to practice their aural-oral skills
in English online. Both the programmes can be downloaded for free from the Internet.
These programmes allow participants to send files (handouts) synchronously while
discussing, without having to open emails and most importantly, it is easy to find native
speakers or international students to invite them into the discussions via the search tool.
The number of conference participants varies, depending on teachers' targets. Groups of
three to four are often organized for discussion. Sometimes the whole class may be
required to join if necessary. Figure 2.8 illustrates an online audio-graphic conference.
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Figure 2.8: Model of an online audio-graphic conference (Source: Bui, 2006).
The above model depicts a conference of three people (one teacher and one student) and
one foreign invited guest. The teacher plays the role of the host of the conference,
motivating the student to discuss, express his/her ideas to the foreign student and
helping the conversation along. Peer teaching sometimes creates unexpected excellent
results (Wagner, 1982). The process of an online audio-graphic conference is simple. It
creates chances for non-native students to meet and discuss with foreigners in a real
world. They can encounter different variations of English in the world, which make
them aware of 'world Englishes' (Jenkins, 2003). Joining such conferences, students
have chances to meet and discuss with students in the world. Hence, they can improve
not only their English communication, but also open their minds to the world (Bui,
2006).
Rowan (2007) says that the best way to teach our students effective speaking and
listening skills is by having them do it and not simply study it in a textbook. For
example, he says a class of thirty students is divided into three groups. The first group
will be devoted to creating and developing an original story. The second group of
students will practice telling the story while the third group would try to voice-act their
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stories to their classmates. It is important that students be willing to attempt to
communicate in English only. The second activity where students practice telling the
story should be video taped and re-played in class. In this way, the facilitator could help
the students to look at some of the serious errors and suggest ways of minimizing the
errors in future.
2.10 The Utilization and Study of ICT Integration and the development of e-
learning in schools in other countries (RQ4 ).
While the integration of ICT tools in teaching and learning English Language as well as
e-learning programmes and initiatives in Malaysian schools have been painfully slow in
the light of falling standards, English language e-learning programmes in the developed
countries have been remarkable. E-learning initiatives continue to grow at a tremendous
rate both in education and training and it is very likely that e-learning will become the
future trend in learning, notably in open and distance learning (ODL) where the market
is fast expanding. As virtual learning and ICT integration in teaching and learning of
English Language is a new phenomenon, the issue of how well pupils perform in their
end-of-semester examination is the key to e-learning’s longevity and replication. It is
now widely recognized that e-learning systems or tools can be an invaluable resource
for pupils.
2.10.1 ImpaCT2 (2001)
ImpaCT2 is one of the most comprehensive investigations into the impact of ICT on
attainment so far conducted in the UK. This large-scale evaluation study, funded by the
DfES (Department for Education and Science) and managed by Becta (British,
Educational Communications and Technology Agency) can be seen in the context of a
wider evaluation of the National Grid for Learning (NGfL) Programme. The NGfL
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underpins the British Government’s vision for transforming education and for securing
economic success. ImpaCT2 is a longitudinal study (1999–2002) involving 60 schools
in England. Its aims are to identify the impact of networked technologies on the school
and out-of-school environment and to determine whether or not this impact affects the
educational attainment of pupils aged 8–16 years (at Key Stages 2, 3 and 4). ImpaCT2
studied the attainment of 2,179 pupils in 60 schools, of which 30 were primary, 25
secondary and 5 were special. Schools were selected to provide a representative sample
of pupils from different socio-economic groups and their geographical spread in
England included urban, suburban and rural areas. The researchers divided the schools
into two groups using information made available by Ofsted. Ofsted identified one
group as having a high quality of ICT provision. By contrast, the second group had an
average ICT provision. The researcher decided that sufficient information could be
obtained from a comparison of the ‘high’ and ‘average’ schools to indicate the effect of
this factor on pupils' attainment.
Key findings under ImpaCT2 show that the use of ICT in teaching and learning has
positive effects on behaviour, motivation, communication and process skills and that it
enables pupils to learn more autonomously. Under this study a statistically significant
positive association between ICT and National Tests for English was found at Key
Stage 2 English (Year 4 and Year 5). This means that high ICT use in at Key Stage 2 in
English helped to raise performance by 3.12 National Test marks or 0.16 of a National
Curriculum level. Teachers in schools where pupils used ICT in English and achieved
higher mean gain scores attribute the following factors in relation to the use of ICT in
English at Key Stage 2 and 3.
Increased motivation and greater involvement in learning (increased pupil
engagement with the curriculum)
Higher quality outcomes encouraging greater commitment to writing tasks
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Increased time for reflection
Use of e-mail to support collaborative writing
Becta (2002) reports a number of other interesting findings.
Schools that made good use of ICT within a subject appeared to have better
achievement in that subject than other schools.
Secondary schools with very good ICT resources achieved on average better
results in the 1999 Key Stage tests in English than those with poor ICT
resources.
2.10.2 Kings Institute (ScholarNet)
Kings Institute’s on-line programme known as ScholarNet is being used widely in
Australia and New Zealand. Its ‘EnglishSkillsOnline’ website is an interactive site
which offers English skills for upper primary, intermediate and secondary school
students. Research shows that in the schools that have adopted this, the teaching and
learning of English language gains have been measured in improved student learning
outcomes from 8 percent to above 20 percent over a two-year period.
2.10.3 Fischer Family Trust Report – 2002 (http://www.fischertrust.org)
According to this report, out of 40 English departments inspected in Britain, the
contribution of ICT to pupils’ progress and achievement in English is very good in only
about one third of the schools. Teachers in these schools used their ICT expertise to
enhance subject teaching and learning. Typically the ICT use is demonstrated by
teachers using a data projector or an interactive whiteboard and whole class discussion
is incorporated into English lessons using ICT. Pupils are likely to use ICT in
collaborative activities. For example pupils routinely word-process much of their work
or use desk top publishing (DTP) packages to display their work. Pupils use e-mail
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regularly to exchange work in progress with other pupils or to communicate beyond the
school to find recent materials or data from firms, charities or other organizations. The
teachers in these schools affirmed that internet has increased resource facilities besides
helping to develop skills as independent learners and in selecting appropriate
information. The types of ICT tools used by teachers in the teaching and learning of
English which have a high impact upon pupils’ learning is depicted in Table 2.4.
Table 2.4: ICT Tools Used in English Language Teaching and Learning
Title Impact Use Type SuccessMaker 3.1 H Software Microsoft Word 3.1 H Software Digital Camera 2.8 M Peripheral E-Mail 2.8 H Communications Microsoft Encarta 2.4 H Software Microsoft PowerPoint 2.3 M Software Microsoft Publisher 2.3 H Software Microsoft Excel 2.0 M Software Impact: Teachers rated the impact of using each ICT resource using a 4 point scale – Very Little, Some, Significant or Substantial. The overall Impact rating is calculated by assigning values of 0, 1, 3 and 5 respectively. A rating of 2.5 or above indicates that around 60% of the responses rated this resource as having a significant or substantial impact upon pupils’ learning in English. Use: This reflects the type of use. H = Used regularly throughout the year. M = Used on occasions throughout the year. L = Usually used within specific topics.
(Source: High Impact ICT Resources –www.fischertrust.org)
The Fisher Trust Report shows that with an impact rating of 3.1, SuccessMaker and
Microsoft Word are the most frequently used ICT tools that have a substantial impact
upon pupils’ learning in English. English teachers further identified word processors
(mostly Microsoft Word) and spreadsheets (mostly Microsoft Excel) as commonly used
packages used in the assessment of pupils.
2.11. The Effectiveness of ICT Integration (RQ4)
McDougall (2001) suggests that ICT effectiveness can be assessed from two different
viewpoints. The first is examine ICT as an improver of conventional education using
experimental and control groups. The other is to consider education with ICT to be
different that additional factors need to be quantified to allow a comparison to be made.
The following review of ICT effectiveness uses a similar approach, looking at meta-
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studies to examine the evidence drawn from the experimental tradition. It then looks at
descriptive studies to make a comparison. Table 2.5 depicts two selected studies of ICT
integration.
Table 2.5: Meta-studies of ICT Effectiveness
Reference Sample Findings Sivin-Kachala & Bialo, 1996 USA
176 studies ICT has positive effects upon learning.
Sinko & Lehtinen, 1999 Finland
795 studies ICT has a positive effect upon learning (ranging from 0.28 to 0.5)(see Table 2.10)
(Adapted from Fluck, 2003)
In the above meta-studies, the component studies of ICT effectiveness are compared
with one another using the effect size. This has a value of 1.0 if the learning outcomes
for a group of students increase by a standard deviation which equates to 84 % of an
experimental group scoring better than the mean of the control group. The report by
Sivin-Kachala and Bialo (1996) found positive gains in educational achievement by
students using computers. The Finnish based study by Sinko and Lehintin (1999) did
more substantial work and they drew their positive conclusions on meta-analysis of ICT
in Education. This is depicted in Table 2.6.
Table 2.6: Meta-analysis of ICT in Education Meta-Study Studies
Analyzed Conclusions
Cotton, K. (1997) Computer-assisted instruction. Portland, OR: Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory. School Improvement Research Series
100 The use of computers and word-processing software led to superior writing performance than traditional pencil-and-paper work as manifested by longer written samples, greater variety of word usage and greater responsiveness to teacher and peer feedback. The use of computers in teaching led to positive changes in attitudes and motivation.
Liao, Y-K. (1998). Effects of hypermedia versus traditional instruction on student’s achievement. Proceedings, annual meeting of American Educational Research Association, San Diego,
35 In most cases hypermedia environments produced better learning outcomes than traditional instruction. The mean effect size was 0.48.
Lehtinen, E., Hakkarainen, K., Lipponen, L., Rahikainen, M. & Muukkonen, H. (1998). Computer supported collaborative learning: An approach to powerful learning environments. A review
200 Where computers were formerly viewed as a tool for individualizing instruction, they are now viewed more and more as a tool for social interaction and collaborative activities. Many studies report positive learning effects with computer-supported collaborative learning.
(Adapted from Sinko & Lehtinen, 1999)
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A number of other descriptive studies were examined and a summary of their studies is
depicted in Table 2.7. Though descriptive studies were subjected to severe
methodological criticism and had differing degrees of validity, there were agreements
on four basic areas: that ICT can improve student learning outcomes (Mann et al., 1999;
Becta, 2001a and Becta, 2001b); the impact of ICT depends very much upon teachers
(Wenglinsky, 1998); ICT is not used to the full potential in schools and ICT can
individualize instruction (Pisapia et al., 2000). These findings emphasize the point that
in teacher professional development, ICT should be effectively integrated in the
teaching and learning of English Language.
Table 2.7: Descriptive Studies on ICT Use
Reference Type of Product Findings Validity, reliability and generalisability
Becta (2001a) and Becta (2001b) Schools of the Future
Statistical analysis of reports of ICT use in 2100 schools correlated with pupil achievements
Correlation between ICT use and improved results, even within similar socio-economic bands
Methodologically flawed since the analysis compared outlier sub-groups.
Mann, Shakeshaft, Becker & Kottkamp, (1999)
Statewide, 10 year study
Significant gains in reading and writing;
ICT has improved since then
Smerdon, Cronen, Lanahan, Anderson, Iannotti, Angles & Greene (2000)
Analysis of statistical information gathered from three US national surveys.
Only half the teachers who had computers available used them to support student learning.
Useful generalisability
Pisapia, Coukos & Knutson (2000)
34 schools over 3 years with 5 computers and a colour printer in every classroom.
ICT individualizes instruction.
Limited generalisability in respect of teacher professional development needs.
Wenglinsky, 1998 6,227 fourth graders and 7,146 eight graders
The impact of ICT depends upon how it is used by teachers. This in turn depends upon teacher professional development.
Positive link between ICT use and achievement for 8th grade students.
2.12. School-Home Partnership
Schools are not the only institutions responsible for the children’s cognitive, emotional,
social and physical growth and development (Shartrand et al., 1997). Schools alone
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cannot satisfactorily address the multidimensional needs of children towards achieving
the above goals. Schools have to face the challenges of working with parents as co-
partners so as to provide the essential education and support that the children needs.
School and family partnerships emphasize that the two institutions share major
responsibilities for the children’s education (Epstein, 1995). Viewing the significant
contribution of parents and families in the West, there is a need for Malaysian schools to
welcome parents to play more concrete roles in assisting their children in their learning
process. Currently in Malaysia, parent involvement is only via the Parent-Teacher
Association (PTA) platform (Wee, 1995). Parents’ involvement should not be confined
to serving committee members in the PTA’s but they should support their children in
the home-based learning activities.
Essential parental support can lead to a higher attainment level in terms of language
proficiency. This support can come in the form of providing basic infrastructure
facilities at home. This means that parents ought to buy either a laptop or a desktop
computer with broadband connection for their children. In fact, quality interactions
between teachers and learners and among the learners themselves are the key factors for
successful learning (Spencer and Hiltz, 2003). In the area of English Language learning,
interaction is commonly regarded as an integral part of a communicative language
learning process (Gass, 2003).
Becta (2001a) in their annual report said that the percentage of pupils claiming to have a
home computer in Britain ranges from 75 per cent at Key Stage 2 to 88 per cent at Key
Stage 4. This implies that pupils could make a search in the Internet and obtain
information do their daily homework. ICT support given by parents helps to improve
English proficiency (Becta, 2002; Becta, 2004a; Becta, 2004b). The researcher would
like to propose an integrated model of learning where the home environment plays a
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crucial role in supplementing classroom teaching and learning of English. The
integrated model of learning is depicted in Figure 2.9.
Figure 2.9: Integrated Model of Learning (Adapted from www.becta.org.uk)
2.13 Commercial Learning Management System (RQ11)
2.13.1 The Learning Edge
The Learning Edge is an advanced Learning Content Management System (LCMS)
allowing educators to discover, reuse, create, manage and deliver educational material
electronically. The Learning Edge which uses B-CAT is a fully-integrated content
authoring tool for Blackboard. It has a familiar integrated MS Word style authoring
interface and it will assist a user in the design, assembly and authoring of e-learning
content. B-CAT allows e-learning activities to be collaboratively worked upon and
shared with other educators or directly delivered to students through Blackboard.
Classroom Based Learning
Learning beyond the Classroom
Integration of ICT tools by teachers
Learner tasks in class using ICT skills
Improved school attainment in English
Improved knowledge and development of critical skills
Learner defined tasks and available resources; Self-paced learning; Reference to e-learning websites – ‘anytime, anywhere learning’ occurs
H OMEWORK
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2.13.2 English Language Learning Solutions
Specifically designed for English language learning, DynEd’s award-winning learning
management system, the Records Manager enables teachers and administrators to
track, control and provide feedback regarding the study activities of individual
students and entire classes. Every programme includes placement tests and a series of
mastery tests to help keep students working at an optimum level. The programme
‘Let’s Go for Grades PreK-4 (Early Elementary ESL)’ is a student-centered English
language course ideal for classroom and supplementary use. Focusing on the skills of
listening, speaking and reading it gives young learners an excellent foundation in
English. Sam and Ginger - two playful cats - teach songs and rhymes, social routines,
vocabulary, grammar and phonemic awareness. Another programme called ‘First
English (Upper Elementary ESL)’ is ideal for older students in Grades 5-12 who are
beginners to the English language. From the beginning, the program systematically
helps students comprehend, practice, internalize and build the basic framework of
English necessary for long-term success.
2.13.3 Mindflash System Mindflash is a service that allows one to create courses and instruct students, all online.
One can create one’s courses with as little as few Microsoft Word documents or one can
mix a variety of programs such as PowerPoint, Flash, HTML and audio/video files to
make one’s courses more interactive and animated. Mindflash is engineered to make
creating courses a user-friendly process.
2.13.4 Rosetta Stone Language Learning
The Rosetta Stone's breakthrough language learning programme uses thousands of real-
life images, written text and voices of native speakers to teach you like a native learner.
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With ‘Dynamic Immersion’ a user would be able to acquire everyday proficiency in all
key language skills: listening comprehension, reading comprehension, speaking and
writing. The online course runs right in the user’s internet browser wherever the user is,
giving the ultimate flexibility, without CD-ROM installations. Rosetta Stone presents a
carefully chosen selection of four images and asks the user to select the image that
matches the written text and the voices of native speakers. Building on the knowledge
the user has already gained and the user’s intuitive grasp of the meaning of each picture,
a choice is made. The very second the learner completes a task, the system provides
feedback. Speak a word and the unique voiceprint technology automatically rates the
learner’s pronunciation. Connect an image with a phrase and the learner will
immediately learn if his choice was correct. The curriculum is carefully sequenced,
gradually incorporating new words, phrases and more complex grammar as it reinforces
existing learning. This method imitates the way one learns one’s own first language as
children: without dictionaries or grammar books, without memorization or translation. It
uses native speakers and everyday language to develop one’s listening comprehension
skills easily and naturally. Pronunciation is improved by using dynamic speech
recognition to compare one’s speech with a native speaker. Reading skills are
developed by linking written language to real-life objects, actions, and ideas. Write
what one hears and the computer checks one’s spelling, syntax, and punctuation so one
can learn from one’s errors.
2.13.5 Virtual Teacher Screensaver
Virtual Teacher Screensaver is a very simple tool that makes a huge difference when
learning English Language. Basically, the user can enter words and phrases which the
user is trying to memorize, as well as their translations. These are displayed in very
large letters. When the user takes a break, all he has to do is to glance once in a while
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onto the screen. Soon, the user will notice that there are words and phrases that the user
has memorized and no longer need to display. Simply press F8 and the word won't
appear again.
Please see Table 2.8 for a concise comparison of the various commercial learning
management systems or platforms. The five systems mentioned are available for a fee.
The general public and the average student can’t afford to purchase any one of the
learning management systems used in English Language system. Though the ‘Help
Desk’ facility is an important component of a good system, none of the systems
described have this facility. Among the five systems, Rosetta Stone Language Learning
system appears to be the best. It makes use of real-life images and voices of native
speakers to teach. This tool or system is particularly useful for teaching listening and
speaking skills in particular correct pronunciation of difficult words. When a user
speaks a word, the unique voiceprint technology automatically rates the user’s
pronunciation. The user interface is attractive and user-friendly. The second learning
management system that needs mention is the English Language Learning Solutions
which has been specially designed for English language teaching and learning. It makes
use of Sam and Ginger, two playful cats to teach songs and rhymes, social routines,
vocabulary, grammar, and phonemic awareness. Mindflash is an authoring tool for the
user to upload content files to the system and the research feels it is not suitable for
English language teaching and learning. The content of many of these learning
management systems are foreign in nature and as the ICT skills of many of the primary
and secondary school students are still poor, the usefulness of the above systems are
once again in doubt in the Malaysian context.
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2.14 Discussion on the Literature Review
After having defined ICT tools and the concept of e-learning, the various ICT tools
were categorized under various headings. The literature review in the first part was able
to highlight the significant role of ICT tools in the teaching and learning of English
language. Of all the ICT tools, the Internet is the most significant tool that aids the
English teacher and the student in and beyond the walls of the classroom. ICT tools can
indeed be used creatively to enhance subject content competencies and provide much
wanted language practice to Malaysian students. The research findings on the use of
ICT in the teaching and learning of English reflect the invaluable contribution of ICT
tools in enhancing English Language teaching and learning. Many management systems
were next examined and a comparison on their strengths and weaknesses were tabulated
(Itmasi & Megias, 2005). In many of the commercial learning management systems, the
focus of the learning activities is on grammar, reading and writing activities. Very few
had the oral component integrated into the system. Among the five systems examined,
Rosetta Stone Language Learning appears to be the best but however the lesson content
is foreign and not in line with the curriculum specifications as spelt out in the Integrated
Primary and Secondary School Syllabus (KBSR & KBSM). Cost is another factor that
one needs to consider as the Learning Management Systems are quite expensive to
purchase. There is therefore a need to design a free or a reasonably cheap e-learning tool
to cater for the primary and secondary school students in Malaysia.
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Table 2.8: Concise Comparison of Commercial Learning Management Systems
System Name Overall Appearance (Max ****)
User – friendly and useful tool for learning English
Displays picture of student/ teacher with message
Can upload files & has authoring tools
Has discussion forum & Help Desk
Has live chat and audio conferencing with a tutor. Focus on listening & Speaking
Resource availability
The Learning Edge
***
Yes
Has e-mail facilities but no picture display of student or teacher
Able to upload files and has excellent authoring tools for the user. Just click and drag using MS Word.
Has forum facilities but no mention of Help Desk
None
Excellent for content development.
English Language Learning Solutions
***
Yes
No
No
No
None. Lesson useful in developing all the four skills.
Plenty of resources available.
Mindflash System
***
Yes
No
Yes
No
No mention
Excellent for content development
Rosetta Stone Language Learning
**** Yes No mention No authoring tool
No Focus on developing aural-oral skills
Plenty of resources available (Pupils can work at their own pace)
Virtual Teacher Screensaver
*
Sort of
No
No. Displays words and phrases
No
Helps in remembering words
Limited
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There is now a dire need to create a virtual e-learning tool or a learning management
system which provide lessons with local content for primary and secondary school
students in Malaysia. The new tool or system should provide links to other useful and
interactive websites in the Internet. The newly designed tool should provide
opportunities for adequate practice to use the language outside the classroom. With
these elements in mind, the researcher intends to design the Virtual English Language
Tool (VELT). The summary of the literature review given below would be used as a
guide in framing the survey questionnaire. It would further be used as a background
guide in deriving some of the user requirements for the proposed e-learning tool
(VELT).
2.15 Summary
• ICT tools that include the Internet provide more opportunities and advantages to
the language learner (Young, 2002; Ofsted, 2002). Many benefits could be
derived by using ICT tools in the teaching and learning of English (Oliver,
2003).
• Studies by Fauziah and Nita (2002) show that Malaysian students are weak in
listening and speaking. The exams tend to focus on testing reading and writing
skills and the main reason for pupils’ poor proficiency is the limited opportunity
to use English outside the classroom. Hence, students have poor communication
skills. There is therefore a dire need to integrate technology in the teaching and
learning of English (Al-Jarf, 2004; Hartel, 2003).
• The number of teachers and faculty members using technology to enhance their
teaching is relatively low (Kopyc, 2006).
• Speaking is the weakest skill among the four language skills (Lim,1994).
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• Teachers who integrate ICT tools in their English lessons should appropriately
blend content with pedagogy (Mishra and Koehler, 2003).
• In developing techno-pedagogically skilled teachers, critical reflection is vital
(Beaudin and Hadden, 2004).
• Internet-based desktop video conferencing (DVC) using instant messaging (IM)
applications such as Yahoo! Messenger and MSN Messenger can be
successfully utilized to enhance listening and speaking skills (Sotillo, 2005).
• Research study on ICT competencies among English Language teachers in
Malaysia show that language teachers were not competent in handling new
computing skills, especially those related to ‘Computer Mediated
Communication’ and ‘Web-Based Teaching and Learning’ (Norizan and
Mohamed, 2003)
• Oral communication skill is the ability to "impart or interchange thoughts,
opinions, or information by speech between two persons or more. Improving
oral communication does not mean teaching children to speak but rather
providing them with skills and opportunities to speak (Bertram, 2002; Holbrook,
1983). Video clips on different sounds, rhymes, songs, speeches, conversations,
CD ROMs, tape recorders and microphones are ICT tools that enhance
communication shills (Brown, 2006; Kluge and Taylor, 2000).
• Empirical evidence of ICT use by undergraduate students show students use ICT
for communication (using instant messaging) with the instructor and fellow
students and there is improvement in learning (Caruso et al., 2004; Kvavik,
2005; Kvavik and Caruso, 2005).
• Key findings under ImpaCT2 (2001) show that the use of ICT in teaching and
learning has positive effects on behaviour, motivation, communication and
process skills and that it enables pupils to learn more autonomously. Under this
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study a statistically significant positive association between ICT and National
Tests for English was found at Key Stage 2 English (Year 4 and Year 5). This
means that high ICT use in at Key Stage 2 in English helped to raise
performance by 3.12 National Test marks or 0.16 of a National Curriculum
level.
• The need for technology and ICT integration in English Language teaching and
learning had been firmly established in the literature review (Wang, 2005; Al-
Jarf, 2004; Morrison, 2007; Perez-Prado and Thirunarayanan, 2002; Cooper,
2001; Smith et al., 2001; Suhaila & Ridwan, 2005). The literature review had in
fact answered research question one.
• The impact of ICT depends very much upon teachers (Wenglinsky, 1998).
• The school-home partnership can forge better ties between the school and the
home and parental support can accelerate learning.
