Chapter 19: The Age of Napoleon and the

Triumph of Romanticism

November 25, 2007

After the Thermidorian Reaction, French people wanted stability but theDirectory was not providing it. Instead, they turned to the army, the symbolof order and virtue of the revolution, and Napoleon Bonaparte. His ambitionled France into wars of conquest and liberation across the Continent. He spreadthe ideas of the revolution and provoked nationalism against France. This na-tionalism and alliances �nally defeated France.

Romanticism �ourished in the turmoil of the Revolution and wars and spreadacross Europe. Some values, such as nationalism, supported the revolution;others such as history and religion opposed its values.

Contents

1 The Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte 21.1 Early Military Victories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.2 The Constitution of the Year VIII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2 The Consulate in France (1799�1804) 42.1 Suppressing Foreign Enemies and Domestic Opposition . . . . . . 42.2 Concordat with the Roman Catholic Church . . . . . . . . . . . . 42.3 The Napoleonic Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52.4 Establishing a Dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

3 Napoleon's Empire (1804�1814) 53.1 Conquering an Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

3.1.1 British Naval Supremacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63.1.2 Napoleonic Victories in Central Europe . . . . . . . . . . 63.1.3 Treaty of Tilsit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

3.2 The Continental System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

4 European Response to the Empire 74.1 German Nationalism and Prussian Reform . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74.2 The Wars of Liberation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

4.2.1 Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

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4.2.2 Austria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94.3 The Invasion of Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94.4 European Coalition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

5 The Congress of Vienna and the European Settlement 115.1 Territorial Adjustments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115.2 The Hundred Days and the Quadruple Alliance . . . . . . . . . . 12

6 The Romantic Movement 13

7 Romantic Questioning of the Supremacy of Reason 137.1 Rousseau and Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137.2 Kant and Reason . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

8 Romantic Literature 148.1 The English Romantic Writers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

8.1.1 Wordsworth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158.1.2 Lord Byron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

8.2 The German Romantic Writers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168.2.1 Schlegel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168.2.2 Goethe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

9 Romantic Art 179.1 The Cult of the Middle Ages and Neo-Gothicism . . . . . . . . . 179.2 Nature and the Sublime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

10 Religion in the Romantic Period. 1810.1 Methodism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1810.2 New Directions in Continental Religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

11 Romantic Views of Nationalism and History 2011.1 Herder and Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2011.2 Hegel and History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2111.3 Islam, the Middle East, and Romanticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

12 In Perspective 23

1 The Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte

1. Royalists hoped to restore monarchy legally. Monarchy = stability.

2. 1797 Spring elections�constitutional monarchists & supporters majority.

3. Sept. 4 1797�Directory set coup d'état�put their supporters in oppo-nents' seats.

4. Requested Napoleon to send army to Paris.

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5. Napoleon born 1769 to poor lesser nobles in Corsica.

(a) 1785�Commissioned artillery o�cer

(b) Jacobin, revolutionist.

(c) 1793�Recovered Toulon port from Britain.

(d) Appointed Brigadier General afterward.

(e) Defense of regime 13 Vendémiaire won him Italian command.

1.1 Early Military Victories

1. Oct. 1797 Treaty of Campo Formio�took Austria out of war. Napoleonsuccess�made treaty himself, against Paris. Soon dominated all of Italy,Switzerland.

2. Nov. 1797�Return to Paris; only Britain left. Attack Britain by takingEgypt�drive �eet from Mediterranean, cut communications with India,damage trade.

(a) Failure; Admiral Horatio Nelson destroyed French �eet Aug. 11798.

(b) Second Coalition against France: Austria, Russia, Ottoman, Britain.

(c) British drove French out, not Ottoman.

(d) Ottoman realized had to reform to resist Europe.

3. 1799�French defeated in Italy, Switzerland; Russia, Austria threateninvasion.

1.2 The Constitution of the Year VIII

1. Troubled econ. and international relations erode Directory's support.

2. Abbé Siéyès propose new constitution.

(a) Non-elected executive

(b) �con�dence from below, power from above.�

3. Would require another coup with military.

(a) Nov. 10 1799�Napoleon + Siéyès coup.

(b) Underestimated Napoleon; he pushed Siéyès aside.

4. Dec. 1799�Constitution of the Year 8�one man rule�First Consul.

(a) Appealed to Republican principles.

(b) Like Caesar, Augustus; modern dictators.

(c) First to use rhetoric or revolution & nationalism with military intoan empire ruled by himself.

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2 The Consulate in France (1799�1804)

Consulate ended revolution�3E and peasants satis�ed. New dominant classesdid not want to share with lower classes�Napoleon gave them security, so theyapproved constitution in plebiscite.

2.1 Suppressing Foreign Enemies and Domestic Opposi-

tion

1. Peace: Russia left; Austria defeated�1801 Treaty of Luneville tookAustria out; 1802 Treaty of Amiens took Britain out of war and peaceto Europe.

2. Generosity, �attery, bribery to win enemies. General amnesty; employedall men from political walks.

3. Ruthlessly suppress opposition.

(a) Highly centralized.

(b) Secret police.

(c) Suppress royalist rebellion in West; impose Paris rule on Brittany,Vendée for the �rst time in years.

4. Took advantage of opportunity to destroy enemies.

(a) 1804 assassination attempt from royalists, but used to to attack Ja-cobins.

(b) Executed Bourbon Duke of Enghien in Germany; accused of par-ticipating in royalist plot though Napoleon knew he was innocent.

2.2 Concordat with the Roman Catholic Church

1. Pius 6 exiled to France during French invasion of Italy.

2. 1801�Peace with Pius 7 (r. 1800�23). Napoleon got what he wanted.

(a) Fired refractory clergy and those accepted revolution.

(b) State named and paid for bishops and one priest per parish.

(c) Church gave up claims to con�scated property.

3. �Catholicism is the religion of the great majority of French citizens��notreligious dominance that pope wanted.

4. Clergy swear loyalty to state.

5. 1802 Organic Articles�supremacy of state of church. Applied toProtestants and Jews too.

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2.3 The Napoleonic Code

1. 1802 plebiscite rati�ed Napoleon consul for life; another constitution gavehim full power.

2. Civil Code of 1804 (Napoleonic Code) � reform and codi�cation ofFrench Law. Guarded property, secured society against internal chal-lenges.

3. Conservative to labor and women�no changes.

(a) Primogeniture�right of eldest son to inherit most�abolished; equaldistribution among children (male and female).

(b) Divorce still more di�cult for women.

(c) Before, regional di�erences in law. Universal code end opportunitiesfor women to protect their interests amidst confusion.

2.4 Establishing a Dynasty

1. Dynasty = secure regime, make future assassination attempts useless.

2. New constitution declare Emperor�overwhelmingly rati�ed plebiscite.

3. Invited Pius 7 to crown him, but pope agreed Napoleon crown himself.Would not allow anyone to think his power depended on Church.

3 Napoleon's Empire (1804�1814)

1. Conquered most of Europe.

2. Ended Old Regime throughout Western Europe.

3. Forced eastern states to reorganize.

4. Powerful nationalism�militarily mobile France.

(a) 700,000 men under arms;

(b) 100,000 can be risked in a single battle;

(c) Loyalty → conscript unprecedented numbers.

5. No single enemy could match; even coalitions failed.

3.1 Conquering an Empire

1. 1802 Peace of Amiens merely truce.

2. Intervened in Haiti → British fear new empire.

3. Reorganization of Germany→ reduced Austrian in�uence; fewer but largerGerman states all dependent on Napoleon.

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3.1.1 British Naval Supremacy

1. Issue ultimatum; ignored; May 1803 declare war.

2. William Pitt the Younger reconstruct Third Coalition;

3. Aug. 1805 had Russia and Austria.

4. Oct. 21 1805�Battle of Trafalgar�Admiral Nelson destroy French& Spanish �eets. Ended French hopes of invading Britain; guaranteedBritish control of sea.

3.1.2 Napoleonic Victories in Central Europe

1. Dec. 2 1805�Defeated Austrian & Russian forces at Austerlitz. Per-haps greatest victory.

2. Followed with Treaty of Pressburg � Austria withdraw from Italy�Napoleon control everything north of Rome and became King of Italy.

3. Jul. 1806�Confederation of the Rhine�most Western Germanprinces; withdraw from Holy Roman Empire → Francis II dissolve HRE;call himself Francis I of Austria.

4. Prussia foolishly enter war.

(a) Oct. 14 1806�Crush army at Jena and Auerstädt.

(b) Nov. 21�Berlin Decrees forbid allies from importing Britishgoods.

5. Jun. 13 1807�Defeated Russians at Friedland.

(a) Occupy E. Prussia.

(b) Became Master of all Germany.

3.1.3 Treaty of Tilsit

1. Jul. 7 1807�Treaty of Tilsit�con�rm French gains.

(a) Napoleon and Tsar Alexander I meet on raft in Niemen River.

(b) Armies and nervous Prussian king watch.

(c) Prussia lose half of territory.

(d) Prussia openly became ally of Napoleon.

(e) Russia secretly ally.

2. Assigned family members to rule kingdoms. Provoked opposition thatneeded only encouragement and assistance to become resistance.

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3.2 The Continental System

1. After Tilsit, only Britain could assist. Must defeat Britain to feel safe.

2. Could not compete navally → continue econ. war. Want to:

(a) Cut o� trade with Continent.

(b) Cause domestic unrest → drop Britain out of war.

3. 1807 Milan Decree�attempt to stop neutral nations from trading.

4. British econ. survived despite initial su�ering�control of seas accessAmericans, E. Mediterranean.

5. Continental system badly hurt Continental economies.

(a) Napoleon rejected free trade area�popular and helpful.

(b) Tari�s → increase resentment and smuggling, decrease enforcement.

(c) Invaded Spain in 1808 in part to prevent smuggling. This would helpbring about his ruin.

4 European Response to the Empire

1. Imposed Napoleonic Code, abolished Old Regime everywhere.

(a) Freed peasants.

(b) Guilds and local oligarchies dissolved or lost power.

(c) Churches lost independence; subordinate to state.

(d) Tolerance replace monopoly.

2. But clear that his policies intended to bene�t France, not entire Europe.

3. Conquered states quickly grew stubborn.

4.1 German Nationalism and Prussian Reform

1. Emergence of nationalism in Germany�Romantic movement.

(a) Cultural nationalism prevail until humiliating defeat at Jena in 1806.

(b) Then sought to establish uni�ed state�only way to survive French.

i. Criticized German princes�ine�cient, sel�sh, suck up to Napoleon.

ii. Example of France: powerful because entire population united.

2. Prussia only place for patriotism�elsewhere collaborate with or ruled byNapoleon.

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(a) Nationalists from other states �ed there.

(b) Reform and uni�cation hated by King Frederick William 3 (r. 1797�1840) but came nevertheless�had to change to survive.

3. Reformers: Baron vom Stein (1757�1831) & Prince von Hardenberg(1750�1822).

(a) Neither wanted to reduce power of king or nobles.

(b) Fight with �their own version of the French weapons.�

(c) Top-down reforms:

i. Abolish serfdom, but keep vestiges: staying on land → continuemanorial labor; own land only if forfeit a third to lord. → Junkerholding increased. Rise of landless laborers created social prob-lems.

ii. Abolished inhumane military punishment; sought to inspire pa-triotism.

iii. Open o�cer corps to commoners.

iv. Promoted based on merit.

v. Organize war colleges and develop military strategies and tactics.

4. Reforms helped regain power.

5. Napoleon restricted army to 42,000.

(a) Train one group each year, put them in reserve, then train another.

(b) By 1814 (broke with Napoleon in 1813) had 270,000.

4.2 The Wars of Liberation

4.2.1 Spain

1. Deeply rooted national resistance.

(a) Political unity in 1500s.

(b) Peasants devoted to ruling dynasty and Church.

2. 1807�French army go to Iberian to force Portugal to abandon alliancewith Britain.

(a) Stayed in Spain to protect supply lines.

(b) 1808�Revolt in Madrid. Napoleon used this to depose SpanishBourbons; placed Joseph (1768�1844) on throne.

3. Upper class prepared to collaborate, but peasants urged by lower clergyand monks rebelled.

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4. In Spain, faced guerrilla warfare.

5. British landed army under Sir Arthur Wellesley (1769�1852) (later Dukeof Wellington) to support.

6. Long peninsular campaign would drain French strength and hasten Napoleon'sdefeat.

4.2.2 Austria

1. Since defeat at Austerlitz (Sec. 3.1.2 on page 6), war of revenge in 1809.

2. Counted on distraction in Spain and aid from German princes.

(a) But German princes did not help.

(b) French quickly won Battle of Wagram.

3. Resulting Peace of Schönbrunn deprive Austria of much land and 3.5M subjects.

4. Austrian Archduchess Marie Louise (1791�1847), daughter of EmperorFrancis I married Napoleon after divorced 46-year-old Josephine de Beauhar-nais who bore no children.

4.3 The Invasion of Russia

1. Shaky Franco-Russian alliance at Tilsit ( 3.1.3 on page 6).

(a) Nobles disliked liberal France.

(b) Continental system prevented sale of timber to Britain.

(c) Only French aid in gaining Constantinople justify alliance.

(d) Polish Duchy of Warsaw (Napoleonic satellite) on Russian doorstepand its enlargement with Austrian territory after Wagram angerAlexander.

(e) Annexation of Hollands in violation of Tilsit, recognition of Frenchmarshal Bernadotte as future King Charles 14 of Sweden, marriageto Marie Louise disturb Tsar.

2. 1810�Russian withdraw from Continental system and prepare for war.

3. Napoleon amass army of 600,000 with over 400,000 non-French.

4. Russians had 160,000. Scorched-earth: retreat and destroy all food andsupplies.

(a) Grand Army of Napoleon could not live o� country; too big to main-tain supply lines.

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(b) Eroded moral of Napoleon's army.

(c) Advisers urged him to abandon, but fear failed campaign undermineempire.

(d) Pinned faith on Russian unwillingness to abandon Moscow w/o �ght.

5. Sept. 1812�Borodino, W. of Moscow, bloodiest battle of Napoleonicera. French lost 30,000; Russians lost almost 60,000. But Russian armynot destroyed; France won nothing. Defeat.

6. Russians burned Moscow. Napoleon captured it and o�ered peace toAlexander, but ignored.

7. Winter set. Oct.�remnant of Grand Army forced to retreat.

8. Dec.�realized Russia would encourage plots against him at home.

9. Returned to Paris, leaving his army to retreat on its own. Perhaps only100,000 survived.

4.4 European Coalition

1. Able to put down opponents and raise another 350,000 men.

2. Prussians, Austrians, even Russians did not want to risk another con�ict.

3. Could have negotiated decent peace o�ers, but Napoleon too ambitious.

4. 1813�Last and most powerful coalition. Patriotic pressure and nationalambition.

(a) Russians, Prussians, Austrians drive from West, aided by Britishmoney.

(b) Wellington's army marched in from Spain.

(c) Napoleon's new army inexperienced, poorly equipped.

(d) His generals lost con�dence and were tried.

(e) Napoleon himself exhausted and sick.

5. Still, successful in central Europe; defeated allies at Dresden.

6. Oct. 1813�decisively defeated at Battle of Leipzig (German: Battle ofthe Nations).

7. Mar. 1814�marched into Paris. Napoleon abdicated; exiled to Elba o�Italy.

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5 The Congress of Vienna and the European Set-tlement

1. Remove Napoleon → coalition disperse.

2. Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh (1769�1822) � British foreign sec-retary. Signed

3. Treaty of Chaumont on Mar. 9 1814. Restore Bourbons; Francereturn to 1792 borders.

4. Quadruple Alliance: Britain, Austria, Russia, Prussia. Details andproblems left for Vienna conference.

5.1 Territorial Adjustments

1. Sept. 1814�Nov. 1815 � Congress of Vienna.

2. All victors agree no one state dominate Europe�better not be Franceagain.

3. Restore Bourbon�temporarily popular.

4. Non-vindictive boundary settlement keep France calm, satis�ed.

5. Strengthen states around French borders.

(a) Establish kingdom of the Netherlands�Belgium & Luxembourg.

(b) Add Genoa to strengthen Piedmont in south.

6. Prussia given territory along Rhine to deter France.

7. Austria gain full control of N. Italy.

8. Most Napoleonic organization of Germany unchanged. Established ruleof legitimate monarchs�reject republic, democracy.

9. Settlement of E. Europe sharply divided.

(a) Alexander 1 wanted all Poland.

(b) Prussia willing to give in exchange for all Saxony (previously alliedwith Napoleon).

(c) Austria unwilling to give up its share of Poland or see Prussia orRussia grow.

(d) Talleyrand � representative of France � secret alliance againstRussia.

(e) Alliance leaked → Alexander contented with smaller Poland andPrussia with part of Saxony.

(f) France included as �fth power.

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5.2 The Hundred Days and the Quadruple Alliance

1. Mar. 1 1815�Napoleon return from Elba; united victors.

(a) French army still loyal.

(b) Many French people preferred his rule to restored Bourbons.

(c) Napoleon promise liberal constitution, peaceful foreign policy.

2. Allies declare him outlaw (new device under international law).

(a) Jun. 18, 1815 � Wellington (Section 4.2.1 on page 8) aided byPrussians under von Blücher defeated Napoleon at Waterloo inBelgium.

(b) Napoleon abdicated again (�rst time Section 4.4 on page 10), exiledto St. Helena�tiny Atlantic island o� cost of Africa; died 1821.

3. 100 Days (period of Napoleon's return) frightened great powers; madepeace settlement harsher for France.

(a) War indemnity + army of occupation.

(b) Alexander propose Holy Alliance with Austria and Prussia (Castlereaghthought it absurd).

i. Tsar was embracing mysticism; though Holy Alliance valuabletool for international relations.

ii. Became known as symbol for extreme political reaction.

4. Nov. 20 1815�Renew Quadruple Alliance (Section 5 on the precedingpage).

(a) Equally coalition for maintaining peace.

(b) Never before existence�powers determined to prevent war.

(c) War a�ected entire civilian populations. Determined to prevent moreupheaval and destruction.

5. Congress aimed to prevent recurrence of Napoleonic nightmare.

(a) Treaty should secure peace, not victory.

(b) Stability, not punishing France.

6. Achieved its goals. France accepted, partly because it was recognized asworld power.

7. Established new legal framework�treaties between states, not monarchs.Remained while monarchs died.

8. European leaders considered more complex models political and economicpower�general economic growth could bene�t everybody.

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9. Criticized for failing to recognize and provide nationalism and democracy.

(a) Desire for peace. Aimed to settle past ills�succeeded.

(b) Settlement remained intact for over half a century; prevented generalwar for a hundred.

6 The Romantic Movement

1. Emerged during French Revolution and conquests.

2. Romanticism was reaction against much of Enlightenment.

3. Imagination or intuition supplement reason as a means to understandworld.

4. Urged revival of Christianity.

5. Enjoyed art, literature, and architecture of medieval.

6. Interest in folk.

7. Dreams, hallucinations�phenomena suggesting world beyond empiricalobservation and discursive reasoning fascinating.

7 Romantic Questioning of the Supremacy of Rea-son

1. Individualism of Renaissance, Protestant devotion, personal piety, novels.

2. Sturm and Drang (Storm and Stress) � German poetry movement,reject French rationalism on German literature.

3. Rousseau and Kant�closely related to Enlightenment; immediate intel-lectual foundations.

4. Questioned whether rationalism su�cient for human nature and principlefor society.

7.1 Rousseau and Education

1. Society and material wealth corrupt human nature�profound impact onRomantic writers.

2. 1762 Émile � novel, how to lead good happy life uncorrupted by society.

(a) Stages of human maturation; children given maximum freedom.

(b) Grow freely like plant; use trial and error to learn reality.

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(c) Parent/teacher provide basic necessity, ward o� obviously harmful.Like gardener, stay out of way.

3. Men and women separate spheres due to physical di�erences.

4. Humankind, nature, society organically interrelated.

7.2 Kant and Reason

1. 1781 Critique of Pure Reason

2. 1788 Critique of Practical Reason

3. Accept rationalism and human freedom, immortality, God.

4. Subjective human knowledge: mind not active mirror of world�instead,actively impose �forms of sensibility� and �categories of understanding.�Human perceptions product of mind's activity + sensory experience.

5. Reality accessible by pure reason (phenomenal world, sensory experience)limited.

6. �Noumenal� world��practical reason,� conscience. Moral and aestheticreality.

7. Categorical imperative�all humans innate sense of moral duty. Innercommand to act in every situation as one would have everyone else act insame situation.

(a) Proof of humankind's natural freedom.

(b) From moral sense, God, eternal life, future reward/punish.

(c) Reason alone could not prove transcendental truths, but realitiesknown to all reasonable people.

8. Refute narrow rationality of Enlightenment. Romantics believed humanmind deeper than passive understanding of Hobbes, Locke, Hume. Believeartists possess powers in abundance.

9. Others appealed to limits of human reason to set up new religious andpolitical ideals.

8 Romantic Literature

1. Neoclassical writers used derogatory: unreal, sentimental, excessively fan-ciful.

2. Thomas Warton (1728�90): Romantic literature � medieval romances.

3. Johann Gottfried Herder (1744�1803): Romantic � Gothic.

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4. Did not observe classical forms and rules; free imagination.

5. August Wilhelm von Schlegel (1767�1845) 1809�11 Lectures on DramaticArt� Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio, Shakespeare, Arthurian legends, Cer-vantes, Calderón all �Romantic.� Living, as opposed to mechanical, whichwas classical literature.

6. Madame de Staël (1766�1817), Victor Hugo (1802�85) � brought Ro-mantic Movement to France after it peaked in Germany and England.

(a) Strong classical in�uence in France.

(b) 1816�Henri Beyle (1783�1842) under pen-name Stendhal openlydeclare himself Romantic.

(c) Praise Shakespeare; criticize classical dramatist Jean Racine (1639�99).

8.1 The English Romantic Writers

1. Believe poetry from freely �owing impulses of mind.

(a) Contradict Locke: poetry mechanical exercise of �wit� following pre-scribed ruled.

2. Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772�1834) � imagination = God's work inthe mind.

(a) Poetry highest of human acts�self-ful�llment in transcendental world.

(b) Master of Gothic poems of supernatural.

(c) �The Rime of the Ancient Mariner��cursed for killing albatross.Crime against nature and God, guilt, punishment, redemption, hu-mility, penance. At end, discover unity and beauty of all things.

8.1.1 Wordsworth

, William (1770�1850) � Coleridge's closest friend.

1. 1798 Lyrical Ballads � new poetry reject 18th century criticism.

2. 1803 �Ode on Intimations of Immortality� � console Coleridge, who wassu�ering crisis.

(a) Loss of poetic vision�felt happening to himself.

(b) Every human lose childlike vision and closeness to spiritual realitywhen mature.

(c) Child recollect supernatural more easily.

(d) Again, urban living deaden imagination.

3. 1850 The Prelude autobiographical growth of poet's mind.

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8.1.2 Lord Byron

1788�1824, rebel among Romantics. Distrusted/disliked by British Romantics.

1. Outside England: embody new person French Revolution created.

2. Reject traditions, champion person liberty.

3. Skeptical, mocking, even of own beliefs.

4. 1812 Childe Harold's Pilgrimage � melancholy Romantic hero.

5. 1819 Don Juan � vulgar humor, acknowledge nature's cruelty and beauty,admire urban life.

8.2 The German Romantic Writers

Novels sentimental; borrowed medieval romances.

1. Characters symbol of larger truth of life.

2. Avoid pure realistic description.

3. First: William Lovell (1793�5) by Ludwig Tieck (1773�1853).

(a) Contrast Lovell (love, imagination) to cold reason alone.

(b) Cold reason prey to unbelief, hatred of man, egoism.

(c) Two women Lovell naively loves with philosophy, materialism, skep-ticism destroy Lovell.

8.2.1 Schlegel

, Friedrich (1767�1845) � 1799 Lucinde

1. Attack prejudice against women.

2. Romantics could be involved in contemporary social issues.

3. Lucinde = perfect friend, companion, lover.

4. Shock contemporary morals: frank sex, Lucinde equal to male hero.

8.2.2 Goethe

, Johann Wolfgang von (1749�1832) � perhaps greatest German writer ofmodernity.

1. Part of writer Romantic; other condemn Romantic excesses.

2. 1774 The Sorrows of Young Werther � series of letters, like many in 18th.

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(a) Hero loves Lotte, who is married.

(b) Explore relationship with sentimentalism.

(c) Eventually part, but Werther kills himself.

(d) Popular throughout Europe; admire emphasis on feeling and livingoutside bounds of polite society.

3. Faust � Masterpiece; long dramatic poem.

(a) 1808�Part I�Faust with devil: soul � more knowledge than anyother human.

(b) Faust seduces Gretchen; she dies and goes to heaven but Faust real-izes he must live.

(c) 1832�Part II�Faust adventure with witches, myth creatures.

(d) At end, dedicate what remains of his life to help humanity. Overcomerestless striving that led him to make pact with devil. New knowledgebreaks pact; dies and goes to heaven.

9 Romantic Art

Reaction to 18th; Rococo → Renaissance; Neoclassical → Ancient; instead,Romantic → Medieval. Represent stability and religious reverence missingin their own lives.

9.1 The Cult of the Middle Ages and Neo-Gothicism

1. John Constable (1776�1837) � conservative.

(a) Salisbury Cathedral, from the Meadows � stable world, political tur-moil nor industry destroy dominance of church and landed classes.

(b) Church and trees stand in storm�enduring order.

(c) Liberal reformers � devil.

(d) Rainbow sacramental nature�God's blessing for traditional order.

2. Idealize rural life�connect to medieval, oppose urban, industry, com-merce. Constable's paintings landscape largely disappeared in England.

3. Medieval cathedrals restored; new churches imitated.

(a) Houses of Parliament (1836�7) � most famous public buildings Neo-Gothic.

(b) Town halls, schools, railroad stations built live medieval.

(c) Aristocratic country houses rebuilt to resemble castles.

(d) Castle of Neuschwanstein (1869�86) by King Ludwig II of Bavaria.

i. Interior never completed.

ii. Almost bankrupted Bavarian monarchy.

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9.2 Nature and the Sublime

Portray majestic power of nature as no previous generation had done.

1. Mysterious, unruly nature�not Newtonian order.

2. The sublime�elements of nature that arouse strong emotion (fear, dread,awe) and question our lives.

3. Often traveled to remote areas to portray unruly, dangerous scenes toimmediately grip viewer.

4. Nature = set of in�nite forces that overwhelm mankind.

(a) The Polar Sea (Caspar David Friedrich (1774�1840)) � ship trappedand crushed by polar ice �eld.

(b) Darkness�human beings in night, moonlight and torches.

5. Joseph Mallord William Turner (1775�1851) � nature and industry.

(a) 1844 Rail, Steam and Speed�The Great Western Railway�railwayengine through storm.

(b) Technology part of nature but strong enough to dominate.

6. Friedrich + Turner symbolize contradictory forces of Romantic art: awe-some power of nature + awesome human power of industry that couldchallenge or surpass nature.

10 Religion in the Romantic Period.

Sought foundations of religion in inner emotions. Faith, experience, institutionscentral to human life. Forerunners were mystics.

10.1 Methodism

Originated in middle of 18th against deism, rationalism in Anglican Church.

1. Important part of background of English Romanticism.

2. Leader: John Wesley (1703�91).

(a) Mother (had 18 children) carefully supervised education and religiousdevelopment.

(b) Organized Holy Club at Oxford while studying for Anglican priest.

(c) Left for missionary to Georgia (1735).

(d) German Moravians on ship impressed him with faith during stormon ship. They knew better the meaning of justi�cation by faith. . .

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(e) 1738�Return to London; worship with Moravians. 1739�conversionexperience; felt assured of salvation.

3. Could not preach his conversion in Anglican church.

4. 1739�Preached in open �elds near cities and towns.

(a) Charles (brother, 1707�88) organize Methodist societies.

(b) Sent missionaries to America�greatest success.

5. Inward, heartfelt religion, possibility of Christian perfection in this life.

6. Highly emotional → relief from dry deism.

10.2 New Directions in Continental Religion

1. After Thermidorian reaction, Catholic revival in France.

(a) Disapprove religious policy of revolution;

(b) anticlericalism on Enlightenment.

2. 1802 The Genius of Christianity by Viscount François René de Chateaubriand(1768�1848)

(a) �Bible of Romanticism� � essence of religion is �passion.�

(b) Foundation of faith was emotion in teachings and sacraments.

3. 1799 Speeches on Religion to its Cultured Despisers by Friedrich Schleier-macher (1768�1834).

(a) Response to Lutheran orthodoxy & Enlightenment rationalism.

(b) Religion not dogma or ethics: �intuition of absolute dependence onin�nite reality.�

(c) Institutions, doctrine, moral activity express primal feeling indirectly.

(d) Every religion unique in its expression of primal intuition of in�nitein the �nite.

i. Every religion unique version of common emotional experience.

ii. Interpret religion the same way other Romantics interpret cul-tures.

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11 Romantic Views of Nationalism and History

1. Glorify individual and culture (esp. Germany).

2. Germany idealism: world = creation of subjective egos.

3. J. G. Fichte (1762�1814) � Germany philosopher, nationalist.

(a) Individual ego linked to Absolute that underlies all existing things.

(b) World is truly creation of humankind.

4. World is the way it is because especially strong people conceive

of it as a particular way and impose their wills on other people.

(a) Napoleon example.

(b) Justify glori�cation of great persons and their overriding opposition.

11.1 Herder and Culture

German Romantics search their past in reaction to copying of French in 18th,French Revolution impacts, and Napoleon's imperialism.

1. Johann Gottfried Herder (1744�1803) � resented French cultural domi-nance.

2. 1778 �On the Knowing and Feelings of the Human Soul� � reject mecha-nism.

(a) Humans and society develop organically.

(b) Humans di�erent at di�erent times and places.

3. Urge preservation of German songs, sayings�revive folk culture.

(a) Jakob (1785�1863) & Wilhelm (1786�1859) Grimm�fairy tales.

4. Each language and culture unique expression of a people.

(a) Reject �common� language like French;

(b) Reject �universal� institutions.

(c) They were tyranny over individuality.

5. Revival of interest in history, philosophy.

6. Expanded to embrace world cultures�ability of Romantic imagination to�t into any age or culture → study of non-Western religion, comparativeliterature, philology.

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11.2 Hegel and History

, GeorgWilhelm Friedrich (1770�1831). Most complicated and signi�cant philoso-pher of Western civilization.

1. Ideas develop in evolutionary fashion with con�ict.

2. Thesis is predominant set of ideas.

3. Antithesis are con�icting ideas that challenge thesis.

4. Synthesis emerges through patterns of thought clash, becoming new the-sis.

5. Periods of world history are characterized by their thesis.

6. Several important conclusions:

(a) All periods of history are equally important because each is necessaryfor achievements of later periods.

(b) All cultures are valuable because each contribute to necessary clash ofvalues/ideals that lets humanity develop.

7. 1806 The Phenomenology of Mind

8. 1822�31 Lectures on the Philosophy of History.

9. Many other works published after death.

10. Ideas became widely known through lectures at Univ. Berlin.

11.3 Islam, the Middle East, and Romanticism

Romanticism modi�ed European understanding of Arab and Islamic worldswhile still preserving long-standing attitudes.

1. Energized Christianity (Methodism, Chateaubriand (Section 10.2 on page 19))renew sense of necessary con�ict.

(a) Chateaubriand invoke notion of Crusade in French parliament relat-ing to Barbary pirates of N. Africa.

(b) Medieval Crusades �re Romantic imagination.

i. 1825 Tales of the Crusaders by Sir Walter Scott (1771�1832).

ii. Portrayed Muslim soldiers heroically.

iii. Ignored havoc on people of Middle East.

2. Nationalism with Romanticism cast Ottoman Empire and Islam unfavor-ably. Greek Revolution (Chapter 20).

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3. Other Romantic sensibilities → see Muslim world more positively.

(a) Emphasis on world literature→ enjoy The Thousand and One Nights.

(b) First English 1778 from French.

(c) Reject classicism for folk and fairy�Arabian Nights mysterious, ex-otic.

(d) 1859 Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám of Nishapur�Persian poet of 12th.Translated by Edward FitzGerald (1809�83).

4. Herder & Hegel give Arabs distinct historical roles.

(a) Herder: one of many communities that manifest human spirit.

(b) Hegel: Islam important stage of development of world-spirit, butalready done its job, no longer signi�cant.

(c) Outlooks penetrated 19th intellectual life → Islam could be ignored.

5. Thomas Carlyle (1795�1881) (Brit. historian, social commentator) new,positive qualities to Muhammad.

(a) Dislike Enlightenment injury to religion, spiritual values.

(b) Drawn to German theories of history.

(c) 1841 On Heroes and Hero-Worship � Muhammad embody hero asprophet.

(d) Renounce Christian/Enlightenment view of Muhammad as impostor.

(e) Similar to Schleiermacher (Section 10.2 on page 19) � subjectivelyexperience God.

(f) Historically friend; did not believe Muhammad was last prophet.

6. Napoleon reshaped thought towards Islam and Middle East most in longrun.

(a) 1798 Egyptian Expedition�study of Arab would be important ac-tivity of French intellectual life.

(b) Had to be clear: not destroy Islam but liberate Egypt from OttomanEmpire military clique.

(c) Took scholars to converse with educated people.

(d) Napoleon met with local Islamic leaders; had speeches & proclama-tions translated to classical Arabic.

(e) Cultural sensitivity and study of Qur'an impressed Egyptian scholars.

(f) Discovered Rosetta Stone (now in British Museum).

(g) Scholars published 1809�28 Description of Egypt � focused on an-cient.

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i. Impact: Islam only part of larger cultural story.

ii. Understand Egypt and Islam through European thought (notnecessarily Christian)

(h) Cultural impacts:

i. Increase European visitors to Middle East.

ii. Architecture based on Egyptian models (Washington Monument).

12 In Perspective

Romantic ideals contributed to nationalism, which would become one of thestrongest forces of the 19th and 20th centuries. Enlightenment championedcosmopolitanism but Romanticism championed individual cultures. Culturalnationalism was transformed into a political creed�every people, ethnic group,or nation ought to be a distinct political entity in order to secure its character.France under Napoleon demonstrated the power of nationhood. Others desiredthis same strength. Napoleon toppled ancient political structures such as theHoly Roman Empire; this proved the need for new political organization. TheCongress of Vienna ignored such desires for new organization, but for the restof the 19th century, such growing power had to be unleashed.

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