Chapter 17: The West Between the Wars,...

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The West Between the Wars

1919–1939

Key EventsAs you read this chapter, look for the key events in the history of the Western countries

between the wars.• Europe faced severe economic problems after World War I, including inflation and

the Great Depression.• Dictatorial regimes began to spread into Italy, Germany, and across eastern Europe.

• The uncertainties and disillusionment of the times were reflected in the art and literature of the 1920s and 1930s.

The Impact TodayThe events that occurred during this time period still impact our lives today.

• The current debate over the federal government’s role in local affairs and social problems developed in part from Franklin D. Roosevelt’s solution to the Great Depression.

• Automobiles, motion pictures, and radios transformed the ways in which people lived during the 1920s and 1930s and still impact how we live our lives today.

World History—Modern Times Video The Chapter 17 video, “The Rise of Dictators,” chronicles the growth of dictatorial regimes in Europe after 1918.

1929The GreatDepressionbegins

1924Hitler writes first volume of MeinKampf

1920 1922 1924 1926 1928

1922Communists create the Union of Soviet SocialistRepublics

1926Mussolini creates a Fascist dictatorshipin Italy

1929Stalinestablishesdictatorshipin SovietUnion

Dorothea Lange’s famous photograph, Migrant Mother,

1936, captured the humanhardship and suffering resulting

from the Great Depression.

1932Franklin Delano Rooseveltis elected president of theUnited States

1933Hitler becomeschancellor ofGermany

1936Spanish CivilWar begins

1936John Maynard Keynes publishes General Theory of Employment,Interest, and Money

HISTORY

Chapter OverviewVisit the Glencoe WorldHistory—Modern Times Web site at

and click on Chapter 17–Chapter Overview topreview chapter information.

wh.mt.glencoe.com1930 1932 1934 1936 1938

Hitler and the Nazi Party used rallies, such as this one at Nuremberg in 1937, to create support for their policies.

Flags of the Hitler Youthorganization

Franklin D. Roosevelt

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Why It MattersIn the 1920s, many people assumedthat Europe and the world wereabout to enter a new era of interna-tional peace, economic growth, andpolitical democracy. These hopeswere not realized, however. Mostpeople wanted peace but wereunsure how to maintain it. Plans for economic revival gave way toinflation and then to the GreatDepression. Making matters worse,economic hard times gave rise todictatorial regimes across much ofEurope. The world was filled withuncertainty.

History and You Make a dia-gram listing the problems faced bythe United States, Germany, andFrance during the Great Depression.Indicate how the problems wereinterrelated. Using what you learnfrom your diagram, explain howrecovery would also have a chaineffect.

During the GreatDepression, manypeople had to resort

to desperate measuresto find food.

The Great Depressionfter World War I, Europe was faced with severe eco-nomic problems. Most devastating of all was the Great

Depression that began at the end of 1929. The Great Depres-sion brought misery to millions of people. Begging for foodon the streets became widespread, especially when soupkitchens were unable to keep up with the demand.

More and more people were homeless and moved aroundlooking for work and shelter. One observer in Germanyreported, “An almost unbroken chain of homeless menextends the whole length of the great Hamburg-Berlin high-way . . . [w]hole families had piled all their goods into babycarriages and wheelbarrows that they were pushing along asthey plodded forward in dumb despair.” In the United States,the homeless set up shantytowns they named “Hoovervilles”after President Herbert Hoover.

In their misery, some people saw suicide as the only solu-tion. One unemployed person said, “Today, when I am experi-encing this for the first time, I think that I should prefer to doaway with myself, to take gas, to jump into the river, or leapfrom some high place. . . . Would I really come to such a deci-sion? I do not know.”

Social unrest spread rapidly. Some of the unemployedstaged hunger marches to get attention. In democratic coun-tries, people began to listen to, and vote for, radical voicescalling for extreme measures.

A

1921German debtdetermined

1924German debtrestructured

1925Treaty ofLocarno

1929U.S. stock market crashes

Guide to Reading

The Futile Search for Stability

Preview of Events

1936Popular Front isformed in France

✦1920 ✦1925 ✦1930 ✦1935 ✦1940

On October 27, 1932, a group of workers marched in London to protest govern-ment policies. One observer reported:

“By mid-day approximately 100,000 London workers were moving towards HydePark from all parts of London, to give the greatest welcome to the hunger marchersthat had ever been seen in Hyde Park. . . . As the last contingent of marchers enteredthe park gates, trouble broke out with the police. It started with the special constables[police officers]; not being used to their task, they lost their heads, and, as the crowdsswept forward on to the space where the meetings were to be held, the specials drewtheir truncheons [billy clubs] in an effort to control the sea of surging humanity. Thisincensed the workers, who turned on the constables and put them to flight.”

—Eyewitness to History, John Carey, ed., 1987

Worker unrest was but one of the social problems in Europe in the 1920s and 1930s.

Uneasy Peace, Uncertain SecurityThe peace settlement at the end of World War I had tried to fulfill nineteenth-

century dreams of nationalism by creating new boundaries and new states. Fromthe beginning, however, the settlement left nations unhappy. Border disputes poi-soned relations in eastern Europe for years. Many Germans vowed to revise theterms of the Treaty of Versailles.

Voices from the Past

Main Ideas• Peace and prosperity were short-lived

after World War I.• After 1929, a global economic

depression weakened the Westerndemocracies.

Key Termsdepression, collective bargaining, deficit spending

People to Identify John Maynard Keynes, Franklin Delano Roosevelt

Places to LocateRuhr Valley, Switzerland

Preview Questions1. What was the significance of the

Dawes Plan and the Treaty ofLocarno?

2. How was Germany affected by theGreat Depression?

Reading StrategyCompare and Contrast Use a table likethe one below to compare France’s Popu-lar Front with the New Deal in the UnitedStates.

CHAPTER 17 The West Between the Wars 533

Popular Front New Deal

1935WPA is established

Hunger marchers in London, 1932

CHAPTER 17 The West Between the Wars

534 CHAPTER 5 Rome and the Rise of Christianity534 CHAPTER 5 Rome and the Rise of Christianity

The Great Flu EpidemicA flu epidemic at the end of World War I proved dis-

astrous to people all over the world. Some observersbelieve that it began among American soldiers inKansas. When they were sent abroad to fight, they car-ried the virus to Europe. By the end of 1918, many sol-diers in European armies had been stricken with the flu.

The disease spread quickly throughout Europe. Thethree chief statesmen at the peace conference—

the American presidentWoodrow Wilson, theBritish prime ministerDavid Lloyd George, and the French premierGeorges Clemenceau—all were sick with the fluduring the negotiationsthat led to the Treaty ofVersailles.

The Spanish flu, as this strain of influenza was called,was known for its swift and deadly action. Many peopledied within a day of being infected. Complications alsoarose from bacterial infections in the lungs, whichcaused a deadly form of pneumonia.

In 1918 and 1919, the Spanish flu spread around theworld with devastating results. Death tolls were enor-mous: in Russia, 450,000; in India, at least 6,000,000;in the United States, 550,000. It has been estimatedthat 22 million people, or more than twice the number of people killed in World War I, died from the great flu epidemic between 1918 and 1919.

Flu victim

Using outside sources, research the medicaladvancements made since 1919 in treating andpreventing influenza viruses. Could another flu epi-demic occur today? Has the flu danger beenreplaced by other medical concerns?

A Weak League of Nations President WoodrowWilson had realized that the peace settlementincluded unwise provisions that could serve as newcauses for conflict. He had placed many of his hopesfor the future in the League of Nations. This organi-zation, however, was not very effective in maintain-ing the peace.

One problem was the failure of the United Statesto join the league. Most Americans did not wish to beinvolved in European affairs. The U.S. Senate,despite Wilson’s wishes, refused to ratify, or approve,the Treaty of Versailles. That meant the United Statescould not be a member of the League of Nations,which automatically weakened the organization’seffectiveness. As time would prove, the remainingLeague members could not agree to use force againstaggression.

French Demands Between 1919 and 1924, desirefor security led the French government to demandstrict enforcement of the Treaty of Versailles. Thistough policy toward Germany began with the issueof reparations, which were the payments that theGermans were supposed to make for the damagethey had done in the war.

In April 1921, the Allied Reparations Commis-sion determined that Germany owed 132 billionGerman marks (33 billion U.S. dollars) for repara-tions, payable in annual installments of 2.5 billionmarks. The new German republic made its firstpayment in 1921.

By the following year, how-ever, the German government,faced with financial problems,announced that it was unable topay any more. France was out-raged and sent troops to occupythe Ruhr Valley, Germany’s chiefindustrial and mining center.France planned to collect repara-tions by operating and using theRuhr mines and factories.

Inflation in Germany The German governmentadopted a policy of passive resistance to French occu-pation. German workers went on strike, and the gov-ernment mainly paid their salaries by printing morepaper money. This only added to the inflation (rise inprices) that had already begun in Germany by theend of the war.

�

GERMANY

NorthSea

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Ruhr River

written by U.S. secretary of state Frank B. Kellogg andFrench foreign minister Aristide Briand. These nationspledged “to renounce war as an instrument of nationalpolicy.” Nothing was said, however, about whatwould be done if anyone violated the pact.

Unfortunately, the spirit of Locarno was based onlittle real substance. Promises not to go to war wereworthless without a way to enforce these promises.Furthermore, not even the spirit of Locarno couldconvince nations to cut back on their weapons. TheLeague of Nations Covenant had suggested that

The German mark soonbecame worthless. In 1914,4.2 marks equaled 1 U.S.dollar. By November 1,1923, it took 130 billionmarks to equal 1 dollar. Bythe end of November, theratio had increased to anincredible 4.2 trillion marksto 1 dollar.

Evidence of runawayinflation was everywhere.Workers used wheelbar-rows to carry home theirweekly pay. One womanleft a basket of money out-side while she went into astore. When she came out,the money was there, butthe basket had been stolen.

Economic adversity ledto political upheavals, andboth France and Germanybegan to seek a way out ofthe disaster. In August1924, an international commission produced a newplan for reparations. The Dawes Plan, named afterthe American banker who chaired the commission,first reduced reparations. It then coordinated Ger-many’s annual payments with its ability to pay.

The Dawes Plan also granted an initial $200 mil-lion loan for German recovery. This loan soonopened the door to heavy American investment inEurope. A brief period of European prosperity fol-lowed, but it only lasted from 1924 to 1929.

The Treaty of Locarno With prosperity came anew European diplomacy. A spirit of cooperationwas fostered by the foreign ministers of Germanyand France, Gustav Stresemann and Aristide Briand.In 1925, they signed the Treaty of Locarno, whichguaranteed Germany’s new western borders withFrance and Belgium.

The Locarno pact was viewed by many as thebeginning of a new era of European peace. On theday after the pact was concluded, the headlines in TheNew York Times read “France and Germany Ban WarForever.” The London Times declared “Peace at Last.”

The new spirit of cooperation grew even strongerwhen Germany joined the League of Nations in March1926. Two years later, the Kellogg-Briand pact broughteven more hope. Sixty-three nations signed this accord

535CHAPTER 17 The West Between the Wars

Territory administeredby the League of Nations

Territories administeredby the League of Nations

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Europe, 1923

The new nationalism, as reflected by the European politicalmap of the 1920s, did not solve Europe’s problems after the war.

1. Interpreting Maps Compare the map above to themap of Europe before World War I on page 500. List allthe countries shown on this map that are not shown onthe earlier map. What does your list tell you about thepolitical results of World War I?

2. Applying Geography Skills Again, compare the mapabove to the one on page 500. Create a two-columntable. Label one column Changed Boundaries, and theother Unchanged Boundaries. List countries under theappropriate column.

536 CHAPTER 17 The West Between the Wars

nations reduce their military forces to make war lessprobable. Germany, of course, had been forced toreduce its military forces. At the time, it was thoughtthat other states would later do the same. However,states were simply unwilling to trust their security toanyone but their own military forces.

Explaining Why was the League ofNations unable to maintain peace?

The Great DepressionIn this section, you will learn how

Western nations suffered a major economic collapse inthe 1930s. This collapse, called the Great Depression,devastated morale, led to extremist political parties,and created the conditions for World War II.The brief period of prosperity that began in

Europe in 1924 ended in an economic collapse thatcame to be known as the Great Depression. A depres-sion is a period of low economic activity and risingunemployment.

Causes of the Depression Two factors played a major role in the start of the Great Depression. One important factor was a series of downturns inthe economies of individual nations in the secondhalf of the 1920s. By the mid-1920s, for example,prices for farm products, especially wheat, werefalling rapidly because of overproduction.

The second factor in the coming of the GreatDepression was an international financial crisisinvolving the U.S. stock market. We have seen that

Reading Check

much of the European prosperity between 1924 and1929 was built on U.S. bank loans to Germany. Ger-many needed the U.S. loans to pay reparations toFrance and Great Britain.

During the 1920s, the U.S. stock market wasbooming. By 1928, American investors had begun topull money out of Germany to invest it in the stockmarket. Then, in October 1929, the U.S. stock marketcrashed, and the prices of stocks plunged.

In a panic, U.S. investors withdrew even morefunds from Germany and other European markets.This withdrawal weakened the banks of Germanyand other European states. The Credit-Anstalt,Vienna’s most famous bank, collapsed in May 1931.Other banks soon followed, industrial productiondeclined, and unemployment rose.

Responses to the Depression Economic depres-sion was by no means new to Europe. However, theextent of the economic downturn after 1929 trulymade this the Great Depression. During 1932, theworst year of the depression, one British worker inevery four was unemployed. Six million Germans, or40 percent of the German labor force, were out ofwork at the same time. The unemployed and home-less filled the streets.

Governments did not know how to deal with thecrisis. They tried a traditional solution of cuttingcosts by lowering wages and raising protective tariffsto exclude foreign goods from home markets. Thesemeasures made the economic crisis worse, however,and had serious political effects.

One effect of the economic crisis wasincreased government activity in the econ-omy. This occurred even in countries that,like the United States, had a strong laissez-faire tradition—a belief that the govern-ment should not interfere in the economy.

Another effect was a renewed interest inMarxist doctrines. Marx’s prediction thatcapitalism would destroy itself throughoverproduction seemed to be coming true.Communism thus became more popular,especially among workers and intellectuals.

Finally, the Great Depression led massesof people to follow political leaders whooffered simple solutions in return for dicta-torial power. Everywhere, democracyseemed on the defensive in the 1930s.

Summarizing What werethe results of the Great Depression?

Reading Check

Economic downturns led to labor unrest in many countries.

Democratic States after the WarPresident Woodrow Wilson had claimed that the

war had been fought to make the world safe fordemocracy. In 1919, his claim seemed justified. Mostmajor European states and many minor ones haddemocratic governments.

In a number of states, women could now vote.Male political leaders had rewarded women for theircontributions to the war effort by granting them voting rights. (Exceptions were France, Italy, andSwitzerland. Women gained the right to vote in 1944in France, 1945 in Italy, and 1971 in Switzerland.)

In the 1920s, Europe seemed to be returning to thepolitical trends of the prewar era—parliamentaryregimes and the growth of individual liberties. Thiswas not, however, an easy process. Four years of totalwar and four years of postwar turmoil made a“return to normalcy” difficult.

Germany The Imperial Germany of William II hadcome to an end in 1918 with Germany’s defeat in thewar. A German democratic state known as theWeimar (VY•MAHR) Republic was then created. TheWeimar Republic was plagued by problems.

For one thing, the republic had no truly outstand-ing political leaders. In 1925, Paul von Hindenburg, aWorld War I military hero, was elected president atthe age of 77. Hindenburg was a traditional militaryman who did not fully endorse the republic he hadbeen elected to serve.

The Weimar Republic also faced serious economicproblems. As we have seen, Germany experiencedrunaway inflation in 1922 and 1923. With it cameserious social problems. Widows, teachers, civil ser-vants, and others who lived on fixed incomes allwatched their monthly incomes become worthless,or their life savings disappear. These losses increas-ingly pushed the middle class toward political par-ties that were hostile to the republic.

To make matters worse, after a period of relativeprosperity from 1924 to 1929, Germany was struck bythe Great Depression. In 1930, unemployment hadgrown to 3 million people by March and to 4.38 mil-lion by December. The depression paved the way forfear and the rise of extremist parties.

France After the defeat of Germany, France becamethe strongest power on the European continent. Itsgreatest need was to rebuild the areas that had beendevastated in the war. However, France, too, sufferedfinancial problems after the war.


This German woman is using her worthless money to start a firein her kitchen stove.

Because it had a more balanced economy thanother nations, France did not begin to feel the fulleffects of the Great Depression until 1932. The eco-nomic instability it then suffered soon had politicaleffects. During a nineteen-month period in 1932 and1933, six different cabinets were formed as Francefaced political chaos. Finally, in June 1936, a coalitionof leftist parties—Communists, Socialists, and Radi-cals—formed the Popular Front government.

The Popular Front started a program for workersthat some have called the French New Deal. This pro-gram was named after the New Deal in the UnitedStates (discussed later in this section). The French NewDeal gave workers the right to collective bargaining(the right of unions to negotiate with employers overwages and hours), a 40-hour workweek in industry, atwo-week paid vacation, and a minimum wage.

The Popular Front’s policies, however, failed tosolve the problems of the depression. By 1938, theFrench had little confidence in their political system.

Great Britain During the war, Britain had lost manyof the markets for its industrial products to the United

States and Japan. Such industries as coal, steel, andtextiles declined after the war, leading to a rise inunemployment. In 1921, 2 million Britons were out ofwork. Britain soon rebounded, however, and experi-enced limited prosperity from 1925 to 1929.

By 1929, Britain faced the growing effects of theGreat Depression. The Labour Party, which hadbecome the largest party in Britain, failed to solvethe nation’s economic problems and fell from powerin 1931. A new government, led by the Conserva-tives, claimed credit for bringing Britain out of theworst stages of the depression. It did so by using thetraditional policies of balanced budgets and protec-tive tariffs.

Political leaders inBritain largely ignored thenew ideas of a British econ-omist, John MaynardKeynes, who published hisGeneral Theory of Employ-ment, Interest, and Money in1936. He condemned theold theory that, in a freeeconomy, depressionsshould be left to resolvethemselves without gov-ernmental interference.

Keynes argued that unemployment came not fromoverproduction, but from a decline in demand.Demand, in turn, could be increased by putting peo-ple back to work building highways and publicbuildings. The government should finance such proj-ects even if it had to engage in deficit spending, orhad to go into debt.


Checking for Understanding1. Define depression, collective

bargaining, deficit spending.

2. Identify Dawes Plan, Treaty ofLocarno, John Maynard Keynes,Weimar Republic, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, New Deal.

3. Locate Ruhr Valley, Switzerland.

4. Summarize the intent of the Rooseveltadministration’s New Deal.

5. List the provisions of the Dawes Plan.

Critical Thinking6. Evaluate Determine the validity of the

following quotation: “Promises not togo to war were worthless without away to enforce these promises.”

7. Cause and Effect Use a diagram likethe one below to list the causes of theGreat Depression.

Analyzing Visuals8. Examine the photograph on page 537.

How would you survive if currencybecame worthless? Who would be atan advantage?

9. Informative Writing Research andwrite an essay that explains how theGreat Depression caused extremistpolitical parties to emerge through-out the world. Identify which partiesare still active in the United States.

Great Depression

The United States After Germany, no Westernnation was more affected by the Great Depressionthan the United States. By 1932, U.S. industrial produc-tion had fallen almost 50 percent from its 1929 level. By1933, there were more than 12 million unemployed.

Under these circumstances, the DemocratFranklin Delano Roosevelt was able to win a land-slide victory in the 1932 presidential election. Abeliever in free enterprise, Roosevelt realized thatcapitalism had to be reformed if it was to be “saved.”He pursued a policy of active government interven-tion in the economy known as the New Deal.

The New Deal included an increased program ofpublic works, including the Works Progress Admin-istration (WPA). The WPA, established in 1935, was agovernment organization that employed about 3 mil-lion people at its peak. They worked at buildingbridges, roads, post offices, and airports.

The Roosevelt administration was also responsiblefor new social legislation that began the U.S. welfaresystem. In 1935, the Social Security Act created a system of old-age pensions and unemployment insurance.

The New Deal provided reforms that perhaps pre-vented a social revolution in the United States. How-ever, it did not solve the unemployment problems ofthe Great Depression. In 1938, American unemploy-ment still stood at more than 10 million. Only WorldWar II and the growth of weapons industries broughtU.S. workers back to full employment.

Explaining What did John MaynardKeynes think would resolve the Great Depression?

Reading Check

John Maynard Keynes

Analyzing Political CartoonsWhy Learn This Skill?

What is your favorite comic strip? Why do youread it? Many people enjoy comics because they use interesting or amusing visuals to convey a storyor idea.

Cartoons do not only appear in the newspaper’sfunny pages. They are also in the editorial section,where they give opinions on political issues. Politi-cal cartoons have been around for centuries and aregood historical sources because they reflect the pop-ular views on current affairs.

Learning the SkillUsing caricature and symbols, political

cartoonists help readers see relationshipsand draw conclusions about events. A cari-cature exaggerates a detail such as a sub-ject’s features. Cartoonists use caricature tocreate a positive or negative impression. Forexample, if a cartoon shows one figure threetimes larger than another, it implies that onefigure is more powerful than the other.

A symbol is an image or object that repre-sents something else. For example, a car-toonist may use a crown to representmonarchy. Symbols often represent nationsor political parties. Uncle Sam is a commonsymbol for the United States.

To analyze a political cartoon:

• Examine the cartoon thoroughly.

• Identify the topic and principal characters.

• Read labels and messages.

• Note relationships between the figures andsymbols.

• Determine what point the cartoon is making.

Practicing the SkillIn the next section of this chapter, you will be

reading about several dictators who rose to powerin Europe in the years following World War I.

The political cartoon on this page, published in1938, makes a statement about these dictators andthe reaction of the Western democracies towardthem. Study the cartoon and then answer thesequestions.

1 What do the figures represent?

2 Why is the standing figure so large?

3 What is the standing figure holding and what isit attached to?

4 What is the sitting figure doing?

5 What is the message of the cartoon?

539

Applying the Skill

Choose a current issue on which you hold a strong opin-ion. Draw a political cartoon expressing your opinion onthis issue. Show it to a friend to find out if the messageis clear. If not, revise the cartoon to clarify its point.

Glencoe’s Skillbuilder Interactive Workbook,Level 2, provides instruction and practice in keysocial studies skills.

David Low, London Evening Standard

WOULD YOU OBLIGE ME WITH A MATCH PLEASE?

1919Mussolini creates the Fascio di Combattimento

1924Lenin dies

1928Stalin launches hisFirst Five-Year Plan

1929Mussolini recognizes independence of Vatican City

Guide to Reading

The Rise of Dictatorial Regimes

Preview of Events

1939The SpanishCivil War ends

✦1920 ✦1925 ✦1930 ✦1935 ✦1940

In 1932, Benito Mussolini, the dictator of Italy, published a statement of his move-ment’s principles:

“Anti-individualistic, the Fascist conception of life stresses the importance of theState and accepts the individual only in so far as his interests coincide with those of theState. . . . The Fascist conception of the State is all-embracing; outside of it no humanor spiritual values can exist. Thus understood, fascism is totalitarian, and the FascistState . . . interprets, develops, and potentiates [makes effective] the whole life of a people . . . fascism does not, generally speaking, believe in the possibility or utility ofperpetual peace. . . . War alone keys up all human energies to their maximum tensionand sets the seal of nobility on those people who have the courage to face it.”

—Benito Mussolini, “The Doctrine of Fascism,” Italian Fascisms,Adrian Lyttleton, ed., 1973

These were the principles of the movement Mussolini called fascism.

The Rise of DictatorsThe apparent triumph of democracy in Europe in 1919 was extremely short-

lived. By 1939, only two major European states—France and Great Britain—remained democratic. Italy, the Soviet Union, Germany, and many other Europeanstates adopted dictatorial regimes. These regimes took both old and new forms.


Main Ideas• Mussolini established a modern totali-

tarian state in Italy.• As leader of the Soviet Union, Stalin

eliminated people who threatened hispower.

Key Termstotalitarian state, fascism, New EconomicPolicy, Politburo, collectivization

People to IdentifyBenito Mussolini, Joseph Stalin, Francisco Franco

Places to LocateRussia, Madrid

Preview Questions1. To what extent was Fascist Italy a

totalitarian state? 2. How did Joseph Stalin establish a

totalitarian regime in the SovietUnion?

Reading StrategyCategorizing Information Use a webdiagram like the one below to list meth-ods used by Mussolini to create a Fascistdictatorship.


Methods usedby Mussolini

Benito Mussolini


A new form of dictatorship was the modern total-itarian state. A totalitarian state is a government thataims to control the political, economic, social, intel-lectual, and cultural lives of its citizens. New totali-tarian regimes pushed the power of the central statefar beyond what it had been in the past.

These totalitarian states wanted more than passiveobedience. They wanted to conquer the minds andhearts of their subjects. They achieved this goalthrough mass propaganda techniques and high-speedmodern communication. Modern technology alsoprovided totalitarian states with an unprecedentedability to impose their wishes on their subjects.

The totalitarian states that emerged were led by asingle leader and a single party. They rejected theideal of limited government power and the guaran-tee of individual freedoms. Instead, individual free-dom was subordinated to the collective will of themasses. This collective will of the masses, however,was organized and determined by the leader. Thetotalitarian state expected the active involvement ofthe masses in the achievement of its goals, whetherthose goals included war, a socialist state, or athousand-year empire like the one Adolf Hitlerwanted to establish.

Summarizing What is the goal of atotalitarian state?

Fascism in ItalyIn the early 1920s, Benito Mussolini (MOO•suh•

LEE•nee) established the first European fascistmovement in Italy. Mussolini began his politicalcareer as a Socialist. In 1919, he created a new politi-cal group, the Fascio di Combattimento, or League ofCombat. The term fascism is derived from that name.

As a political philosophy, fascism (FA•SHIH•zuhm) glorifies the state above the individual byemphasizing the need for a strong central govern-ment led by a dictatorial ruler. In a fascist state, peo-ple are controlled by the government, and anyopposition is suppressed.

Rise of Fascism Like other European countries,Italy experienced severe economic problems afterWorld War I. Inflation grew, and both industrial andagricultural workers staged strikes. Socialists spokeof revolution. The middle class began to fear a Com-munist takeover like the one that had recentlyoccurred in Russia. Industrial and agriculturalstrikes created more division. Mussolini emergedfrom this background of widespread unrest.

Reading Check

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Politics ofEurope, 1930s

Many European countries adopted dictatorial regimes tosolve their problems in the 1920s and 1930s.

1. Interpreting Maps Which countries shown on themap above are Fascist? Which are authoritarian? Whichare democratic states?

2. Applying Geography Skills Pose and answer a question that creates a comparison between a country’spolitical status as shown on this map and the side thatcountry fought on in World War I.

AuthoritarianDemocraticFascist

In 1920 and 1921, Mussolini formed bands ofblack-shirted, armed Fascists called squadristi orBlackshirts. These bands attacked socialist officesand newspapers. They also used violence to break upstrikes. Both middle-class industrialists who fearedworking-class strikes and large landowners whoobjected to agricultural strikes began to supportMussolini’s Fascist movement.

By 1922, Mussolini’s movement was growingquickly. The middle-class fear of socialism, commu-nism, and disorder made the Fascists increasinglyattractive to many people. In addition, Mussolinirealized that the Italian people were angry overItaly’s failure to receive more land in the peace settle-ment that followed the war. He understood thatnationalism was a powerful force. Thus, hedemanded more land for Italy and won thousands ofconverts to fascism with his patriotic and nationalis-tic appeals.

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In 1922, Mussolini and the Fascists threatened tomarch on Rome if they were not given power. Mus-solini exclaimed, “Either we are allowed to govern, orwe will seize power.” Victor Emmanuel III, the king ofItaly, gave in and made Mussolini prime minister.

Mussolini used his position as prime minister tocreate a Fascist dictatorship. New laws gave the gov-ernment the right to suspend any publications thatcriticized the Catholic Church, the monarchy, or thestate. The prime minister was made head of the gov-ernment with the power to make laws by decree. Thepolice were given unrestricted authority to arrest andjail anyone for either nonpolitical or political crimes.

In 1926, the Fascists outlawed all other politicalparties in Italy and established a secret police,known as the OVRA. By the end of the year, Mus-solini ruled Italy as Il Duce (eel DOO•chay), “TheLeader.”

The Fascist State Since Mussolini believed that theFascist state should be totalitarian, he used variousmeans to establish complete control over the Italianpeople. As we have seen, Mussolini created a secretpolice force, the OVRA, whose purpose was to watchcitizens’ political activities and enforce governmentpolicies. Police actions in Italy, however, were neveras repressive or savage as those in Nazi Germany(discussed later in this chapter).

The Italian Fascists also tried to exercise controlover all forms of mass media, including newspapers,

radio, and film. The media was used to spread prop-aganda. Propaganda was intended to mold Italiansinto a single-minded Fascist community. Most ItalianFascist propaganda, however, was fairly unsophisti-cated and mainly consisted of simple slogans like“Mussolini Is Always Right.”

The Fascists also used organizations to promotethe ideals of fascism and to control the population.For example, by 1939, Fascist youth groups includedabout 66 percent of the population between the agesof 8 and 18. These youth groups particularly focusedon military activities and values.

With these organizations, the Fascists hoped tocreate a nation of new Italians who were fit, disci-plined, and war-loving. In practice, however, theFascists largely maintained traditional social atti-tudes. This is especially evident in their policiesregarding women. The Fascists portrayed the familyas the pillar of the state and women as the foundationof the family. Women were to be homemakers andmothers, which was “their natural and fundamentalmission in life,” according to Mussolini.

Despite his attempts, Mussolini never achievedthe degree of totalitarian control seen in Hitler’s Ger-many or Stalin’s Soviet Union (discussed later in thischapter). The Italian Fascist Party did not completelydestroy the country’s old power structure. Someinstitutions, including the armed forces, were notabsorbed into the Fascist state but managed to keepmost of their independence. Victor Emmanuel wasalso retained as king.

Mussolini’s compromise with the traditional insti-tutions of Italy was especially evident in his relation-ship with the Catholic Church. In the Lateran Accordsof February 1929, Mussolini’s regime recognized thesovereign independence of a small area within Romeknown as Vatican City. The church had claimed thisarea since 1870. When Mussolini formally recognizedthat claim, the pope then recognized the Italian state.

Mussolini’s regime also gave the Church a largegrant of money and recog-nized Catholicism as the“sole religion of the state.”In return, the CatholicChurch urged Italians tosupport the Fascist regime.

In all areas of Italianlife under Mussolini and the Fascists, there was alarge gap between Fascistideals and practices. TheItalian Fascists promised


Benito Mussolini 1883–1945—Italian dictator

Benito Mussolini was the founder of the firstFascist movement. He was an unruly and rebel-lious child who was expelled from school oncefor stabbing a fellow pupil. Ultimately, hereceived a diploma and worked for a shorttime as an elementary school teacher.

Mussolini became a Socialist and gradu-ally became well known in Italian Socialist circles.In 1912, he obtained the important position of editor ofAvanti (Forward), the official Socialist daily newspaper.

After being expelled from the Socialist Party, heformed his own political movement, the Fascist move-ment. When the Fascists did poorly in the Italian electionof November 1919, Mussolini said that fascism had“come to a dead end.” He then toyed with the idea ofemigrating to the United States to become a journalist.

HISTORY

Web Activity Visit theGlencoe World History—Modern Times Web site at and click on Chapter 17–Student Web Activity to learn more about therise of fascism.

wh.mt.glencoe.com



Joseph Stalin 1879–1953—Soviet dictator

Joseph Stalin established a strongpersonal dictatorship over the SovietUnion. He joined the Bolsheviks in1903 and came to Lenin’s attentionafter staging a daring bank robbery toget funds for the Bolshevik cause. His reallast name was Dzhugashvili, but he adoptedthe name Stalin, which means “man of steel.”

Stalin was neither a dynamic speaker nor a forcefulwriter. He was a good organizer, however. His fellowBolsheviks called him “Comrade Index-Card.”

Like Hitler, Stalin was one of the greatest mass mur-derers in human history. It is estimated that his policiesand his deliberate executions led to the death of as manyas 25 million people. At the time of his death in 1953, hewas planning yet another purge of party members.

much but delivered considerably less. They wouldsoon be overshadowed by a much more powerfulFascist movement to the north—that of Adolf Hitler,a student and admirer of Mussolini.

Examining How did Mussolini gainpower in Italy?

A New Era in the Soviet UnionAs we have seen, Lenin followed a policy of war

communism during the civil war in Russia. The gov-ernment controlled most industries and seized grainfrom peasants to ensure supplies for the army.

Once the war was over, peasants began to sabo-tage the communist program by hoarding food. Thesituation became even worse when drought caused a great famine between 1920 and 1922. As many as 5 million lives were lost. With agricultural disastercame industrial collapse. By 1921, industrial outputwas only 20 percent of its 1913 level.

Russia was exhausted. A peasant banner pro-claimed, “Down with Lenin and horseflesh. Bringback the czar and pork.” As Leon Trotsky said, “Thecountry, and the government with it, were at the veryedge of the abyss.”

Lenin’s New Economic Policy In March 1921,Lenin pulled Russia back from the abyss. He aban-doned war communism in favor of his New Eco-nomic Policy (NEP). The NEP was a modifiedversion of the old capitalist system. Peasants wereallowed to sell their produce openly. Retail stores, aswell as small industries that employed fewer than 20workers, could be privately owned and operated.Heavy industry, banking, and mines, however,remained in the hands of the government.

In 1922, Lenin and the Communists formally created a new state called the Union of SovietSocialist Republics, which is also known as theUSSR (by its initials), or as the Soviet Union (by itsshortened form). By that time, a revived market anda good harvest had brought an end to famine. Sovietagricultural production climbed to 75 percent of itsprewar level.

Overall, the NEP saved the Soviet Union fromcomplete economic disaster. Lenin and other leadingCommunists, however, only intended the NEP to bea temporary retreat from the goals of communism.

The Rise of Stalin Lenin died in 1924. A strugglefor power began at once among the seven membersof the Politburo (PAH•luht•BYOOR•OH)—a commit-

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tee that had become the leading policy-making bodyof the Communist Party. The Politburo was severelydivided over the future direction of the Soviet Union.

One group, led by Leon Trotsky, wanted to end theNEP and launch Russia on a path of rapid industrial-ization, chiefly at the expense of the peasants. Thisgroup also wanted to spread communism abroadand believed that the revolution in Russia would notsurvive without other communist states.

Another group in the Politburo rejected the idea ofworldwide communist revolution. Instead, it wantedto focus on building a socialist state in Russia and tocontinue Lenin’s NEP. This group believed that rapidindustrialization would harm the living standards ofthe Soviet peasants.

These divisions were underscored by an intensepersonal rivalry between Leon Trotsky and anotherPolitburo member, Joseph Stalin. In 1924, Trotskyheld the post of commissar of war. Stalin held thebureaucratic job of party general secretary. Becausethe general secretary appointed regional, district, city,and town party officials, this bureaucratic job actuallybecame the most important position in the party.

Stalin used his post as general secretary to gaincomplete control of the Communist Party. The thou-sands of officials Stalin appointed provided him withsupport in his bid for power. By 1929, Stalin hadeliminated from the Politburo the Bolsheviks of therevolutionary era and had established a powerfuland

dictatorship. Trotsky, expelled from the party in 1927,eventually made his way to Mexico, where he wasmurdered in 1940, probably on Stalin’s orders.

Five-Year Plans The Stalinist Era marked thebeginning of an economic, social, and political revo-lution that was more sweeping in its results than werethe revolutions of 1917. Stalin made a significant shiftin economic policy in 1928 when he ended the NEPand launched his First Five-Year Plan. The Five-YearPlans set economic goals for five-year periods. Theirpurpose was to transform Russia virtually overnightfrom an agricultural into an industrial country.

The First Five-Year Plan emphasized maximumproduction of capital goods (goods devoted to theproduction of other goods, such as heavy machines)and armaments. The plan quadrupled the produc-tion of heavy machinery and doubled oil produc-tion. Between 1928 and 1937, during the first twoFive-Year Plans, steel production in Russia increased

from 4 million to 18 million tons (3.628 to 16.326 mil-lion t) per year.

The social and political costs of industrializationwere enormous. Little provision was made for caringfor the expanded labor force in the cities. The numberof workers increased by millions between 1932 and1940, but total investment in housing actuallydeclined after 1929. The result was that millions ofworkers and their families lived in pitiful conditions.Real wages in industry also declined by 43 percentbetween 1928 and 1940. Strict laws even limitedwhere workers could move. To keep workers con-tent, government propaganda stressed the need forsacrifice to create the new socialist state.


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The period from the beginning of World War I to the begin-ning of World War II was one of dramatic change in Russia.

1. Interpreting Maps From Moscow, in which directionwould you go to find the Soviet Union’s most produc-tive farming area: northeast, southwest, northwest, orsoutheast?

2. Applying Geography Skills Identify a particular areaof the Soviet Union as shown on the map and explainwhy that area would have been of particular interest toStalin during his First Five-Year Plan.

� Soviet propaganda poster

Soviet Union, 1914–1938

Western border of Russia, 1914Bolshevik-controlled area, 1919Union of Soviet Socialist Republics(USSR), 1938Main area of collective farmsIron and steel productionLabor camp

With rapid industrialization came an equallyrapid collectivization of agriculture. Collectivizationwas a system in which private farms were elimi-nated. Instead, the government owned all of the landwhile the peasants worked it.

Strong resistance to Stalin’s plans came from peas-ants, who responded by hoarding crops and killinglivestock. However, these actions only led Stalin to step up the program. By 1930, 10 million peas-ant households had been collectivized. By 1934, 26 million family farms had been collectivized into 250,000 units.

Costs of Stalin’s Programs Collectivization wasdone at tremendous cost. The hoarding of food andthe slaughter of livestock produced widespreadfamine. Stalin himself is supposed to have said that 10million peasants died in the famines of 1932 and 1933.The only concession Stalin made to the peasants wasthat each collective farm worker was allowed to haveone tiny, privately owned garden plot.

Stalin’s programs had other costs as well. Toachieve his goals, Stalin strengthened his control overthe party bureaucracy. Those who resisted were sentinto forced labor camps in Siberia.

Stalin’s desire to make all decisions by himself alsoled to the Great Purge of the 1930s. First to beremoved were the Old Bolsheviks—those who hadbeen involved in the early days of the movement.


Trotsky had succeeded Lenin?Lenin’s death in 1924 caused a bitter political

struggle to determine his successor. Although hehad no influence over the final outcome, Lenin’stestament, written in December 1922, predicted asplit between Trotsky and Stalin. In his testament,read to delegates at the Thirteenth Congress, Leninadvised removing Stalin from his post as generalsecretary to prevent a power struggle.

Consider the Consequences Consider whatwould have happened if Stalin had not main-tained his position of influence and had lost toTrotsky. Research Trotsky’s beliefs, then write ashort essay describing the direction the SovietUnion would have taken under his leadership.

Between 1936 and 1938, the most prominent Old Bol-sheviks were put on trial and condemned to death.

During this same time, Stalin purged army offi-cers, diplomats, union officials, party members, intel-lectuals, and numerous ordinary citizens. Anestimated eight million Russians were arrested. Mil-lions were sent to forced labor camps in Siberia, fromwhich they never returned. Others were executed.

The Stalin Era also overturned much of the per-missive social legislation that was enacted in theearly 1920s. To promote equal rights for women, theCommunists had made the divorce process easierand they had also encouraged women to work out-side the home. After Stalin came to power, the familywas praised as a small collective in which parentswere responsible for teaching the values of hardwork, duty, and discipline to their children. Divorcedfathers who did not support their children wereheavily fined.

Summarizing What was Lenin’sNew Economic Policy?

Authoritarian States in the WestA number of governments in the Western world

were not totalitarian but were authoritarian. Thesestates adopted some of the features of totalitarianstates, in particular, their use of police powers. How-ever, the main concern of these authoritarian govern-ments was not to create a new kind of mass society,but to preserve the existing social order.

Eastern Europe Some of these governments werefound among the new states of eastern Europe. Atfirst, it seemed that political democracy wouldbecome well established in eastern Europe after thewar. Austria, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia(known as the kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, andSlovenes until 1929), Romania, Bulgaria, and Hungary all adopted parliamentary systems. How-ever, most of these systems were soon replaced byauthoritarian regimes.

Parliamentary systems failed in most easternEuropean states for several reasons. These states had little tradition of political democracy. In addi-tion, they were mostly rural and agrarian. Many ofthe peasants were illiterate, and much of the landwas still dominated by large landowners who feared the peasants. Ethnic conflicts also threatened these countries.

Powerful landowners, the churches, and evensome members of the small middle class feared land

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in April 1937 was immortalized in a painting by theSpanish artist Pablo Picasso.

The Spanish republican government was aided by forty thousand foreign volunteers and by trucks,planes, tanks, and military advisers from the Soviet Union.

The Spanish Civil War came to an end whenFranco’s forces captured Madrid in 1939. Francoestablished a dictatorship that favored largelandowners, businesspeople, and the Catholic clergy.Because it favored traditional groups and did not tryto control every aspect of people’s lives, Franco’s dic-tatorship is an example of a regime that was authori-tarian rather than totalitarian.

Explaining How did Czechoslovakiamaintain its political democracy?

Reading Check


Checking for Understanding1. Define totalitarian state, fascism,

New Economic Policy, Politburo, collectivization.

2. Identify Benito Mussolini, JosephStalin, Five-Year Plan, Francisco Franco.

3. Locate Russia, Madrid.

4. Explain how Stalin gained control ofthe Communist Party after Lenin died.

5. List the countries that participated inthe Spanish Civil War.

Critical Thinking6. Evaluate What was the major purpose

of the Five-Year Plans during the 1920sand 1930s in the Soviet Union?

7. Organizing Information Use a dia-gram like the one below to identifyways in which Stalin changed the SovietUnion. Include the economic, social,and political results of his programs.

Analyzing Visuals8. Contrast the above painting with the

rally photo on page 531. Both imagesmake political statements about warand militarism. How do they differ?How are they similar? Which makes the strongest statement?

History through Art

Guernica by Pablo Picasso, 1937This famous painting is a strong anti-war statement. What do the imagessay about the realities of war?

9. Persuasive Writing What were thepros and cons of Mussolini’s rule? Inan essay, argue whether or not Mus-solini was good for Italy. Conductresearch to support your positionand base your statements on fact.

How Stalin Changed the Soviet Union

reform, communist upheaval, and ethnic conflict. Forthis reason these groups looked to authoritarian gov-ernments to maintain the old system. Only Czecho-slovakia, which had a large middle class, a liberaltradition, and a strong industrial base, maintained its political democracy.

Spain In Spain, too, political democracy failed tosurvive. Led by General Francisco Franco, Spanishmilitary forces revolted against the democratic gov-ernment in 1936. A brutal and bloody civil war began.

Foreign intervention complicated the SpanishCivil War. The Fascist regimes of Italy and Germanyaided Franco’s forces with arms, money, and men.Hitler used the Spanish Civil War as an opportunityto test the new weapons of his revived air force. Thehorrible destruction of Guernica by German bombers

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The Formation of Collective Farms THE COLLECTIVIZATION OF AGRICULTURE

transformed Russia’s 26 million family farms into250,000 collective farms (kolkhozes). In this first-hand account, we see how the process worked.

“General collectivization in our village was broughtabout in the following manner: Two representativesof the [Communist] Party arrived in the village. Allthe inhabitants were summoned by the ringing ofthe church bell to a meeting at which the policy ofgeneral collectivization was announced. . . . Althoughthe meeting lasted two days, from the viewpoint ofthe Party representatives, nothing was accomplished.

After this setback, two more officials were sent toreinforce the first two. A meeting of our section ofthe village was held in a stable which had previouslybelonged to a kulak [wealthy peasant farmer]. Themeeting dragged on until dark. Suddenly someonethrew a brick at the lamp, and in the dark the peas-ants began to beat the Party representatives whojumped out the window and escaped from the vil-lage barely alive. The following day seven peoplewere arrested. The militia was called in and stayedin the village until the peasants, realizing their help-lessness, calmed down. . . .

By the end of 1930 there were two kolkhozes inour village. Though at first these collectivesembraced at most only 70 percent of the peasanthouseholds, in the months that followed they grad-ually absorbed more and more of them.

In these kolkhozes the great bulk of the land washeld and worked communally, but each peasanthousehold owned a house of some sort, a smallplot of ground and perhaps some livestock. All themembers of the kolkhoz were required to work onthe kolkhoz a certain number of days each month;the rest of the time they were allowed to work ontheir own holdings. They derived their income partlyfrom what they grew on their garden strips andpartly from their work in the kolkhoz.

When the harvest was over, and after the farmhad met its obligations to the state and to various

special funds and had sold on the market whateverundesignated produce was left, the remaining pro-duce and the farm’s monetary income were dividedamong the kolkhoz members according to the num-ber of ‘labor days’ each one had contributed to thefarm’s work. . . . After they had received their earn-ings, one of them remarked, ‘You will live, but youwill be very, very thin. . . .‘ By late 1932 more than80 percent of the peasant households had been collectivized.”

—Max Belov, The History of a Collective Farm

Russian peasants using scythes to harvest grain

Analyzing Primary Sources

1. Why did the peasants resist the collective farms?2. How would you characterize the writer’s description

of the collectivization process in his vil-lage? Was he fair and objective; or, doyou think that he reveals a bias eitherfor or against the process? Explain andsupport your answer using excerptsfrom his description.

1889Hitler is born

1921Hitler takes control of the NationalSocialist German Workers’ Party

1933Reichstag passesEnabling Act

1935Nazis enactNuremberg laws

Guide to Reading

Hitler and Nazi Germany

Preview of Events

1938The Kristallnachtoccurs

✦1880 ✦1890 ✦1900 ✦1910 ✦1920 ✦1930 ✦1940

In September 1936, Adolf Hitler spoke to a mass rally in the city of Nuremberg:

“Do we not feel once again in this hour the miracle that brought us together? Onceyou heard the voice of a man, and it struck deep into your hearts; it awakened you,and you followed this voice. . . . When we meet each other here, the wonder of ourcoming together fills us all. Not everyone of you sees me, and I do not see everyone of you. But I feel you, and you feel me. It is the belief in our people that has made ussmall men great, that has made brave and courageous men out of us wavering, timidfolk; this belief . . . joined us together into one whole! . . . You come, that you may,once in a while, gain the feeling that now we are together; we are with him and hewith us, and we are now Germany!”

—The Speeches of Adolf Hitler, Norman Baynes, ed., 1942

Hitler worked to create an emotional bond between himself and the German people.

Hitler and His ViewsAdolf Hitler was born in Austria on April 20, 1889. A failure in secondary

school, he eventually traveled to Vienna to become an artist but was rejected bythe Vienna Academy of Fine Arts. He stayed in the city, supported at first by aninheritance. While in Vienna, however, Hitler developed his basic ideas, which heheld for the rest of his life.


Main Ideas• Hitler and the Nazi Party established

a totalitarian state in Germany.• Many Germans accepted the Nazi dicta-

torship, while other Germans sufferedgreatly under Hitler’s rule.

Key TermsReichstag, concentration camp

People to IdentifyAdolf Hitler, Heinrich Himmler

Places to LocateMunich, Nuremberg

Preview Questions1. How did Adolf Hitler rise to power?2. What were the chief features of the

Nazi totalitarian state?3. How did the rise of Nazism affect

Germany?

Reading StrategyCategorizing Information Use a chartlike the one below to list anti-Semitic poli-cies enforced by the Nazi Party.


Anti-Semitic Policies

Adolf Hitler

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At the core of Hitler’s ideas was racism, especiallyanti-Semitism. Hitler was also an extreme nationalistwho understood how political parties could effec-tively use propaganda and terror. Finally, during hisViennese years, Hitler came to believe firmly in theneed for struggle, which he saw as the “granite foun-dation of the world.”

At the end of World War I, after four years of serv-ice on the Western Front, Hitler remained in Germanyand decided to enter politics. In 1919, he joined thelittle-known German Workers’ Party, one of severalright-wing extreme nationalist parties in Munich.

By the summer of 1921, Hitler had taken total con-trol of the party, which by then had been renamed the National Socialist German Workers’ Party(NSDAP), or Nazi for short. Within two years, partymembership had grown to 55,000 people, with 15,000in the party militia. The militia was variously knownas the SA, the Storm Troops, or the Brownshirts, afterthe color of their uniforms.

An overconfident Hitler staged an armed uprisingagainst the government in Munich in November1923. This uprising, called the Beer Hall Putsch, wasquickly crushed, and Hitler was sentenced to prison.During his brief stay in jail, Hitler wrote MeinKampf, or My Struggle, an account of his movementand its basic ideas.

In Mein Kampf, extreme German nationalism,strong anti-Semitism, and anticommunism are linkedtogether by a social Darwinian theory of struggle. Thistheory emphasizes the right of superior nations tolebensraum (LAY•buhnz•ROWM)—living space—

through expansion. It also upholds the right of supe-rior individuals to gain authoritarian leadership overthe masses.

Summarizing What main ideas doesHitler express in his book Mein Kampf?

Rise of NazismWhile he was in prison, Hitler realized that the

Nazis would have to attain power by legal means,and not by a violent overthrow of the Weimar Repub-lic. This meant that the Nazi Party would have to bea mass political party that could compete for voteswith the other political parties.

After his release from prison, Hitler expanded theNazi Party to all parts of Germany. By 1929, it had anational party organization. Three years later, it had800,000 members and had become the largest partyin the Reichstag—the German parliament.

No doubt, Germany’s economic difficulties were acrucial factor in the Nazi rise to power. Unemploy-ment had risen dramatically, growing from 4.35 mil-lion in 1931 to 6 million by the winter of 1932. Theeconomic and psychological impact of the GreatDepression made extremist parties more attractive.

Hitler promised to create a new Germany. Hisappeals to national pride, national honor, and tradi-tional militarism struck an emotional chord in his listeners. After attending one of Hitler’s rallies, aschoolteacher in Hamburg said, “When the speechwas over, there was roaring enthusiasm andapplause. . . . —How many look up to him with

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CHAPTER 17 The West Between the Wars

In Mein Kampf, Hitler wrote thatmass meetings were importantbecause individuals who feelweak and uncertain becomeintoxicated with the power of thegroup. How do you think Hitlerviewed the average person?

History

Nazi Germany

In setting up a totalitarian state, the Nazisrecognized the importance of winning

young people over to their ideas. TheHitler Youth, an organization foryoung people between the agesof 10 and 18, was formed in1926 for that purpose.

By 1939, all German youngpeople were expected to join theHitler Youth. Upon entering, eachtook an oath: “In the presence ofthis blood banner [Nazi flag],which represents our Führer, Iswear to devote all my energiesand my strength to the savior ofour country, Adolf Hitler. I am

willing and ready to give up my life forhim, so help me God.”

Members of the Hitler Youth had theirown uniforms and took part in a numberof activities. For males, these included

camping and hiking trips,sports activities, and eveningstogether in special youth“homes.” Almost all activitieswere competitive and meantto encourage fighting andheroic deeds.

Above all, the Hitler Youthorganization worked to fostermilitary values and virtues,such as duty, obedience,strength, and ruthlessness.Uniforms and drilling became

550

Young Germans waving flags

touching faith as their helper, their saviour, theirdeliverer from unbearable distress.”

Explaining What factors helped theNazi Party to gain power in Germany?

Victory of NazismAfter 1930, the German government ruled by

decree with the support of President Hindenburg.The Reichstag had little power, and thus Hitlerclearly saw that controlling the parliament was notvery important.

More and more, the right-wing elites of Ger-many—the industrial leaders, landed aristocrats,military officers, and higher bureaucrats—looked toHitler for leadership. He had the mass support to cre-ate a right-wing, authoritarian regime that wouldsave Germany and people in privileged positionsfrom a Communist takeover. In 1933, Hindenburg,under pressure, agreed to allow Hitler to becomechancellor and create a new government.

Within two months, Hitler had laid the foundationfor the Nazis’ complete control over Germany. Thecrowning step of Hitler’s “legal seizure” of powercame on March 23, 1933, when a two-thirds vote of

Reading Check

the Reichstag passed the Enabling Act. This law gavethe government the power to ignore the constitutionfor four years while it issued laws to deal with thecountry’s problems.

The Enabling Act gave Hitler’s later actions a legalbasis. He no longer needed the Reichstag or Presi-dent Hindenburg. In effect, Hitler became a dictatorappointed by the parliamentary body itself.

With their new source of power, the Nazis actedquickly to bring all institutions under Nazi control.The civil service was purged of Jews and democraticelements. Large prison camps called concentrationcamps were set up for people who opposed the newregime. Trade unions were dissolved. All politicalparties except the Nazis were abolished.

By the end of the summer of 1933, only sevenmonths after being appointed chancellor, Hitler hadestablished the basis for a totalitarian state. WhenHindenburg died in 1934, the office of president wasabolished. Hitler became sole ruler of Germany. Pub-lic officials and soldiers were all required to take apersonal oath of loyalty to Hitler as their Führer(FYUR•uhr), or “Leader.”

Examining Why was the EnablingAct important to Hitler’s success in controlling Germany?

Reading Check

The Nazi State, 1933–1939Hitler wanted to develop a totalitarian state. He

had not simply sought power for power’s sake. Hehad a larger goal—the development of an Aryanracial state that would dominate Europe and possiblythe world for generations to come. (Aryan was a termlinguists used to identify people speaking Indo-European languages. The Nazis misused the termand identified the Aryans with the ancient Greeksand Romans and twentieth-century Germans andScandinavians.) Nazis thought the Germans were thetrue descendants and leaders of the Aryans andwould create another empire like the one ruled by theancient Romans. The Nazis believed that the worldhad already seen two German empires or Reichs: theHoly Roman Empire and the German Empire of 1871to 1918. It was Hitler’s goal to create a Third Reich,the empire of Nazi Germany.

To achieve his goal, Hitler needed the activeinvolvement of the German people. Hitler stated:

“We must develop organizations in which an indi-vidual’s entire life can take place. Then every activityand every need of every individual will be regulatedby the collectivity represented by the party. There is

a way of life. By 1938, training in themilitary arts was also part of the rou-tine. Even boys 10 to 14 years oldwere given small-arms drill and prac-tice with dummy hand grenades.Those who were 14 to 18 years oldbore army packs and rifles while oncamping trips in the countryside.

The Hitler Youth had a femaledivision, known as the League ofGerman Girls, for girls aged 10 to 18.They, too, had uniforms: whiteblouses, blue ankle-length skirts, andsturdy hiking shoes. Camping andhiking were also part of the girls’activities. More important, however,girls were taught domestic skills—how to cook, clean houses, and takecare of children. In Nazi Germany,women were expected to be faithfulwives and dutiful mothers.

Many German children were proud of being part of the Hitler Youth.

CONNECTING TO THE PAST

1. Explaining What ideals and values did the HitlerYouth promote?

2. Analyzing How did the Hitler Youth help supportthe Nazi attempt to create a total state?

3. Writing about History Do organizations like theHitler Youth exist today in the United States? Howare they similar or different?

no longer any arbitrary will, there are no longer anyfree realms in which the individual belongs to him-self. . . . The time of personal happiness is over.”

The Nazis pursued the creation of the totalitarianstate in a variety of ways. Economic policies, massspectacles, and organizations—both old and new—were employed to further Nazi goals. Terror wasfreely used. Policies toward women and, in particu-lar, Jews reflected Nazi aims.

The State and Terror Nazi Germany was the sceneof almost constant personal and institutional conflict.This resulted in administrative chaos. Struggle was abasic feature of relationships within the party, withinthe state, and between party and state. Hitler, of course,was the ultimate decision maker and absolute ruler.

For those who needed coercion, the Nazi totalitar-ian state used terror and repression. The Schutzstaffeln(“Guard Squadrons”), known simply as the SS, werean important force for maintaining order. The SS wasoriginally created as Hitler’s personal bodyguard.Under the direction of Heinrich Himmler, the SS cameto control not only the secret police forces that Himm-ler had set up, but also the regular police forces.


The SS was based on two principles: terror andideology. Terror included the instruments of repres-sion and murder—secret police, criminal police, con-centration camps, and later, execution squads anddeath camps (concentration camps where prisonersare killed). For Himmler, the chief goal of the SS wasto further the Aryan master race.

Economic Policies In the economic sphere, Hitlerused public works projects and grants to private construction firms to put people back to work andend the depression. A massive rearmament program,however, was the key to solving the unemploymentproblem.

Benito Mussolini(1883–1945)

Joseph Stalin(1879–1953)

Adolf Hitler(1889–1945)

Italy

Prime Minister

1922

Fascist Party

Fascist

Middle-class industrialists and large land owners

Secret police (OVRA), imprisonment, outlawing other parties, propaganda, censorship of the press

Support for Catholic Church, nationalism, antisocialism, anticommunism

USSR

General Secretary

1929

Communist Party

Communist

Party officials

Purges, prison camps, secret police, state-run press, forced labor camps, executions

Five-Year Plans for rapid industrialization, collectivization of farms

Germany

Chancellor

1933

National Socialist German Workers’ Party (NSDAP, or Nazi)

Fascist

Industrial leaders, landed aristo-crats, military, and bureaucracy

Schutzstaffeln (SS) police force, propaganda, state-run press, terror, repression, racial laws, concentration and death camps

Rearmament, public projects to put people to work, anti-Semitism, racism, social Darwinism, extreme nationalism

Country

Political Title

Date in Power

Political Party

Type ofGovernment

Source(s) ofSupport

Methods ofControllingOpposition

Policies

Three Dictators: Mussolini, Stalin, and Hitler

Mussolini, Stalin, and Hitler all came to powerafter World War I.

1. Making Comparisons Compare the gov-ernments of Mussolini, Stalin, and Hitler.How were they similar?

2. Identifying What methods do people in ademocracy use to express their opposition togovernment policies? Why would these meth-ods not have worked under these dictators?

Unemployment, which had reached 6 million peo-ple in 1932, dropped to 2.6 million in 1934 and lessthan 500,000 in 1937. The regime claimed full creditfor solving Germany’s economic woes. The newregime’s part in bringing an end to the depressionwas an important factor in leading many Germans toaccept Hitler and the Nazis.

Spectacles and Organizations Mass demonstra-tions and spectacles were also used to make the Ger-man people an instrument of Hitler’s policies. Thesemeetings, especially the Nuremberg party rallies thatwere held every September, had great appeal. Theyusually evoked mass enthusiasm and excitement.

Institutions, such as the Catholic and Protestantchurches, primary and secondary schools, and uni-versities, were also brought under the control of theNazi totalitarian state. Nazi professional organiza-tions and leagues were formed for civil servants,teachers, women, farmers, doctors, and lawyers. Inaddition, youth organizations taught Nazi ideals.

Women and Nazism Women played a crucial rolein the Aryan state as bearers of the children who, it

was believed, would bring about the triumph of theAryan race. The Nazis believed men were destined tobe warriors and political leaders, while women weremeant to be wives and mothers. By preserving thisclear distinction, each could best serve to “maintainthe whole community.”

Nazi ideas determined employment opportunitiesfor women. Jobs in heavy industry, it was thought,might hinder women from bearing healthy children.Certain professions, including university teaching,medicine, and law, were also considered unsuitablefor women, especially married women. The Nazisinstead encouraged women to pursue other occupa-tions, such as social work and nursing. The Naziregime pushed its campaign against working womenwith poster slogans such as “Get ahold of pots andpans and broom and you’ll sooner find a groom!”

Anti-Semitic Policies From its beginning, the NaziParty reflected the strong anti-Semitic beliefs of AdolfHitler. Once in power, the Nazis translated anti-Semitic ideas into anti-Semitic policies.

In September 1935, the Nazis announced newracial laws at the annual party rally in Nuremberg.These Nuremberg laws excluded Jews from Germancitizenship and forbade marriages between Jews andGerman citizens. Jews were also required to wear yel-low Stars of David and to carry identification cardssaying they were Jewish.

A more violent phase of anti-Jewish activity beganon the night of November 9, 1938—the Kristallnacht,or “night of shattered glass.” In a destructive ram-page against the Jews, Nazis burned synagogues and

destroyed some seven thousand Jewish businesses.At least a hundred Jews were killed. Thirty thousandJewish males were rounded up and sent to concen-tration camps.

Kristallnacht led to further drastic steps. Jews werebarred from all public transportation and all publicbuildings including schools and hospitals. They wereprohibited from owning, managing, or working inany retail store. The Jews were forced to clean up allthe debris and damage due to Kristallnacht. Finally,under the direction of the SS, Jews were encouragedto “emigrate from Germany.”

Summarizing What steps did Hitlertake to establish a Nazi totalitarian state in Germany?

Reading Check


Checking for Understanding1. Define Reichstag, concentration camp.

2. Identify Adolf Hitler, National SocialistGerman Workers’ Party, Mein Kampf,lebensraum, Enabling Act, Aryan, Heinrich Himmler, Nuremberg laws,Kristallnacht.

3. Locate Munich, Nuremberg.

4. Summarize the steps that Hitler took tobecome the sole ruler of Germany.

5. List the rights taken from the Jews bythe Nazi government.

Critical Thinking6. Analyze How did mass demonstra-

tions and meetings contribute to thesuccess of the Nazi Party?

7. Organizing Information Use a tableto describe the policies and programsused by the Nazis to create a ThirdReich. Identify the goals for each policyor program.

Analyzing Visuals8. Examine any two photos from this sec-

tion. Compare and contrast the twophotos. How do you think they relate to Hitler’s vision of Nazi Germany?

“The broad massof a nation . . .will more easily fall victim to a big lie than to a small one.”—Adolf Hitler

9. Expository Writing Find a librarybook by a German who lived underNazism. Read several chapters thattell about the author’s life. In areport, give your opinion aboutwhether that person could haveresisted the government and why.

Policy/Program Goals

1920First Dada showin Berlin

1922James Joyce’s Ulyssesis published

1927Werner Heisenberg explainsthe uncertainty principle

Guide to Reading

Cultural and Intellectual Trends

Preview of Events

In 1922, Tristan Tzara, a Romanian-French poet, gave a lecture on the new artisticmovement called dadaism:

“I know that you have come here today to hear explanations. Well, don’t expect tohear any explanations about Dada. You explain to me why you exist. You haven’t thefaintest idea. . . . Dada is a state of mind. Dada applies itself to everything, and yet it isnothing, it is the point where the yes and the no and all the opposites meet, notsolemnly in the castles of human philosophies, but very simply at street corners, likedogs and grasshoppers. Like everything in life, Dada is useless. Dada is without preten-sion, as life should be.”

—Tristan Tzara, The Dada Painters and Poets, Robert Motherwell, ed., 1922

Influenced by the insanity of World War I, dadaists attempted to give expression towhat they saw as the absurdity of life.

Mass Culture: Radio and MoviesA series of inventions in the late nineteenth century had led the way for a rev-

olution in mass communications. Especially important was Marconi’s discoveryof wireless radio waves. A musical concert transmitted in June of 1920 had a majorimpact on radio broadcasting. Broadcasting facilities were built in the UnitedStates, Europe, and Japan during 1921 and 1922. At the same time, the mass


Main Ideas• Radios and movies were popular forms

of entertainment that were used tospread political messages.

• New artistic and intellectual trendsreflected the despair created by WorldWar I and the Great Depression.

Key Termsphotomontage, surrealism, uncertaintyprinciple

People to IdentifySalvador Dalí, James Joyce, HermannHesse

Places to LocateBerlin, Dublin

Preview Questions1. What trends dominated the arts and

popular culture after 1918?2. How did the new movements in arts

and literature reflect the changes afterWorld War I?

Reading StrategyCategorizing Information Use a tablelike the one below to list literary works by Hesse and Joyce. Describe the tech-niques used in each work.


Literary Works Techniques

Tristan Tzara

✦1915 ✦1920 ✦1925 ✦1930

production of radios began. In 1926, therewere 2.2 million radios in Great Britain. Bythe end of the 1930s, there were 9 million.

Although motion pictures had first emerged in the1890s, full-length features did not appear untilshortly before World War I. The Italian film Quo Vadisand the American film Birth of a Nation made itapparent that cinema was an important new form ofmass entertainment. By 1939, about 40 percent ofadults in the more industrialized countries wereattending a movie once a week. That figure hadincreased to 60 percent by the end of World War II.

Of course, radio and the movies could be used forpolitical purposes. Hitler said, “Without motor-cars,sound films, and wireless, [there would be] no vic-tory of Nazism.” Radio offered great opportunitiesfor reaching the masses. This became obvious whenit was discovered that Adolf Hitler’s fiery speechesmade just as great an impact on people when heardover the radio as they did in person. The Nazi regimeencouraged radio listening by urging manufacturersto produce inexpensive radios that could be boughton an installment plan.

Film, too, had propaganda potential, a fact not loston Joseph Goebbels (GUH[R]•buhlz), the propa-ganda minister of Nazi Germany. Believing that filmwas one of the “most modern and scientific means ofinfluencing the masses,” Goebbels created a specialfilm division in his Propaganda Ministry.

The Propaganda Ministry supported the making ofboth documentaries—nonfiction films—and popularfeature films that carried the Nazi message. The Tri-umph of the Will, for example, was a documentary ofthe 1934 Nuremberg party rally. This movie was filmedby Leni Riefenstahl, an actress turned director. It force-fully conveyed to viewers the power of NationalSocialism.

Explaining Why was the radio animportant propaganda tool for the Nazis?

Reading Check

Mass LeisureAfter World War I, new work patterns provided

people with more free time to take advantage of theleisure activities that had developed at the turn of thecentury. By 1920, the eight-hour day had become thenorm for many office and factory workers in north-ern and western Europe.

Professional sporting events aimed at large audi-ences were an important aspect of mass leisure.Travel was another favorite activity. Trains, buses,and cars made trips to beaches or holiday resortsincreasingly popular and affordable. Beaches, such asthe one at Brighton in Great Britain, were mobbed bycrowds of people from all social classes.

Mass leisure offered new ways for totalitarianstates to control the people. The Nazi regime, forexample, adopted a program called Kraft durch Freude(“Strength through Joy”). The program offered avariety of leisure activities to fill the free time of theworking class. These activities included concerts,operas, films, guided tours, and sporting events.Especially popular were the program’s inexpensivevacations, which were similar to modern packagetours. A vacation could be a cruise to Scandinavia orthe Mediterranean. More likely for workers, it was ashorter trip within Germany.

Examining How did the “Strengththrough Joy” program help to support the Nazi regime?

Reading Check


This 1920s movie camera (far right) andradio were part of a communications rev-olution. Millions of people could nowhear or see the same entertainment,news, and advertisements. A morehomogeneous, or uniform, cultureresulted. What are the positive andnegative results of a uniform culture?

History

Artistic and Literary TrendsFour years of devastating war had left many Euro-

peans with a profound sense of despair. To manypeople, the horrors of World War I meant that some-thing was dreadfully wrong with Western values, thathuman beings were violent animals who were inca-pable of creating a sane and rational world. The GreatDepression and the growth of violent fascist move-ments only added to the despair created by the war.

With political, economic, and social uncertaintiescame intellectual uncertainties. These were evident inthe artistic and intellectual achievements of the yearsfollowing World War I.

Art: Nightmares and New Visions After 1918,artistic trends mainly reflected developments madebefore the war. Abstract art, for example, becameever more popular. In addition, a prewar fascinationwith the absurd and the unconscious content of themind seemed even more appropriate in light of thenightmare landscapes of the World War I battlefronts.“The world does not make sense, so why should

art?” was a common remark.This sentiment gave rise toboth the Dada movement andsurrealism.

The dadaists were artistswho were obsessed with theidea that life has no purpose.They were revolted by whatthey saw as the insanity of lifeand tried to express that feel-ing in their art. Dada artistHannah Höch, for example,used photomontage (a pic-ture made of a combination ofphotographs) to comment onwomen’s roles in the newmass culture. Her work waspart of the first Dada show inBerlin in 1920.

A more important artisticmovement than dadaism was

surrealism. This movement sought a reality beyondthe material world and found it in the world of theunconscious. By portraying fantasies, dreams, andeven nightmares, the surrealists sought to show thegreater reality that exists beyond the world of physi-cal appearances.

The Spaniard Salvador Dalí was the high priest ofsurrealism. Dalí painted everyday objects but sepa-rated them from their normal contexts. By placingrecognizable objects in unrecognizable relationships,Dalí created a strange world in which the irrationalbecame visible.

Not everybody accepted modern art forms. Manypeople denounced what they saw as decay in thearts. Nowhere was this more evident than in NaziGermany. In the 1920s, Weimar Germany was one ofthe chief European centers for modern arts and sci-ences. Hitler and the Nazis, however, rejected mod-ern art as “degenerate.” In a speech in July 1937,Hitler proclaimed:

“The people regarded this art [modern art] as theoutcome of an impudent and shameless arroganceor of a simply shocking lack of skill; it felt that . . .these achievements which might have been pro-duced by untalented children of from eight to tenyears old—could never be valued as an expressionof our own times or of the German future.”

Hitler and the Nazis believed that they could createa new and genuine German art. It would glorify thestrong, the healthy, and the heroic—the qualities


History through Art

The Persistence of Memory by SalvadorDalí, 1931 Surrealism gave everydayobjects a dream-like quality. Dalí, like manysurrealist artists, was influenced by SigmundFreud’s theory of the unconscious. Analyzewhy surrealism developed in the periodbetween the wars.

valued by the Aryan race. The new German artdeveloped by the Nazis, however, was actuallyderived from nineteenth-century folk art, andemphasized realistic scenes of everyday life.

Literature: The Search for the Unconscious Theinterest in the unconscious that was evident in artwas also found in new literary techniques. For exam-ple, “stream of consciousness” was a technique usedby writers to report the innermost thoughts of eachcharacter. The most famous example of this approachis the novel Ulysses, published by the Irish writerJames Joyce in 1922. Ulysses tells the story of one dayin the life of ordinary people in Dublin by followingthe flow of their inner thoughts.

The German writer Hermann Hesse dealt with theunconscious in a quite different fashion. His novelsreflect the influence of both Freud’s psychology andAsian religions. The works focus on, among otherthings, the spiritual loneliness of modern humanbeings in a mechanized urban society. In both Sid-dhartha and Steppenwolf, Hesse uses Buddhist ideas toshow the psychological confusion of modern exis-tence. Hesse’s novels had a great impact on Germanyouth in the 1920s. He won the Nobel Prize for liter-ature in 1946.

Examining Why were artists andwriters after World War I attracted to Freud’s theory of theunconscious?

Reading Check


Checking for Understanding1. Define photomontage, surrealism,

uncertainty principle.

2. Identify The Triumph of the Will, Sal-vador Dalí, James Joyce, Hermann Hesse.

3. Locate Berlin, Dublin.

4. Explain how dadaism and surrealismreflected economic and political devel-opments after World War I. Alsoexplain how the painting on page 556,Dalí’s The Persistence of Memory, sup-ports your explanation.

5. List the qualities that the Nazis wantedGerman art to glorify. Why do youthink Hitler was concerned with issuessuch as the content and style of art?

Critical Thinking6. Evaluate What impact did technologi-

cal advances in transportation andcommunication have on Western cul-ture between the wars?

7. Compare and Contrast Use a Venndiagram like the one below to comparethe Dada movement and surrealism.

Analyzing Visuals8. Examine the photographs on page

555. Describe how our culture hasbeen influenced by radio and movies.What communication technology ismost influential today?

9. Informative Writing Prepare aposter that shows the developmentof mass communication from theradio to modern technologicaladvances in computers. Include photos and illustrations in yourposter. Write a brief paragraph that summarizes twentieth-centuryinnovations.

Dadaism Surrealism

The Heroic Age of PhysicsThe prewar revolution in physics begun by Albert

Einstein continued in the years between the wars. Infact, Ernest Rutherford, one of the physicists whoshowed that the atom could be split, called the 1920sthe “heroic age of physics.”

The new picture of the universe that was unfold-ing in physics undermined the old certainties of theclassical physics of Newton. Newtonian physics hadmade people believe that all phenomena could becompletely defined and predicted. In 1927, this beliefwas shaken when the German physicist WernerHeisenberg explained an observation he called theuncertainty principle.

Physicists knew that atoms were made up ofsmaller parts (subatomic particles). The fact that thebehavior of these subatomic particles is unpre-dictable provides the foundation for the uncertaintyprinciple. Heisenberg’s theory essentially suggeststhat all physical laws are based on uncertainty. Thetheory’s emphasis on randomness challenges New-tonian physics and thus, in a way, represents a newworldview. It is unlikely that many nonscientistsunderstood the implications of Heisenberg’s work.Nevertheless, the principle of uncertainty fit in wellwith the other uncertainties of the interwar years.

Explaining How did Heisenberg’suncertainty principle challenge the Newtonian worldview?

Reading Check

CHAPTER 24 The West Between the Wars558

Using Key Terms1. A is a picture made of a combination of photographs.

2. A is a period of low economic activity and risingunemployment.

3. The Soviet government followed a policy of when ittook private property after World War I without payments tothe former owners.

4. A exists when almost all power in a nation is held bythe central government.

5. Lenin abandoned war communism in 1921 in favor of his, a modified version of the old capitalist system.

6. The government policy of going into debt to pay for publicworks projects, such as building highways, is called .

7. According to the , no one could determine the pathof subatomic particles, meaning all physical laws had elements of unpredictability.

8. The German parliament is known as the .

9. The was the leading policy maker of the CommunistParty.

10. is the right of unions to negotiate with employers.

Reviewing Key Facts11. History What did President Roosevelt call the program

designed to fight the depression in the United States?

12. Economics Why were the Germans unable to pay all of thereparations assessed by the Treaty of Versailles?

13. History Why did Germany choose to become involved in the Spanish Civil War?

14. Culture Why did Hitler label modern art as degenerate?

15. Economics What did Germany do to cause high rates of inflation after World War I?

16. Government Describe how Stalin defeated Trotsky.

17. Culture What was the significance of the Italian Fascist slogan “Woman into the Home”?

18. Economics Describe Lenin’s New Economic Policy.

19. History What was the basic purpose of the Nuremberg laws?

20. Government Why did Trotsky and his followers want tospread communism to other nations?

Critical Thinking21. Cause and Effect Why did the depression help extremist

leaders gain power in many nations during the 1930s?

22. Compare and Contrast How was Roosevelt’s New Dealboth similar to and different from Stalin’s Five-Year Plan?

Writing About History23. Expository Writing Write an essay in which you relate one

of the following to the uncertainties and disillusionment of theinterwar years: mass entertainment, mass leisure, professionalsports, dadaism, surrealism, or the “stream of consciousness”technique in literature. Research your topic and provide refer-ences and a bibliography to accompany your essay.

• In Britain, the Conservative Partyimplements traditional economicpolicies.

• In the United States, PresidentRoosevelt develops the New Deal,a policy of active governmentintervention in the economy.

• In France, the Popular Frontestablishes the French New Deal,which promotes workers’ rights.

• In Italy, Mussolini leads the Fasciststo power.

• Stalin becomes dictator of theSoviet Union and purges theCommunist Party of Old Bolsheviks.

• In Germany, Hitler establishes atotalitarian Nazi regime and startsthe large-scale persecution of Jews.

• The artistic movements of dadaismand surrealism reflect the uncertaintyof life created by World War I.

• Radio and film transformcommunications.

• Literary techniques reflect an interestin the unconscious.

• Heisenberg’s uncertainty principlesuggests that physical laws arebased on uncertainty.

Political andEconomic Changes

Rise ofTotalitarianism

Innovationsand Ideas

Between 1919 and 1939, the West experienced great economic and political challenges.

Self-Check QuizVisit the Glencoe World History—Modern Times Website at and click on Chapter 17–Self-Check Quiz to prepare for the Chapter Test.

wh.mt.glencoe.com

HISTORY

Directions: Choose the best answer to thefollowing question.

The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Moneyby John Maynard Keynes was published in 1936. The bookargued for

A mercantilism.

B disarmament.

C deficit spending.

D isolationism.

Test-Taking Tip: If you do not know the right answer to this question, use common sense to eliminate answerchoices that do not make sense. Recall the context in whichKeynes has been discussed in class or in your textbook.Think about the title of his book. These clues may help you eliminate incorrect answer choices.

StandardizedTest Practice

CHAPTER 17 The West Between the Wars 559

Analyzing SourcesThe crisis of confidence in Western civilization ran deep. It waswell captured in the words of the French poet Paul Valéry in theearly 1920s:

“The storm has died away, and we are still restless,Uneasy, as if the storm were about to break. Almostall the affairs of men remain in a terrible uncertainty.We think of what has disappeared, and we are almostdestroyed by what has been destroyed; we do notknow what will be born, and we fear the future. . . .Doubt and disorder are in us and with us. There is nothinking man, however shrewd or learned he may be,who can hope to dominate this anxiety, to escape fromthis impression of darkness.”

24. Pretend you do not know when Valéry wrote this poem.What might you be able to conclude about the time in whichValéry lived from this passage?

25. What do the first two lines of this poem convey?

Applying Technology Skills26. Creating a Multimedia Presentation Search the Internet

for sources on the Great Depression. Based on yourresearch, create a multimedia presentation about the causesleading up to the depression and the effect the depressionhad on Europe and the United States. Use images from theInternet in your presentation. Include a plan describing thetype of presentation you would like to develop and the stepsyou will take to ensure a successful presentation.

Making Decisions27. Imagine that you are living in 1928. Pretend that you know

everything that is going to occur because of the GreatDepression and that you have the ability to move to anymajor country in the world. Where would you go and why?Would being part of a particular social class influence your decision?

28. Imagine that you are a young person living in Germanyduring 1935. Write a letter to your cousin who lives in theUnited States describing the influence of the increasinglypowerful Nazi regime upon your life. Do you support Hitler’srise to power, or are you concerned about his policies?

N

SE

W

Lambert AzimuthalEqual-Area projection

200 kilometers

200 miles0

0

40°N

45°N

10°W 0°5°W

Atlantic

OceanMediterranean Sea

FRANCE

POR

TUG

AL

S P A I N

Gijón

BarcelonaMadrid

Salamanca

SantanderLeón

BilbaoGuernica

PamplonaBurgos

Toledo

Valencia

Alicante

CartagenaGranada

CórdobaSeville

MálagaCádiz

Spanish Civil War, 1936–1939

Nationalist-controlled area, February 1939Republican-controlled area, February 1939Area of intense fighting

Analyzing Maps and ChartsStudy the map above to answer the following questions.

29. What advantage would the Nationalists seem to have hadover the Republicans in February 1939?

30. How would the geographic location of the Republicans in1939 have affected their supply routes?

31. Where was the most intense fighting concentrated?

0548-0559 C17SE-860705 10/13/03 6:51 AM Page 559


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