Chapter 16Chapter 16Practice Variability and SpecificityPractice Variability and Specificity

Concept: Variability of practice experiences is important for learning motor skills

Practice VariabilityPractice Variability

Refers to the variety of movement and Refers to the variety of movement and context characteristics the learner context characteristics the learner experiences while practicing a skillexperiences while practicing a skill

Movement and context characteristics that Movement and context characteristics that can be varied in practice:can be varied in practice:

–Skill variationsSkill variations that will be required in “test” that will be required in “test” conditionsconditions

–Physical contextPhysical context in which the skill is in which the skill is performedperformed

–SituationSituation in which the skill occurs in which the skill occurs

The Future Performance Benefit The Future Performance Benefit of Practice Variabilityof Practice Variability

Research evidence shows that more Research evidence shows that more practice variability is better for learning practice variability is better for learning and performance in future “test” and performance in future “test” situations than less variabilitysituations than less variability

Practice variability benefit can be Practice variability benefit can be related to the increased amount of related to the increased amount of performance error during practiceperformance error during practice

Shea and KohlShea and Kohl

Goal: Learn to use 175 N of force to press Goal: Learn to use 175 N of force to press a handle a handle – Constant practice group – practiced using Constant practice group – practiced using

175N for 289 trials175N for 289 trials– Variable practice group – practiced producint Variable practice group – practiced producint

four different amounts of forcefour different amounts of force125N, 150N 200N, 225N (175N not practiced)125N, 150N 200N, 225N (175N not practiced)

– Retention/transfer test for 175N: variable Retention/transfer test for 175N: variable group performed more accurately group performed more accurately

The Future Performance Benefit The Future Performance Benefit of Practice Variabilityof Practice Variability

Research evidence shows that more Research evidence shows that more practice variability is better for learning practice variability is better for learning and performance in future “test” and performance in future “test” situations than less variabilitysituations than less variability

Practice variability benefit can be Practice variability benefit can be related to the increased amount of related to the increased amount of performance error during practiceperformance error during practice

How to ImplementHow to ImplementPractice Variability?Practice Variability?

Assess characteristics of the Assess characteristics of the physical physical context and skill characteristicscontext and skill characteristics of that of that performanceperformance

Vary these characteristics according to Vary these characteristics according to the type of skill being learnedthe type of skill being learned

–Practice conditions to vary for closed skillsPractice conditions to vary for closed skillsSee Table 16.1See Table 16.1

–Practice conditions to vary for open skillsPractice conditions to vary for open skills

How to ImplementHow to ImplementPractice Variability?Practice Variability?

Assess characteristics of the Assess characteristics of the physical physical context and skill characteristicscontext and skill characteristics of that of that performanceperformance

Vary these characteristics according to Vary these characteristics according to the type of skill being learnedthe type of skill being learned

–Practice conditions to vary for closed skillsPractice conditions to vary for closed skillsSee Table 16.1See Table 16.1

–Practice conditions to vary for open skillsPractice conditions to vary for open skills

Organizing Variable PracticeOrganizing Variable Practice

Is there a best way to organize practice Is there a best way to organize practice variability?variability?

–See 3 options in Figure 16.2See 3 options in Figure 16.2

Answer can be determined from applying Answer can be determined from applying the learning phenomenon known as the the learning phenomenon known as the contextual interference effectcontextual interference effect

Organizing Variable PracticeOrganizing Variable Practice

Is there a best way to organize practice Is there a best way to organize practice variability?variability?

–See 3 options in Figure 16.2See 3 options in Figure 16.2

Answer can be determined from applying Answer can be determined from applying the learning phenomenon known as the the learning phenomenon known as the contextual interference effectcontextual interference effect

Contextual InterferenceContextual InterferenceThe memory and performance disruption The memory and performance disruption that results from performing variations of a that results from performing variations of a skill within the context of practiceskill within the context of practice

–Originally described by Battig (1979)Originally described by Battig (1979)–Various amounts of contextual interference Various amounts of contextual interference

can occur during practice depending on the can occur during practice depending on the scheduling of the practice variability scheduling of the practice variability

see Figure 16.3see Figure 16.3

The contextual interference effect occurs The contextual interference effect occurs when higher amounts of contextual when higher amounts of contextual interference are involved in practice than interference are involved in practice than lower amountslower amounts

Contextual InterferenceContextual InterferenceThe memory and performance disruption The memory and performance disruption that results from performing variations of a that results from performing variations of a skill within the context of practiceskill within the context of practice

–Originally described by Battig (1979)Originally described by Battig (1979)–Various amounts of contextual interference Various amounts of contextual interference

can occur during practice depending on the can occur during practice depending on the scheduling of the practice variability scheduling of the practice variability

see Figure 16.3see Figure 16.3

The contextual interference effect occurs The contextual interference effect occurs when higher amounts of contextual when higher amounts of contextual interference are involved in practice than interference are involved in practice than lower amountslower amounts

Research Evidence for the Research Evidence for the Contextual Interference EffectContextual Interference Effect

Laboratory experimentsLaboratory experiments–Shea & Morgan (1979) – 1Shea & Morgan (1979) – 1stst demonstration demonstration

of the effect for learning motor skillsof the effect for learning motor skills

Non-laboratory experimentsNon-laboratory experiments–Beginners learning multiple skill variationsBeginners learning multiple skill variations

Magill & Goode (1986) – badminton servesMagill & Goode (1986) – badminton serves

–Skilled athletes practicing to improve Skilled athletes practicing to improve performance of multiple skill variationsperformance of multiple skill variations

Hall et al. (1994) – baseball players hitting Hall et al. (1994) – baseball players hitting different types of pitchesdifferent types of pitches

Research Evidence for the Research Evidence for the Contextual Interference EffectContextual Interference Effect

Laboratory experimentsLaboratory experiments–Shea & Morgan (1979) – 1Shea & Morgan (1979) – 1stst demonstration demonstration

of the effect for learning motor skillsof the effect for learning motor skills

Non-laboratory experimentsNon-laboratory experiments–Beginners learning multiple skill variationsBeginners learning multiple skill variations

Magill & Goode (1986) – badminton servesMagill & Goode (1986) – badminton serves

–Skilled athletes practicing to improve Skilled athletes practicing to improve performance of multiple skill variationsperformance of multiple skill variations

Hall et al. (1994) – baseball players hitting Hall et al. (1994) – baseball players hitting different types of pitchesdifferent types of pitches

Contextual Interference and Contextual Interference and Judgments about LearningJudgments about Learning

A characteristic of blocked practice A characteristic of blocked practice schedules:schedules:

–Learners overestimate their learningLearners overestimate their learning–Performance during practice misleads them Performance during practice misleads them

to judge they are learning more than they to judge they are learning more than they actually areactually are

See experiment by Simon & Bjork (2001)See experiment by Simon & Bjork (2001)

Limits of the Contextual Limits of the Contextual Interference EffectInterference Effect

Research shows much support for the Research shows much support for the contextual interference effect but also contextual interference effect but also shows that it does not apply to all shows that it does not apply to all motor skill learning situationsmotor skill learning situations

Characteristics related to the limits of Characteristics related to the limits of the effect:the effect:

–Motor skill characteristicsMotor skill characteristics–Learner characteristicsLearner characteristics

Limits of the Contextual Limits of the Contextual Interference EffectInterference Effect

Research shows much support for the Research shows much support for the contextual interference effect but also contextual interference effect but also shows that it does not apply to all shows that it does not apply to all motor skill learning situationsmotor skill learning situations

Characteristics related to the limits of Characteristics related to the limits of the effect:the effect:

–Motor skill characteristicsMotor skill characteristics–Learner characteristicsLearner characteristics

Why Does the Contextual Why Does the Contextual Interference Effect Occur?Interference Effect Occur?

Two predominant hypothesesTwo predominant hypotheses1.1. Elaboration Hypothesis:Elaboration Hypothesis: The effect is related The effect is related

to the elaboration of the memory representation of to the elaboration of the memory representation of the skill variations that a learner is practicing the skill variations that a learner is practicing (Shea & Morgan, 1979) (Engages in more (Shea & Morgan, 1979) (Engages in more strategies-compare and contrast)strategies-compare and contrast)

2.2. Action Plan Reconstruction Hypothesis:Action Plan Reconstruction Hypothesis: High High amounts of contextual interference benefit learning amounts of contextual interference benefit learning because the interference requires a person to because the interference requires a person to reconstruct an action plan on subsequent practice reconstruct an action plan on subsequent practice trials for each skill variation (Lee & Magill, 1985)trials for each skill variation (Lee & Magill, 1985)

Why Does the Contextual Why Does the Contextual Interference Effect Occur?, cont’dInterference Effect Occur?, cont’d

Regardless of which hypothesis, two Regardless of which hypothesis, two important characteristics have been important characteristics have been demonstrated:demonstrated:

1.1. Higher levels of contextual interference Higher levels of contextual interference involves greater attention demands during involves greater attention demands during practicepractice

2.2.People who practice according to a blocked People who practice according to a blocked schedule tend to overestimate how well they schedule tend to overestimate how well they are learning during practiceare learning during practice

Practice SpecificityPractice Specificity

Specificity of practice hypothesisSpecificity of practice hypothesis–Test performance is directly related to the Test performance is directly related to the

similarity between characteristics of the similarity between characteristics of the practice and test conditionspractice and test conditions

Is this hypothesis at odds with the Is this hypothesis at odds with the contextual interference effect?contextual interference effect?

–Agreement that the hypothesis applies to Agreement that the hypothesis applies to three characteristics of the practice and test three characteristics of the practice and test conditions conditions

Practice Specificity, Practice Specificity, cont’dcont’d

3 Practice – Test characteristics related 3 Practice – Test characteristics related to the practice specificity hypothesis:to the practice specificity hypothesis:

1.1. Sensory/perceptual characteristicsSensory/perceptual characteristics

2.2. Performance context characteristicsPerformance context characteristics

3.3. Cognitive processing characteristicsCognitive processing characteristics