Chapter 14 OverviewChapter 14 Overview

Social perceptionSocial perception AttractionAttraction Conformity, obedience, and Conformity, obedience, and

compliancecompliance Group influenceGroup influence Attitudes and attitude changeAttitudes and attitude change Prosocial behaviorProsocial behavior AggressionAggression Prejudice and discriminationPrejudice and discrimination

Social PerceptionSocial Perception

Social psychologySocial psychology is the subfield that is the subfield that attempts to explain how the actual, attempts to explain how the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others imagined, or implied presence of others influences the thoughts, feelings, and influences the thoughts, feelings, and behavior of individualsbehavior of individuals– ConfederateConfederate is a person who poses as a is a person who poses as a

participant in an experiment but is actually participant in an experiment but is actually assisting the experimenterassisting the experimenter

– Naïve subject Naïve subject is a person who has agreed to is a person who has agreed to participate in an experiment but is not aware participate in an experiment but is not aware that deception is being used to conceal its that deception is being used to conceal its real purposereal purpose

Why are first impressions so Why are first impressions so important?important?

The The primacy effectprimacy effect– An overall impression of another person is An overall impression of another person is

influenced more by the first information influenced more by the first information received about that person than by received about that person than by information that comes laterinformation that comes later

Once formed, an impression acts as a Once formed, an impression acts as a framework through which later framework through which later information is interpretedinformation is interpreted

What is the difference between What is the difference between a situational attribution and a a situational attribution and a dispositional attribution?dispositional attribution? An assignment of a cause to explain An assignment of a cause to explain

one’s own or another’s behaviorone’s own or another’s behavior When we explain our own failures, we When we explain our own failures, we

tend to make tend to make situational attributionssituational attributions– Attributing behavior to an external cause or Attributing behavior to an external cause or

factor related to a situationfactor related to a situation When we explain other people’s When we explain other people’s

failures, we are more likely to make failures, we are more likely to make dispositional attributionsdispositional attributions– Attributing behavior to an internal cause, Attributing behavior to an internal cause,

such as a personality traitsuch as a personality trait

What is the difference between What is the difference between a situational attribution and a a situational attribution and a dispositional attribution?dispositional attribution?

The tendency to attribute other The tendency to attribute other people’s behavior to dispositional people’s behavior to dispositional causes and our own to situational causes and our own to situational causes is referred to as the causes is referred to as the actor-actor-observer biasobserver bias

People generally attribute their People generally attribute their successes to dispositional causes andsuccesses to dispositional causes and their failures to situational causestheir failures to situational causes– This is referred to as the This is referred to as the self-serving self-serving

biasbias

AttractionAttraction

Think about your friends. What Think about your friends. What makes you like, or even fall in makes you like, or even fall in love with, one person and ignore love with, one person and ignore or react negatively to someone or react negatively to someone else?else?

What factors contribute to What factors contribute to attraction?attraction?

ProximityProximity– We tend to like and feel attracted to We tend to like and feel attracted to

people who are frequently in our local people who are frequently in our local environmentenvironment

The The mere-exposure effectmere-exposure effect– The tendency to feel more positively The tendency to feel more positively

toward a stimulus as a result of repeated toward a stimulus as a result of repeated exposure to itexposure to it

ReciprocityReciprocity– We tend to like people who like usWe tend to like people who like us

What factors contribute to What factors contribute to attraction?attraction?

People of all ages have a strong People of all ages have a strong tendency to prefer physically tendency to prefer physically attractive peopleattractive people

People who are physically attractive People who are physically attractive are also perceived as having other are also perceived as having other favorable qualitiesfavorable qualities– This is known as the This is known as the halo effecthalo effect

How do psychologists explain How do psychologists explain romantic attraction and romantic attraction and mating?mating? The The matching hypothesismatching hypothesis proposes proposes

that people choose mates who are that people choose mates who are similar to themselves in physical similar to themselves in physical attractiveness and other attributesattractiveness and other attributes– Similarity attracts and is associated with Similarity attracts and is associated with

marital successmarital success Evolutionary psychologistsEvolutionary psychologists argue argue

that men and women prefer mates on that men and women prefer mates on the basis of what they can contribute the basis of what they can contribute to reproductive successto reproductive success– Men prefer young, attractive womenMen prefer young, attractive women– Women prefer men with resources and Women prefer men with resources and

high statushigh status

How does Sternberg’s How does Sternberg’s triangular theory of love triangular theory of love account for the different kinds account for the different kinds of romantic love?of romantic love?

Conformity, Conformity, Obedience, and Obedience, and ComplianceCompliance Conformity Conformity is changing or is changing or

adopting a behavior or an attitude adopting a behavior or an attitude in an effort to be consistent with in an effort to be consistent with the social norms of a group or the the social norms of a group or the expectations of other peopleexpectations of other people– Social norms Social norms are the attitudes and are the attitudes and

standards of behavior expected of standards of behavior expected of members of a particular groupmembers of a particular group

What did researchers find when What did researchers find when they varied the circumstances they varied the circumstances of Milgram’s classic study of of Milgram’s classic study of obedience?obedience? Research participants (the “teachers”) Research participants (the “teachers”)

believed that they were giving electric believed that they were giving electric shocks to another participant (the shocks to another participant (the “learner”)“learner”)

Shock intensity increased each time Shock intensity increased each time the learner answered incorrectlythe learner answered incorrectly

If the teacher hesitated, experimenter If the teacher hesitated, experimenter told him that he must continuetold him that he must continue

26 out of 40 participants (65%) 26 out of 40 participants (65%) continued to highest possible shock continued to highest possible shock intensity: 450 voltsintensity: 450 volts

All 40 went up to at least 300 voltsAll 40 went up to at least 300 volts

What did researchers find when What did researchers find when they varied the circumstances they varied the circumstances of Milgram’s classic study of of Milgram’s classic study of obedience?obedience? Nearly as many participants went all Nearly as many participants went all

the way to 450 volts (48%) when the the way to 450 volts (48%) when the experiment was conducted at a run-experiment was conducted at a run-down office building away from Yale down office building away from Yale UniversityUniversity

But only 10% obeyed and gave But only 10% obeyed and gave maximum shock when they saw maximum shock when they saw another person defy the experimenter another person defy the experimenter and refuse to obeyand refuse to obey

What are three techniques What are three techniques used to gain compliance?used to gain compliance?

Foot-in-the-door techniqueFoot-in-the-door technique– Gaining agreement to a small request first to make Gaining agreement to a small request first to make

a person more likely to agree to a larger request a person more likely to agree to a larger request laterlater

Door-in-the-face techniqueDoor-in-the-face technique– Making a large request, with the expectation that Making a large request, with the expectation that

the person will refuse, to make the person more the person will refuse, to make the person more likely to comply with a smaller request laterlikely to comply with a smaller request later

Low-ball techniqueLow-ball technique– Making an attractive initial offer to get a person to Making an attractive initial offer to get a person to

commit to an action, but then making the terms commit to an action, but then making the terms less favorableless favorable

Group InfluenceGroup Influence

Being part of a group often Being part of a group often means giving up a bit of means giving up a bit of individuality, but the reward is individuality, but the reward is the support and camaraderie of the support and camaraderie of the group. Clearly we behave the group. Clearly we behave differently in a variety of ways differently in a variety of ways when we are part of a group, when we are part of a group, small or large.small or large.

How does social facilitation How does social facilitation affect performance?affect performance?

Social facilitation Social facilitation is any positive or is any positive or negative effect on performance that negative effect on performance that can be attributed to the presence of can be attributed to the presence of othersothers

When others are presentWhen others are present– Performance is usually enhanced on easy Performance is usually enhanced on easy

tasks and tasks at which we are skilledtasks and tasks at which we are skilled– Performance usually suffers on difficult Performance usually suffers on difficult

tasks at which we are not skilledtasks at which we are not skilled

What is social loafing, and what What is social loafing, and what factors reduce it?factors reduce it?

The tendency to put forth less effort The tendency to put forth less effort when working with others than when when working with others than when working aloneworking alone

Social loafingSocial loafing is common is common– When individual contributions to a group When individual contributions to a group

project cannot be identifiedproject cannot be identified– Among people who score low in Among people who score low in

achievement motivationachievement motivation– In individualistic societiesIn individualistic societies

How do group polarization and How do group polarization and groupthink influence decision groupthink influence decision making?making?

Group polarizationGroup polarization– Occurs when, after discussion, group Occurs when, after discussion, group

members shift to more extreme positions members shift to more extreme positions in the directions they were already leaningin the directions they were already leaning

GroupthinkGroupthink– Occurs when a group’s desire to maintain Occurs when a group’s desire to maintain

solidarity outweighs other considerations, solidarity outweighs other considerations, a process that often leads to poor a process that often leads to poor decisionsdecisions

How do social roles influence How do social roles influence individual behavior?individual behavior?

Social roles Social roles are socially defined are socially defined behaviors considered appropriate for behaviors considered appropriate for individuals occupying certain positions individuals occupying certain positions within a groupwithin a group

Social rolesSocial roles can shape behavior can shape behavior– In Philip Zimbardo’s In Philip Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Stanford Prison

ExperimentExperiment, participants’ behaviors were , participants’ behaviors were dramatically influenced by rolesdramatically influenced by roles

““Guards” became heartless and sadistic Guards” became heartless and sadistic ““Prisoners” became subservientPrisoners” became subservient Identification with their roles led to Identification with their roles led to

deindividuationdeindividuation

Attitudes and Attitude Attitudes and Attitude ChangeChange A relatively stable evaluation of a A relatively stable evaluation of a

person, object, situation, or issue, person, object, situation, or issue, along a continuum ranging from along a continuum ranging from positive to negativepositive to negative

What are the three components What are the three components of an attitude?of an attitude?

What is cognitive dissonance, What is cognitive dissonance, and how can it be reduced?and how can it be reduced?

An unpleasant state that can occur An unpleasant state that can occur when people become aware of when people become aware of inconsistencies between their attitudes inconsistencies between their attitudes or between their attitudes and their or between their attitudes and their behaviorsbehaviors

People usually try to reduce dissonance People usually try to reduce dissonance by changing their behavior, changing by changing their behavior, changing their attitudes, or explaining away the their attitudes, or explaining away the inconsistency or minimizing its inconsistency or minimizing its importanceimportance

Methods of reducing cognitive Methods of reducing cognitive dissonancedissonance

What are the elements of What are the elements of persuasion?persuasion?

Persuasion Persuasion is a deliberate attempt to is a deliberate attempt to influence the attitudes and/or behavior influence the attitudes and/or behavior of another personof another person

The four elements of persuasion areThe four elements of persuasion are– The The sourcesource of the communication of the communication– The The audienceaudience– The The messagemessage– The The mediummedium

What are the elements of What are the elements of persuasion?persuasion?

Factors that make a Factors that make a sourcesource more more persuasive includepersuasive include– CredibilityCredibility– AttractivenessAttractiveness– LikeabilityLikeability

AudiencesAudiences with low IQs tend to be with low IQs tend to be more easily persuaded than those with more easily persuaded than those with low IQslow IQs

What are the elements of What are the elements of persuasion?persuasion?

A one-sided A one-sided messagemessage is usually most is usually most persuasive when the audience is not persuasive when the audience is not well-informed on an issuewell-informed on an issue

A two-sided A two-sided messagemessage is usually most is usually most persuasive when the audience is well-persuasive when the audience is well-informedinformed

Experimental studies suggest that Experimental studies suggest that television is the most effective television is the most effective mediummedium through which to through which to communicate a persuasive messagecommunicate a persuasive message

Prosocial BehaviorProsocial Behavior

Behavior that benefits others, Behavior that benefits others, such as helping, cooperation, and such as helping, cooperation, and sympathysympathy

What motivates one person to What motivates one person to help another?help another?

Some helping behavior is motivated by Some helping behavior is motivated by altruismaltruism– Behavior that is aimed at helping another Behavior that is aimed at helping another

that requires self-sacrifice and is not that requires self-sacrifice and is not performed for personal gainperformed for personal gain

We are more likely to help those in needWe are more likely to help those in need– If we are in a committed relationship with If we are in a committed relationship with

themthem– Or if we perceive them to be similar to usOr if we perceive them to be similar to us

Cultural norms also influence helping Cultural norms also influence helping behaviorbehavior

What is the bystander effect, What is the bystander effect, and why does it occur?and why does it occur?

As the number of bystanders at an As the number of bystanders at an emergency increases, the probability emergency increases, the probability that a victim will receive help that a victim will receive help decreasesdecreases

Darley and LatanDarley and Latanéé (1968): This results (1968): This results from from diffusion of responsibilitydiffusion of responsibility

AggressionAggression

The intentional infliction of The intentional infliction of physical or psychological harm on physical or psychological harm on othersothers

What biological factors are What biological factors are thought to be related to thought to be related to aggression?aggression?

Twin studies and adoption studies indicate a genetic link for criminal behavior

Low arousal level of the autonomic nervous system is related to antisocial and violent behavior

A high level of testosterone is correlated with aggressive behavior in males

What biological factors are What biological factors are thought to be related to thought to be related to aggression?aggression?

Low levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin is associated with violent behavior

Brain damage, alcohol abuse, and high levels of childhood lead exposure are also associated with aggressive behavior

What other factors contribute What other factors contribute to aggression?to aggression?

Frustration produces aggressionFrustration produces aggression– This is referred to as the This is referred to as the frustration-frustration-

aggression hypothesisaggression hypothesis Aggression is often triggered by Aggression is often triggered by

aversive conditions, such as pain, loud aversive conditions, such as pain, loud noise, and crowdingnoise, and crowding

Belief in the superiority of one’s own Belief in the superiority of one’s own group over other groups may lead to group over other groups may lead to aggression toward othersaggression toward others

According to social learning According to social learning theory, what causes aggressive theory, what causes aggressive behavior?behavior?

Proposes that people acquire aggressive Proposes that people acquire aggressive responses by observing aggressive responses by observing aggressive modelsmodels

The theory is supported by findings that The theory is supported by findings that people who were abused as children are people who were abused as children are more likely to be abusers as parentsmore likely to be abusers as parents

Also, research provides overwhelming Also, research provides overwhelming evidence of an association between TV evidence of an association between TV violence and aggressive behavior by violence and aggressive behavior by viewersviewers

Prejudice and Prejudice and DiscriminationDiscrimination Prejudice Prejudice consists of consists of attitudesattitudes

(usually negative) toward others (usually negative) toward others based on their gender, religion, race, based on their gender, religion, race, or membership in a particular groupor membership in a particular group

DiscriminationDiscrimination consists of consists of behaviorbehavior (usually negative) directed toward (usually negative) directed toward others based on their gender, others based on their gender, religion, race, or membership in a religion, race, or membership in a particular groupparticular group

What factors contribute to the What factors contribute to the development of prejudice and development of prejudice and discrimination?discrimination? Realistic conflict theoryRealistic conflict theory

– Proposes that prejudice can arise out of Proposes that prejudice can arise out of competition between groups for scarce competition between groups for scarce resourcesresources

Prejudice can also be caused by Prejudice can also be caused by people’s tendency to divide the world people’s tendency to divide the world into distinct social categoriesinto distinct social categories– In-groupsIn-groups and and out-groupsout-groups

Social-cognitive theorySocial-cognitive theory– Proposes that prejudice is learned in the Proposes that prejudice is learned in the

same way that other attitudes are– same way that other attitudes are– through modeling and reinforcementthrough modeling and reinforcement