Chapter 11: Cognitive Motivation: Competence & Control

PSY 338: Motivation

Humanistic Psychology?Humanistic Psychology?Emphasizes an optimistic view of human beings, as persons who have the ability to grow (human potential)Though it does not deny the effect of the environment, it sees human beings as able to transcend it to some degreeIt stresses health and actualization

Roots of Humanistic PsychologyRoots of Humanistic PsychologyExistentialism is a philosophy developed chiefly in the 20th century that attempts to find meaning in a seemingly meaningless world

The central themes of existentialism:We are an autonomous, separate, and evolving entityWe have no existence apart from the world we live inAn individual must assume all responsibilities for his or her acts of free will without any absolute knowledge of what is right or wrong

Existentialist and Humanistic Existentialist and Humanistic Theorists Both…Theorists Both…Believe in Free Will• Emphasize the uniqueness of each

individual• Believe that humans strive for an upper

level of capabilities

However…However…On Human Nature…Existentialists see it as non-existent or neutralHumanists see it as basically goodOptimism vs. Pessimism•Humanists optimistic about humanity and the future•Existentialists tend to be much more gloomy

Basic TenetsBasic Tenets

The Here and NowMust learn to live our lives as they happen

The Phenomenology of the IndividualNo one knows you better than yourself

Personal GrowthGrowth process is assumed to be the natural manner of human development

Carl Rogers & Positive RegardCarl Rogers & Positive Regard

Humanists posit that we are inherently trustworthyRogers (1961)•The core of man's nature is essentially positive Rogers (1977)•Man is a trustworthy organism

(1902-1987)

Carl Rogers & Positive RegardCarl Rogers & Positive RegardNeed for Positive RegardThe universal need for acceptance, love, and approval from othersParticularly important during infancyNeed for Positive Self-RegardWhen acceptance and approval come from within the individual and forms part of the self-conceptUnconditional Positive RegardThe granting of love and approval regardless of individual's behavior

Carl Rogers & Positive RegardCarl Rogers & Positive Regard

Conditional Positive RegardThe granting of love and approval only when behaving in accordance with parent's wishes, or when parents withdraw love if the child misbehavesThe individual's belief that he/she is worthy of affection only when expressing desirable behaviors

CongruenceCongruence

When the self concept is in agreement with inherent potentialities and there are minimal conditions of worthLeads to openness to experience and a fully functioning person

Core of Personality Core of Personality

Core TendencyThe tendency to actualize one's inherent potentialitiesThis potential exists in all living organisms, even plantsHumans possess an additional form The attempt to actualize the self

Fully Functioning IndividualFully Functioning Individual

The ideal person Has received unconditional positive regard, has few conditions of worth, and has congruence between self and potentialities

Five Basic Characteristics

1.Openness to Experience

2.Existential Living

3.Organismic Trusting

4.Sense of Freedom

5.Creativity

Fully Functioning Individual

Openness to Experience Opposite of defensivenessIs reflective and has much emotional depth (for both pleasure and pain)Existential LivingLiving fully in each and every momentThe absence of rigidity, is flexible, adaptable, and spontaneous

Fully Functioning Individual

Organismic TrustingIntuitive living

Sense of Freedom Experiential: The freedom to choose among alternatives

CreativityThe ability to produce new and effective ideas and things

Maladjusted PersonThis person has received conditional positive regard and developed conditions of worth; there is incongruence between self and potentialities

Five Basic Characteristics

1.Defensive Living

2.Live According to preconceived plan

3.Disregards organism

4.Feels manipulated

5.Common and conforming

Criticisms of Roger’s Approach 1. Idea of free will to explain human behavior is not

scientifico No operational definitions

2. The environment is regarded as an important source of motivational change; yet it is unclear which environmental conditions will enhance growth and which will hinder it

o Again, very vague

3. Approach implies a “me first” psychologyo Rogers said little about how feelings of responsibility

towards others may lead to growth

4. Rogers’ approach does not emphasize the goals toward which an individual may be striving

o What are the end products of striving?

Abraham Maslow & Self-Actualization Abraham Maslow & Self-Actualization Maslow (1943)Proposed that there are five levels of motives, or needs, arranged in a hierarchy We must satisfy needs or motives low on the hierarchy before we are motivated to satisfy needs at the next level

(1908-1970)

Deprivation MotivationDeprivation MotivationThe first four steps considered these needs to result form deficiencies in a person’s lifeBehaviors related to the first four categories are motivated by the deprivation of those things needed for full development

D-Motivation

Deprivation MotivationDeprivation MotivationSince the self-actualized individual has satisfied all the deprivation needs of the hierarchy, the person’s behavior is motivated by a new set of needsMaslow termed these “being needs”

B-Motivation

Types of Self-ActualizersTypes of Self-ActualizersMaslow (1971)Peak experience: A short but intense feeling of awe or ecstasy often accompanied by a sense of fulfillment, insight, and oneness with something larger than oneself Not all self-actualizers in the study felt thisTranscenders (Peakers)Self-actualized individuals who experienced peak experiencesNontranscenders (Nonpeakers)Self-actualized individuals who had not experienced peak experiences

Failure to Self-ActualizeFailure to Self-ActualizeMaslow (1971)Attempted to determine why most people fall short of this goalHe mentioned four possibilities

1.Tendency towards growth is weaker than the deficiency motives2.Western culture has put a negative emphasis on human motivation3.Growth requires the taking of chances4.People are afraid of their own abilities

“Jonah Complex”

Criticisms of Self-ActualizationCriticisms of Self-Actualization1. Lack of Replication

2. Criticized as an elitist theory

3. Motivation towards growth is not as general as Maslow proposed

4. Vagueness in language and concepts

Research on Self-ActualizationResearch on Self-ActualizationShostrom (1964)Time CompetenceSelf-actualized individuals appear less restricted by social pressures or conformityThey live in the present but can meaningfully tie in past or future events to the presentHave aspirations tied to goals that they are currently striving forPrivette (1983)AbsorptionSelf-actualized individuals are able to intensely focus attention to the exclusion of other perceptual events

Research on Self-ActualizationResearch on Self-ActualizationDavis, Lockwood, & Wright (1991)Examined why people are reluctant to report peak experiencesFound that 79% reported having a peak experienceAbout half of these individuals had told no more than two others; 20% had not told anyone

A Revised Hierarchy of NeedsA Revised Hierarchy of NeedsKenrick, Griskevicius, Neuberg, & Schaller (2010)Did analysis of each need on three levels: evolutionary significance, developmental trajectory, specific environmental stimuli

A Revised Hierarchy of NeedsA Revised Hierarchy of NeedsKenrick, Griskevicius, Neuberg, & Schaller (2010)Analyses of each need on three levels: evolutionary significance, developmental trajectory, specific environmental stimuliOriginal theory: five fundamental needs; potentially two needs could be active at one timeRevised theory: new needs with overlapping circlesSelf-actualization is omitted as these researchers argue that it is not a fundamental human need but rather part of other needs

◦For example, part of old need (esteem) and new needs (that govern mating)

A Revised Hierarchy of NeedsA Revised Hierarchy of NeedsKenrick, Griskevicius, Neuberg, & Schaller (2010)Interpretation is that self-actualization while gone as a stand-alone need, remains an inherent motive in several of the other upper level needsMating needs are at the top of the hierarchy because from an evolutionary standpoint, the continuance of one’s genes is the primary motive

A Revised Hierarchy of NeedsA Revised Hierarchy of NeedsKenrick, Griskevicius, Neuberg, & Schaller (2010)Life-span ideaInfants: physiological and safety need must be satisfiedChildhood: first affiliation becomes important followed later by motive to gain status and esteemAdolescence: Sexual needs become primary motive; need to find a mate is key motiveAdulthood: Retaining mate is primary goal; becoming parents and nurturing offspring and hence one’s genes is final goal

Effectance MotivationEffectance Motivation

White (1959)Argued that a striving for competence was a fundamental human need; gaining control over one’s environmentClearly seen in young childrenIs most apparent when homeostatic motives are at low levelsAs adults we continue to be motivated by efficacy in handling our environment

◦Thus, competence behavior is adaptive

Social Cognitive Theory of Social Cognitive Theory of Human AgencyHuman Agency

Bandura (2001)Felt that human agency is a fundamental human motiveHumans are active rather than reactiveBehavior shaped both by internal and environmental factors

Social Cognitive Theory of Social Cognitive Theory of Human AgencyHuman Agency

Bandura (2001)Reciprocal CausationPosits that our behavior, environment, and personal factors influence and are influenced by one anotherHolistic approach

Core Features of Human AgencyCore Features of Human AgencyBandura (2001)Intentionality

◦Proactive commitment to bring about a future course of action

Forethought◦Your action plan; anticipation of future events◦Maximizes your chances for a successful outcome

Self-reactiveness◦Motivation and self-regulation to maintain a course of action;

evaluate itSelf-reflectiveness

◦Ability to evaluate how effective we are at exercising our capacity for human agency

Self-Determination TheorySelf-Determination TheoryDeci & Ryan (1980)Self-determination theory posits an innate tendency toward growth, integration of the self, and the resolution of psychological inconsistencyIndividuals seek to extend themselves and to integrate what they experience

Self-Determination TheorySelf-Determination TheoryDeci & Ryan (1980)Posits that we have three basic needs: competence, relatedness, and autonomyCompetence

◦The need to feel that one can reliably produce desired outcomes and/oravoid negative outcomes

Relatedness◦The need to feel close to others and emotionally secure in

one’s relationshipsAutonomy

◦The feeling that one is acting in accord with one’s sense of self

Self-Determination TheorySelf-Determination TheoryDeci & Ryan (1980)Satisfaction of all of these needs is necessary for healthy functioningFutile attempts at reaching these needs can lead to maladaptive state; learned helplessnessSince these needs lead us to personal growth; if obstacles prevent reaching them we may have a decreased motivation toward personal development

Positive PsychologyPositive PsychologySeligman & Csikszentmihalyi (2000)Felt that psychology had become dominated by attempts to treat disease and has not focused enough on nurturing healthy individuals to avoid disorders and to grow to their full potential

Martin Seligman(born in 1942)

Positive PsychologyPositive PsychologySeligman & Csikszentmihalyi (2000)These researchers posit that it is just as important to study healthy development as it is to study disease

◦It is important to learn the processes that control positive growth so that it can be nurtured

◦Much more can be learned about disorders if we understand how they differ from healthy development

Criticisms of Positive PsychologyCriticisms of Positive Psychology

Theoretical CriticismPositive psychology has adopted many core principles of humanistic psychology without proper recognition of the roots of those ideas Positive psychology have used a reductionist research methodology which is the opposite to the holistic approaches that humanistic psychology promotes

Criticisms of Positive PsychologyCriticisms of Positive Psychology

Practical CriticismPositive Psychology is prescriptive when it should be descriptiveRather than trying to understand optimism and happiness, they tell us that we should be optimistic and happy

CreditsCredits

Some slides prepared with the help of the following websites:http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/maslow.htmlwww.bangor.ac.uk/~pes004/exercise_psych/downloads/insidesdt06.ppt