Chapter 10Chapter 10The Endocrine SystemThe Endocrine System

The Body’s Other Control SystemThe Body’s Other Control System

IntroductionIntroduction

The nervous & endocrine systemThe nervous & endocrine system are are totally interconnectedtotally interconnected & always & always monitormonitor each other’s activities.each other’s activities.

Endocrine systemEndocrine system also also collects informationcollects information and sends orders but it is and sends orders but it is slowerslower, more , more subtle control system; while it acts slowly, subtle control system; while it acts slowly, effects last longereffects last longer than those of nervous than those of nervous system.system.

Organization of Endocrine SystemOrganization of Endocrine System

A series of organs & glandsA series of organs & glands in body that in body that secrete secrete chemical messengerschemical messengers intointo blood blood streamstream..

Exocrine glandsExocrine glands, like sweat glands, secrete , like sweat glands, secrete out of bodyout of body, but are , but are not part ofnot part of endocrine endocrine system that secrete into body.system that secrete into body.

HormonesHormones

Chemical messengersChemical messengers released by released by endocrine glandsendocrine glands..

Released into blood streamReleased into blood stream & travel all & travel all over bodyover body

Some affectingSome affecting millions of cells millions of cells simultaneously.simultaneously.

Effects lastEffects last for for minutesminutes, , hourshours or or daysdays Some, like Some, like Insulin, are secreted all the , are secreted all the

time, with amount secreted changing time, with amount secreted changing PRNPRN..

Hormones con’tHormones con’t

Function byFunction by binding to receptors sites binding to receptors sites onon or or insideinside of target cells. of target cells.

Can have several different effectsCan have several different effects, either , either changing cellular changing cellular permeabilitypermeability or sending or sending target cell a target cell a messagemessage that changes that changes enzymeenzyme activity inside cell. activity inside cell.

Control of Endocrine ActivityControl of Endocrine Activity

Amount of hormoneAmount of hormone secreted changes secreted changes based on based on situational demandssituational demands..

Many endocrine organs secrete hormones Many endocrine organs secrete hormones continuouslycontinuously..

Many chemical & physical characteristics Many chemical & physical characteristics of body have of body have standard levelstandard level, or , or set-pointset-point, , that is ideal level for that particular value.that is ideal level for that particular value.

Examples: Examples: BPBP, , Pao2Pao2, , HRHR, & , & blood sugarblood sugar..

SteroidsSteroids Bind Bind to sites inside cellsto sites inside cells Lipid moleculesLipid molecules that can that can

pass easily through pass easily through target cell membrane, target cell membrane, allowing them to allowing them to interact directly with interact directly with cell’s DNA to change cell cell’s DNA to change cell activity.activity.

Must be carefully Must be carefully regulatedregulated because only because only small amountssmall amounts are are needed. needed.

Negative Feed BackNegative Feed Back Endocrine & Nervous systemEndocrine & Nervous system work together work together

to keep levels at or to keep levels at or near homeostasisnear homeostasis.. ExampleExample: : hypothalamus hypothalamus stores ideal set-stores ideal set-

point for temperature.point for temperature. If hormone levels If hormone levels riserise, , negative feedbacknegative feedback will will

turn off turn off endocrine organ that is secreting endocrine organ that is secreting hormone.hormone.

Is this Positive or Negative Feed Back?

Positive Feed BackPositive Feed Back Increases magnitudeIncreases magnitude of change of change Not a way to regulate bodyNot a way to regulate body, since positive , since positive

feedback feedback increases change increases change awayaway from set from set point.point.

Neural ControlNeural Control

Some hormones are directly controlled by Some hormones are directly controlled by nervous system. nervous system.

When sympathetic nervous system is When sympathetic nervous system is activeactive, it sends signals to , it sends signals to adrenal glandsadrenal glands to release to release epinephrineepinephrine & & norepinephrine.norepinephrine.

prolongs effects of sympathetic activity.prolongs effects of sympathetic activity. Example:Example: “ “fight or flightfight or flight”” syndrome…syndrome… Inspired by MadisonInspired by Madison

Hormonal ControlHormonal Control

Where one gland is controlledWhere one gland is controlled by release of by release of hormones from another gland up the chainhormones from another gland up the chain

Orders are sent from one organ to anotherOrders are sent from one organ to another, like a , like a relay race.relay race.

Feedback controls flow of ordersFeedback controls flow of orders via hormones via hormones from one part of chain to the other.from one part of chain to the other.

ExampleExample:: HypothalamusHypothalamus

PituitaryPituitary

Adrenal Adrenal

Secretes Secretes Cortisol Cortisol

Humoral ControlHumoral Control

A term that pertains to A term that pertains to body fluidsbody fluids or or substancessubstances..

Directly monitorsDirectly monitors body’s body’s internal environment by internal environment by monitoring body fluids.monitoring body fluids.

ExampleExample: pancreas : pancreas secretes secretes insulininsulin in in response to rising response to rising blood blood glucoseglucose levels. levels.

HypothalamusHypothalamus

LocatedLocated in in ““diencephalondiencephalon””

Link betweenLink between nervous & nervous & endocrine control systems.endocrine control systems.

ControlsControls hunger, thirst, hunger, thirst, fluid balance, & body fluid balance, & body temperature.temperature.

Acts asActs as “ “commander in commander in chiefchief” for other glands in ” for other glands in endocrine system.endocrine system.

Controls Controls pituitarypituitary gland gland, & , & thus, thus, most most other glands in other glands in endocrine system.endocrine system.

Pituitary GlandPituitary Gland

Part of “Part of “diencephalondiencephalon”” Known as the “Known as the “master master

glandgland..” ” Acts onlyActs only under orders from under orders from

hypothalamushypothalamus.. If hypothalamusIf hypothalamus is is

““commander in chiefcommander in chief,” ,” pituitary is a high ranking pituitary is a high ranking general.general.

Split into two segmentsSplit into two segments, , anterioranterior pituitary & pituitary & posteriorposterior pituitary. pituitary.

PosteriorPosterior Pituitary Pituitary

ExtensionExtension of hypothalamus of hypothalamus Secretes Secretes ADHADH ( (vasopressinvasopressin): Targets ): Targets

kidneyskidneys/decreases urination when hypothalamus /decreases urination when hypothalamus senses decreased blood volume. senses decreased blood volume. ETOHETOH & & caffeinecaffeine turn off ADH causing turn off ADH causing dehydrationdehydration..

Secretes Secretes OxytocinOxytocin: : maintains maintains uterine uterine contractionscontractions during labor & is involved in during labor & is involved in lactationlactation. .

Pathology ConnectionPathology ConnectionDiabetes InsipidusDiabetes Insipidus

EtiologyEtiology: under-production of ADH: under-production of ADH S/SS/S: excessive, dilute urine: excessive, dilute urine RXRX: fluid & hormone replacement: fluid & hormone replacement

NormalNormal Mild Mild HematuriaHematuria

MicroscopicMicroscopic HematuriaHematuria

AnteriorAnterior Pituitary Pituitary

Makes orMakes or secretes secretes:: GHGH: Growth Hormone : Growth Hormone TSHTSH: thyroid-stimulating hormone: thyroid-stimulating hormone ACTHACTH: adrenocorticotropic hormone: adrenocorticotropic hormone ProlactinProlactin: regulates lactation: regulates lactation LHLH:: luteinizing hormoneluteinizing hormone FSHFSH:: follicle-stimulating hormonefollicle-stimulating hormone

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Table 10-3Table 10-3

Selected hypothalamic & Pituitary Selected hypothalamic & Pituitary Hormones Chart.Hormones Chart.

Pathology ConnectionPathology ConnectionAnterior PituitaryAnterior PituitaryHypopituitarismHypopituitarism

EtiologyEtiology: decrease in function due to : decrease in function due to tumor, trauma, radiation or surgery. tumor, trauma, radiation or surgery.

S/SS/S: vague & subtle : vague & subtle DxDx: imaging & serum hormone levels: imaging & serum hormone levels RxRx: hormone replacement/tumor removal: hormone replacement/tumor removal

Turner’s Turner’s SyndromeSyndrome

Pathology ConnectionPathology ConnectionAnterior PituitaryAnterior PituitaryHyperpituitarismHyperpituitarism

EtiologyEtiology: overproduction of Pituitary hormones due to : overproduction of Pituitary hormones due to tumor.tumor.

S/SS/S: : AcromegalyAcromegalyReproductive abnormalitiesReproductive abnormalitiesCardiac dysfunctionCardiac dysfunctionSleep apneaSleep apneaCushing’s syndromeCushing’s syndromeHyperthyroidismHyperthyroidism

DxDx: imaging & serum hormone levels: imaging & serum hormone levels RxRx: tumor removal : tumor removal

Pathology ConnectionPathology ConnectionAnterior PituitaryAnterior Pituitary

Cushing’s SyndromeCushing’s Syndrome EtiologyEtiology: over-secretion of : over-secretion of cortisolcortisol: Steroids, : Steroids,

pituitary or adrenal tumors, genetic. pituitary or adrenal tumors, genetic. S/SS/S: upper body obesity, round face, : upper body obesity, round face, eccyhmosiseccyhmosis, ,

osteoporosis, fatigue, depression, HTN, & osteoporosis, fatigue, depression, HTN, & hyperglycemia. hyperglycemia. WomenWomen excess facial hair & excess facial hair & irregular menses. irregular menses. MenMen may have decreased may have decreased fertility & libido. fertility & libido.

DxDx: serum analysis, MRI, biopsy: serum analysis, MRI, biopsy RxRx: tumor removal, hormone replacements: tumor removal, hormone replacements

Stature DisordersStature Disorders

DwarfismDwarfism: : EtiologyEtiology: Insufficient GH, genetic : Insufficient GH, genetic S/SS/S: well-below-average height: well-below-average height DxDx: serum hormone levels: serum hormone levels RxRx: hormone replacement injections: hormone replacement injections

Stature DisordersStature Disorders

Gigantism/Acromegaly:Gigantism/Acromegaly: EtiologyEtiology: Too much GH. : Too much GH.

Anterior Pituitary tumor.Anterior Pituitary tumor. S/SS/S: In : In childrenchildren, rapid growth , rapid growth

to height in great excess of to height in great excess of normal; In normal; In adultsadults, excess , excess growth & deformity of body growth & deformity of body tissues.tissues.

DxDx: MRI, serum analysis. : MRI, serum analysis. RxRx: Tumor removal: Tumor removal

AcromegalyAcromegaly

Thyroid GlandThyroid Gland

Located inLocated in anterior anterior portion of neck & is portion of neck & is butterflybutterfly shaped. shaped.

SecretesSecretes Triiodothyronine ( Triiodothyronine (T3T3) & Thyroxine ) & Thyroxine ((T4T4) under pituitary orders; & ) under pituitary orders; & calcitonincalcitonin, , involved in calcium storage.involved in calcium storage.

Contains iodineContains iodine & control cell metabolism & & control cell metabolism & growth.growth.

Thyroid Gland con’tThyroid Gland con’t

Over or underproductionOver or underproduction cause variety of cause variety of clinical symptoms.clinical symptoms.

Essential inEssential in controlling growth & controlling growth & metabolism of body tissues, particularly in metabolism of body tissues, particularly in nervous system.nervous system.

Iodine in table saltIodine in table salt essential for thyroid essential for thyroid function.function.

Pathology ConnectionPathology ConnectionHypothyroidismHypothyroidism

EtiologyEtiology: Either hypothalamus, pituitary, or thyroid : Either hypothalamus, pituitary, or thyroid infection, tumor or autoimmune disease.infection, tumor or autoimmune disease.

S/SS/S: Fatigue, feeling cold, dry skin, hair loss, : Fatigue, feeling cold, dry skin, hair loss, constipation, bradycardia, leg cramps, weight gain, constipation, bradycardia, leg cramps, weight gain, hyperlipidemia, hypercholesterolemia, depression, hyperlipidemia, hypercholesterolemia, depression, sexual dysfunction. sexual dysfunction.

Mild GoiterMild GoiterModerate Moderate

GoiterGoiter

Severe GoiterSevere Goiter

Hashimoto’s ThyroiditisHashimoto’s Thyroiditis

Most common cause of Most common cause of hypothyroidismhypothyroidism Most common in women ages 30-50Most common in women ages 30-50

EtiologyEtiology: autoimmune attack on thyroid : autoimmune attack on thyroid

S/SS/S: edema, pain, dysphagia: edema, pain, dysphagia

DxDx: low serum T4 & elevated TSH: low serum T4 & elevated TSH

RxRx: PO synthetic hormones: PO synthetic hormones

Pathology Connection:Pathology Connection:Hyperthyroidism- Graves DiseaseHyperthyroidism- Graves Disease

EtiologyEtiology: Overproduction of thyroid hormones: Overproduction of thyroid hormones

S/SS/S: feeling hot, muscle tremors & weakness, : feeling hot, muscle tremors & weakness, tachycardia, tachycardia, enlarged-bulging eyesenlarged-bulging eyes, nervous-, nervous-irritable, loose bowels, infertility.irritable, loose bowels, infertility.

Graves DiseaseGraves Disease

Most common form of hyperthyroidismMost common form of hyperthyroidism More common in women of More common in women of childbearing agechildbearing age

EtiologyEtiology: autoimmune attack on TSH receptors : autoimmune attack on TSH receptors of thyroid. of thyroid.

S/SS/S: tremors, sweating, weakness, tachycardia, : tremors, sweating, weakness, tachycardia, arrhythmia, irritability.arrhythmia, irritability.

DxDx: elevated serum T4 & low TSH. MRI thyroid : elevated serum T4 & low TSH. MRI thyroid with radioactive iodine; radioactive iodine with radioactive iodine; radioactive iodine uptake is increased.uptake is increased.

RxRx: Radiation, thyroidectomy, thyroid : Radiation, thyroidectomy, thyroid replacement meds.replacement meds.

Parathyroid GlandsParathyroid Glands

2 small pairs2 small pairs of glands embedded in its of glands embedded in its posterior surface.posterior surface.

Produce parathyroid hormone (PTH), which Produce parathyroid hormone (PTH), which regulates levels of calciumregulates levels of calcium in blood stream. in blood stream.

If calcium levels get too low gland releases If calcium levels get too low gland releases PTH, which PTH, which stimulates bone dissolving cellsstimulates bone dissolving cells & & releases calciumreleases calcium into blood. into blood.

Thymus GlandThymus Gland

Located in upper thorax-posterior sternum. Located in upper thorax-posterior sternum. Both endocrine & lymphatic organBoth endocrine & lymphatic organ Produces Produces ThymosinThymosin: helps with : helps with maturation maturation

of WBCsof WBCs during childhood to during childhood to fight infectionfight infection.. Begins to Begins to hypertrophyhypertrophy during puberty. during puberty.

Pineal GlandPineal Gland

Tiny glandTiny gland found within found within diencephalondiencephalon of brain. of brain. Function remains unknownFunction remains unknown ProducesProduces hormone hormone melatoninmelatonin, which rises and , which rises and

falls during waking & sleeping hours.falls during waking & sleeping hours.

PancreasPancreas

Responsible forResponsible for maintaining maintaining BS levelsBS levels at or near at or near set-point of set-point of 70–10570–105..

During hyperglycemiaDuring hyperglycemia pancreas releases pancreas releases insulininsulin which helps glucose get into cells; excess glucose which helps glucose get into cells; excess glucose affect fluid balance of cells.affect fluid balance of cells.

Secretes Secretes glucagonglucagon, which puts glucose into , which puts glucose into bloodstream during hypoglycemia; low glucose bloodstream during hypoglycemia; low glucose levels affect cell metabolism because all cells levels affect cell metabolism because all cells need glucose for cellular respiration.need glucose for cellular respiration.

Control of Control of Blood GlucoseBlood Glucose by Pancreatic by Pancreatic HormonesHormones

Pathology ConnectionPathology Connection Diabetes MellitusDiabetes Mellitus

Abnormal pancreatic hormones Abnormal pancreatic hormones HyperglycemiaHyperglycemia: abnormally high blood glucose : abnormally high blood glucose

levels.levels. 2 types2 types of diabetes mellitus: of diabetes mellitus:

Type IType I: Usually Juvenile onset: Usually Juvenile onset

Type IIType II: Usually Adult onset: Usually Adult onset

Pathology ConnectionPathology ConnectionType I IDDMType I IDDM

Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDMIDDM); ); juvenile-onset before 40 y/o.juvenile-onset before 40 y/o.

EtiologyEtiology: Auto-immune destruction of insulin : Auto-immune destruction of insulin producing cells of pancreas. inadequate insulin producing cells of pancreas. inadequate insulin production.production.

S/SS/S: usually sudden & severe, urination, extreme : usually sudden & severe, urination, extreme thirst, & weight loss.thirst, & weight loss.

DxDx: BS, UA: BS, UA

RxRx: Insulin replacement via injection, pump, or : Insulin replacement via injection, pump, or pancreas transplant.pancreas transplant.

Taking InsulinTaking Insulin

Pathology ConnectionPathology ConnectionType II NIDDMType II NIDDM

Non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (Non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDMNIDDM).). Late or adult onset Late or adult onset

EtiologyEtiology: body tissue insensitivity to insulin, obesity, : body tissue insensitivity to insulin, obesity, sedentary life style. sedentary life style.

S/SS/S: more subtle than IDDM Type I: more subtle than IDDM Type I

DxDx: BS, UA: BS, UA

RxRx: Diet/exercise, oral antihyperglycemics, insulin.: Diet/exercise, oral antihyperglycemics, insulin.

Pathology Connection:Pathology Connection:

Why DM Causes ProblemsWhy DM Causes Problems Hyperglycemia causeHyperglycemia cause kidneys to work kidneys to work

overtimeovertime to secrete excess sugar. to secrete excess sugar. Results inResults in polyuriapolyuria & & polydipsiapolydipsia, renal , renal

damage.damage. glucose cannotglucose cannot get into cells to make ATP get into cells to make ATP other sources of fuelother sources of fuel for for ATP ATP production production

sought after.sought after. weight lossweight loss as body begins to break down as body begins to break down

energy stores of energy stores of fat & musclefat & muscle.. metabolism changesmetabolism changes resulting in increasingly resulting in increasingly

acidic bloodacidic blood..

DM ProblemsDM Problems

DifficultDifficult wound healing wound healing PeripheralPeripheral neuropathy neuropathy Changes in mentationChanges in mentation ParoxysmalParoxysmal hyper vs hypo glycemia hyper vs hypo glycemia KetoacidosisKetoacidosis: break down of fats into ketone : break down of fats into ketone

bodies.bodies. Coma Coma DeathDeath

HyperglycemiaHyperglycemia

EtiologyEtiology: failure of pancreatic : failure of pancreatic Islets of Islets of LangerhanLangerhan..

S/SS/S: polyphagia, polyuria, polydipsia, blurred : polyphagia, polyuria, polydipsia, blurred vision, fatigue, wt loss.vision, fatigue, wt loss.

DxDx: BS, UA, pt hx: BS, UA, pt hx

RxRx: oral hypoglycemics, insulin, life-style : oral hypoglycemics, insulin, life-style modifications. Pt/family edu. modifications. Pt/family edu.

Hypoglycemia Hypoglycemia Early S/SEarly S/S:: hunger, nervousness, dizziness, anxiety, hunger, nervousness, dizziness, anxiety,

weakness, & difficulty speaking.weakness, & difficulty speaking.

RxRx:: STATSTAT replacement of sugar in bloodreplacement of sugar in blood Fruit juice, milk, non-diet soda, hard candy, then a Fruit juice, milk, non-diet soda, hard candy, then a

regular meal.regular meal.

Later S/SLater S/S:: mental confusion, seizures, coma & possibly mental confusion, seizures, coma & possibly

deathdeath

RxRx: : STATSTAT medical attention: medical attention: GlucagonGlucagon, , IV glucoseIV glucose, , foodfood when when alert & stablealert & stable..

Body’s Body’s defensedefense against against HypoglycemiaHypoglycemia

Multiple organs attempt to correct BS deficitMultiple organs attempt to correct BS deficit PancreasPancreas: : decreases insulin secretion, increases decreases insulin secretion, increases

glucagonglucagon secretion secretion.. Adrenal GlandsAdrenal Glands: sympathetic nervous system : sympathetic nervous system

triggers release of triggers release of epinephrineepinephrine.. HypothalamusHypothalamus: triggers feelings of hunger, so : triggers feelings of hunger, so

patient will eat food. patient will eat food.

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Table 10-4Table 10-4

Comparison of Type I & Type II Comparison of Type I & Type II Diabetes chart.Diabetes chart.

Adrenal GlandsAdrenal Glands

Pair Pair of small glands that sit on kidneys, like of small glands that sit on kidneys, like baseball hats.baseball hats.

SplitSplit into into 22 Regions Regions Adrenal Adrenal cortex cortex is outer layeris outer layer Adrenal Adrenal medullamedulla is middle of the gland is middle of the gland

Adrenal MedullaAdrenal Medulla

Releases two hormonesReleases two hormones EpinephrineEpinephrine ( (adrenalinadrenalin)) NorepinephrineNorepinephrine (both hormone & (both hormone &

neurotransmitter).neurotransmitter). Increase durationIncrease duration of effects of sympathetic of effects of sympathetic

nervous system; effects of hormones last nervous system; effects of hormones last longer than neurotransmitter.longer than neurotransmitter.

Effects includeEffects include increased HR, BP, & increased HR, BP, & respiration, diaphoresis & dry mouth.respiration, diaphoresis & dry mouth.

Adrenal CortexAdrenal Cortex

Releases Releases AdrenocorticosteroidsAdrenocorticosteroids under under direct stimulation of anterior pituitary.direct stimulation of anterior pituitary.

decrease in productiondecrease in production could be could be fatalfatal relatively quickly (relatively quickly (Addisonian crisisAddisonian crisis).).

RegulatesRegulates fluids, electrolytes, BS, fluids, electrolytes, BS, reproduction, secondary sexual reproduction, secondary sexual characteristics, cell metabolism, growth, & characteristics, cell metabolism, growth, & immune system function.immune system function.

Addison’s DiseaseAddison’s Disease

EtiologyEtiology: : adrenalcorticosteroidsadrenalcorticosteroids deficiency due deficiency due to autoimmune attack on adrenal cortex, to autoimmune attack on adrenal cortex, cancer or infection.cancer or infection.

S/S MildS/S Mild: weakness, fatigue, hypoglycemia, : weakness, fatigue, hypoglycemia, depression.depression.

DxDx: imaging & blood tests for corticosteroids: imaging & blood tests for corticosteroidsRx MildRx Mild: hormone replacement : hormone replacement S/SS/S CrisisCrisis: acute hypotension, acute : acute hypotension, acute

hypoglycemia, acidosis, coma. hypoglycemia, acidosis, coma. RxRx CrisisCrisis: : IV steroidsIV steroids, IV , IV NSNS, IV , IV DextroseDextrose, IV , IV Na Na

HCO3HCO3, , O2O2, , cardiac monitoringcardiac monitoring..

Therapeutic Therapeutic SteroidsSteroids

PrednisonePrednisone used in treatment of used in treatment of inflammation, organ rejection, immune inflammation, organ rejection, immune disorders.disorders.

can have dangerous side effectscan have dangerous side effects including includingBone lossBone lossWeight gainWeight gainHair growthHair growthFat depositsFat depositsDelayed wound healingDelayed wound healingCautionCaution: : Do notDo not stop steroids suddenly! stop steroids suddenly!

Decrease Decrease over time onlyover time only!!!!!!

Illegal Anabolic SteroidsIllegal Anabolic Steroids

CausesCauses large increase in muscle mass large increase in muscle mass Used toUsed to enhance performance or muscle size. enhance performance or muscle size.

Side Effects Side Effects MenMen:: Atrophy of testicles and decreased sperm Atrophy of testicles and decreased sperm

production.production. enlarged breastsenlarged breasts

Side Effects Side Effects WomenWomen:: deepening of voicedeepening of voice decreased breast sizedecreased breast size excessive body hair growth(yuck!!)excessive body hair growth(yuck!!)

Anabolic Side Effects both GendersAnabolic Side Effects both Genders

Increased cholesterol levelsIncreased cholesterol levels Cardiovascular diseaseCardiovascular disease Weakened immune functionWeakened immune function exposure to hepatitis B or HIV through exposure to hepatitis B or HIV through

sharing needles.sharing needles. Aggressive behaviorAggressive behavior NoteNote: steroids are banned by all major : steroids are banned by all major

professional & amateur athletic professional & amateur athletic organizations.organizations.

Anabolic Side EffectsAnabolic Side Effects

Cortisol Cortisol & & normalnormal stress response stress response

Sympathetic nervous system activatesSympathetic nervous system activates Stimulates Adrenal glandsStimulates Adrenal glands EpinephrineEpinephrine & & norepinephrinenorepinephrine: raise BP, : raise BP,

HR, respiration rate & BS; decreases HR, respiration rate & BS; decreases digestion & other less urgent physiological digestion & other less urgent physiological functions.functions.

CortisolCortisol increases blood sugar; changes increases blood sugar; changes immune response.immune response.

prepares body to rapidly expend energy, prepares body to rapidly expend energy, beneficial in beneficial in short termshort term..

Cortisol Cortisol & & Chronic Chronic stressstress response response

Chronic Cortisol secretion can result inChronic Cortisol secretion can result in:: Increased appetiteIncreased appetite increase autoimmunity and decrease increase autoimmunity and decrease

defense against infection.defense against infection. increased HR, HTN, hyperglycemia, increased HR, HTN, hyperglycemia,

hypercholesterolemia, abdominal fat, hypercholesterolemia, abdominal fat, anxiety, depressionanxiety, depression..

GonadsGonads GreekGreek for seed for seed includeinclude testes & ovaries testes & ovaries functionfunction to produce & store gametes: to produce & store gametes:

Eggs & Sperm.Eggs & Sperm. Produce sex hormonesProduce sex hormones which control which control

reproduction: reproduction: TestosteroneTestosterone in men & in men &

Estrogen inEstrogen in women. women.