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CHAPTER 10 : SCHOOLS
Adolescent Psychology
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Chapter Overview
Educational StrategiesSchool transitionsSocial Contexts of SchoolsExceptional Adolescents
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Learning In Adolescence
School is an important context for learning Academic learning & social arena
Direct Instruction Approach Teacher-centered; Teacher direction & control Mastery of academic skills High expectations for students Maximum time spent on learning tasks Continues to be used in many schools
Constructivist Approaches Interest in school reform Learner-centered Learner as active participant
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Constructivist Approaches
Cognitive constructivist Piaget’s theory active, cognitive construction of knowledge &
understanding. teacher: provide support for students to explore their
world & develop understanding
Social constructivist Vygotsky’s theory importance of collaboration with others to produce
knowledge & understanding. Teacher: create many opportunities for students to learn
with the teacher & with peers in co-constructing understanding.
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The Debate
Constructivists argue that direct instruction Makes adolescence passive learners Does not adequately challenge Does not promote creativity
Direct Instruction enthusiasts argue that constructivists
Do not give enough attention to content of subject areas Too vague
Many educators & educational psychologists believe that a combination of these may be most effective
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APA’s Learner-Centered Psychological Principles
APA developed 14 learner-centered principles to guide child and adolescent education
Divided into 4 categories1. Cognitive & metacognitive factors2. Motivational & instructional factors3. Developmental & social factors4. Individual difference factors
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Schools & Accountability
How effective are schools? Who needs to be acountable? State-mandated tests have taken on a more powerful role
Learning objective No Child Left Behind (NCLB)
Federal legislation; Signed into law in 2002 Schools & school districts accountable for the success or failure of
their students Criticisms of NCLB
A single score from a single test as the sole indicator of students’ progress and competence represents a very narrow aspect of students’ skills (Lewis, 2006).
The tests schools are using to assess achievement and progress as part of NCLB don’t measure such important skills as creativity, motivation, persistence, flexible thinking, and social skills (Ercikan, 2006)
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Criticisms of NCLB
A single score from a single test as the sole indicator of students’ progress & competence?? (Lewis, 2006)
Tests don’t measure creativity, motivation, persistence, flexible thinking, & social skills (Ercikan, 2006)
Too much class time “teaching to the test” So are these tests & procedures mandated by NCLB
the best ones for achieving high standards for education? (Houston, 2005)
How could we make schools more accountable?How could we make students/parents more
accountable?
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Transitions in Schooling
Change is stressfulTop-dog phenomenonMove toward personal independence &
responsibilityGood student adjustment & high self esteem
Fewer transitions Extra-curricular activity involvement High quality friendships Parental support
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Transition: Elementary School to Middle School
Emergence of junior high schools in the 1920s & 1930s
Justified on the basis of physical, cognitive, & social changes that characterize early adolescence
Influenced by early onset of pubertyOccurs simultaneously with many other changes:
Puberty Formal operational thought Responsibility & independence Impersonal school structure Heterogeneous set of peers Focus on assessment Top-dog phenomenon
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Improving Middles Schools
Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development (1998) recommended core social policy for education
Developing smaller “communities” – lessen impersonal nature
Lowering student-to-counselor ratios (100s:1 10:1) Involving parents & community leaders Develop better curricula Team-teach in flexible blocks, integrating several
disciplines Boost students’ health & fitness – access to public health
careSuccessful middle schools provide & promote…
Personal attention, involve parents, support rigorous instruction, & promote student health
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American High Schools
Many high school graduates are poorly prepared for College demands of a modern, high-performance workplace
New mission for the 21st century addressed the following problems (National Commission on the High School Senior Year, 2001):
Better instruction to enable all students to graduate from high school & succeed in post-secondary education & careers
Need higher expectations for student achievement Example: senior year
U.S. high school students spend too much time working in low-level service jobs (14 to 20 hours a week)
Better communication & coordination between K-12 & above
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Dropping Out of High School
Viewed as a serious educational & societal problem for many decades
Adolescents approach adult life with educational deficiencies
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Dropping Out of High School
The Causes School-related problems Economic reasons Socioeconomic status Friends drop out Personal reasons
Reducing the Dropout Rate• Early detection of school-related difficulties• Get engaged with school in positive ways • Early reading programs, tutoring, counseling, & mentoring• Create caring environments & relationships, use block
scheduling, & offer community-service opportunities
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Transition: High School to College
• Replays the top-dog phenomenon • More impersonal school structure• Peers from diverse backgrounds• Focus on assessment• Reduced contact with parents
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Transition: College to Work
• Having a college degree is a strong asset • College graduates earn considerably more money in
their lifetimes…but often leave college in debt • Often a difficult transition• U.S. colleges: develop general skills rather than
vocationally specific skills• Many graduates: poorly prepared for specific jobs• Difficulty obtaining the type of job they desire, or any
job• Bouncing from one job to another not unusual
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Social Context of Schools
• Social context differs at the different levels of school• Preschool:
• A protected environment; Limited social setting• Children interact with one or two teachers• Almost always female teachers• Modifies some patterns of behavior developed through family
experiences. • The Elementary School:
• Classroom is still the major context -- a social unit • Social expression is more complex• Teachers & peers have a prominent influence on children• The teacher symbolizes authority• The peer group becomes more salient
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Social Context of School
• Middle or Junior High School• School environment increases in scope & complexity.• Social field expands-- school as a whole rather than the
classroom• Socially interact with many different teachers & peers
from a range of social & ethnic backgrounds• A greater mix of male & female teachers• Extracurricular activities, clubs, community
• High School• School as a social system
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School Size & Class Size
• Increased size of secondary schools in the United States:
• Increasing urban enrollments• Decreasing budgets
• Is bigger better?• No systematic relation between school size & academic
achievement has been found• More prosocial & possibly less antisocial behavior occur
in small schools (Rutter & others, 1979)
• Substantial reduction in class size does improve student achievement (Blatchford & Mortimore, 1994; Finn, 2002)
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Managing Classroom Climate
• Strategies for creating a positive classroom environments
1. Using an authoritative strategy2. Effectively managing the group’s activities
Strategies of Classroom Management• Authoritative
• Encourages independent thinking & doing• Consistent monitoring; caring attitude; limit setting• Verbal give and take
• Authoritarian• Restrictive & punitive• Focus on keeping order, not on learning
• Permissive• Autonomy with little guidance, boundaries, or support• No safety
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Well Managed Classroom
Fosters learning Clear rules & procedures – the safety of boundaries Organization of groups Pacing & monitoring activities
Prevents academic & emotional problems from developing
Activities absorb & motivate studentsStudents busy with active & challenging tasksPromotes motivationConsider person-environment fit
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Teachers & Parents
• Teachers • Enthusiasm, ability to plan, poise, adaptability, warmth,
flexibility• Awareness of individual differences
• Parents & Schools• important role in the adolescent’s success in school
• family management practices (structure & organization)• Routine & achievement expectations• Positively related to grades & self-responsibility• Negatively to school-related problems (Taylor, 1996)
• Being involved in schooling
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Peers & Bullying
• Structure of middle school•Peer Statuses• Status• Group activity -- witnesses
•Bullying• 1 in 3 • Loneliness• Difficulty making friends• Cyberbullying• Suicide, depression, health
problems, anxiety, sleep, etc.
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Bullying
Verbal or physical bx intended to disturb someone less powerful
Boys, younger middle school students, students with disabilities
Victims: loneliness, difficulty making friendsBullies: low grades, smoke, drink alcohol
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Bullying
Victims Short-term: depressed, disinterest in school, avoid
school Headaches, sleep problems, stomach pain, feeling tired Suicidal ideation; more likely to have health problems
Long-term: in adulthood Depression, low self-esteem
Bullies Short-term:
Depression, suicidal ideation; More likely to have health problems
Long-term: 60% -- 1 criminal conviction; 33% had 3 or more
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Bullying & Prevention
School climate: high academic standards, parental involvement, effective discipline
Olweus Bullying Prevention www.colorado.edu/espv/blueprints
Bully-Proofing Your School www.sopriswest.com
Steps to Respect School wide approach, training staff & parents,
teaching students to recognize and not tolerate www.cfchildren.org
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Bullying & Prevention
Get older peers to interveneDevelop school wide rules & post themForm friendship groups for victims of bullyingIncorporate anti-bullying messages into communityParents – reinforce positive behavior & appropriate
interpersonal interactionsIdentify early & use social skills trainingEncourage contact with helping professionalSchool programs to counteract bullyingModel interactions that do not include bullying or
aggression