CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

1 .1 : General

India has a long history and tradition of nature conservation and a rich heritage of

wildlife. In the ancient times the wildlife conservation ethic was imbibed in the

sylvan surroundings as "Ashrams" (Preaching schools) which were the seats of

learning. The "Vedas" contain lot of information pertaining to respect for nature

and its conservation including wild plants, animals and their habitat. The wild

animals have been linked with Gods and Goddess. For example- Eagle has been

associated with God Vishnu, Cobra and other snakes with God Shiva, peacock

with Goddess Sharashwati and lord Krishna, Owl with Goddess Laxmi, Lion with

Goddess Ourga, Buffalo with god Yamraj and so on. Mahabharata contain many

references indicating how Rishis (Saints) lived in the forests in harmony with

nature having compassion with several wild plants and animals.

In the Arthashastra of Chanakya conservation ethics have been mentioned with

penalties for killing, trapping or molesting deer, Gaur, wild buffalo, birds and fishes.

Other religions of India like Buddhism and Janis strongly advocated the idea of

non-violence, which has significantly controlled destruction of wildlife due to

hunting. The fifth pillar edict of Ashoka (3'd century B.C.), contains certain rules

protecting wild animals and fishes. During the medieval period, even moghul

emperors exhibited their deep interest in wildlife of India. For the protection and

preservation of game animals, they created hunting reserves called 'Shikar Gaha'.

The saint poet 'Tulsidas' in the greatest classic monograph "Ram Charit Manas'

has referred to environmental factors and ecology without using the word as such.

This is quite similar in fashion with writing of philosophers of Greek period that

contained ecological material but without the use of the world "ecology" (Kotwal

1987).

1.1. A: Hindu period

In early Jainism and Buddhist periods, considerable stress was given on the

conservation of wildlife through religious sanctities. King Ashoka in the third

century B.C., took first step towards protection of game and forests. As the time

passed and need arose more land was brought under agriculture and forests were

cleared as a result of which the distributional range and population of wild animals

have considerably reduced.

1.1. 8: Moghul period

During this period the wild animals were viewed as game. These were protected

and preserved in the hunting reserves called "Shikar Gaha" for providing sports to

the kings. Moghul kings also and trained some of the wild animals, like the

cheetah, the falcon, the hawk etc., to facilitate hunting and for fun (Rao, 1984).

1.1. C: British period

There was abundant wildlife in India prior to British period. But during 19th century,

high powered and dependable weapons were developed for fighting wars. With

this advancement in weapons, which were also used for hunting, the population of

wild animals also declined. Kings, army officers, tea planters and civil servants

were mainly responsible for heavy hunting on wild animals. Large numbers of wild

animals were killed in the name of game hunting by the Britishers and other

persons. Some of them were in competition to hold the highest record. For

example one Indian ruler has a record of having shot 1100 tigers besides a large

number of other wild animals.

1.1. 0: Second World War and after

During war period heavy depletion of wild animals took place. Later on, food

problem gained importance and vast forest areas were cleared for agriculture.

Population explosion and agriculture oriented plans and wanting knowledge about

wildlife did not draw attention of the government towards this important subject of

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wildlife till recently. And as a result, most of the valuable wildlife vanished or is on

the verge of extinction.

In recent years, the Madhya Pradesh State has emerged as a torchbearer in

wildlife conservation in the country. It has a total of 11 National Parks covering

6306 sq. km. and 32 wildlife sanctuaries covering 10286 sq. km. This impressive

total area of 16592 sq. km. Is under protected areas which is greater than

anywhere else in India. It has the honor to be known as "Tiger State" having

maximum population of tigers (927).

Madhya Pradesh is well blessed with nature having forests over 30% of the

geographical area of the state. The human population density is also relatively low

(117 per square km.) More conservation area can and should be formed (Rodgers

and Panwar, 1988).

1.2: About the subject of Research -Indian wild buffalo

The Indian wild buffalo (Bubalus bubalis L.) has been listed as an endangered

species in the Red Data book of IUCN. It has been categorized in appendix II! of

Convention on International Trade for Endangered Species of wild flora and fauna

(CITES) which indicates that there is complete ban on its trade. It is classified in

schedule! of wildlife (Protection) act 1972, which indicates that it has been given

top priority for conservation. If appropriate steps for conservation are not

immediately taken, then the species is likely to become extinct.

The wild buffalo surely ranks as one of the most important and magnificently built

wild animal in the world today. It is one of the most powerful and heaviest but most

proportionate of all the south Asian wild bovines. The animal carries the largest

horns as compared to any surviving animal of the world today.

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The zoological classification of wild buffalo is as follows

Class - Mammalia

Order - Artiodactyla

Family- Bovidae

Sub- family - Bovinae

Genus - Bubalus

Species -bubalis Linn.

Status of Wild buffalo:

IUCN: Endangered

CITES: Appendix; Ill

Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972: Schedule I

The wild buffalo is a magnificent black animal. The shoulder height range

between1.3 - 1.8 m. The average weight range from 600 to 900 kg. It posses

massive horns measuring (average) over 1 m. The horns tend to be triangular in

cross-section. The parietals form a wide zone of the roof of the cranium and are

separated from the frontals. The horn emerges from the head towards posterior.

These are crescent shaped and smaller (130- 140 em.) in male and longer (130-

150 em.) in female. The hair on the back of the body goes forward from the rump

to nape, the ears are small and not fringed. The skin has few sweat glands and

relatively fewer hairs. It has wide hooves with joints, which are very flexible for

walking in mud. It has short legs and can not run fast.

The colour of the male is darker than the female white the young ones are almost

brown. The female wild buffaloes have bigger horns, a majestic figure and a bulky

neck region. The girth and span of the horns of females are less than male. They

are found in herds except the solitary bull.

1.3: Wild Buffalo - World Scenario

The sub genus Buba/us has different species in various countries of world.

Ama (Bubalis amee)- Meghalaya

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Water buffalo (B. b. arnee Fulvus), Assam A rare brown animal now found

only in protected areas.

Ceylon water buffalo (B. b. arnee Migona)- Pure and does not cross with

domestic buffaloes, and found only in the Yama game reserve.

B. b. arnee - sub species is perhaps not the real wild buffalo, but feral

domestic buffalo.

Borneo water buffalo (B. b. arnee Hosei)- this is smaller, of pale gray color

and found only in the valley of the Miri and the Baram River in the north

Borneo.

Tamarou (B. b. arnee Mindorensis)- The smallest sub species, which has

similar characteristics.

The B. b. anoa is found only in the Philippine Island of Mindoro, and it is the

rarest wild buffalo on the earth.

1.3.1: African Wild Buffalo

According to Sinclaire (1977), the African wild buffalo may be divided in to the

following three types, which are found in west and east Africa.

A - Syncerus caffer caffer

Gaffer is one of the largest, among wild buffaloes standing 140- 160 em. At the

shoulder, the males weighting up to 700 kg while female upto 500 kg. They are

black and have relatively wide horns, reaching a span of 132 em. The distribution

of these races extends from South Africa and Angola, through central and east

Africa, to the south border of Sudan and Ethiopia.

8 - Syncerus caffer nanus

The smallest race, nanus is only half the size of caffer (105 em. At the shoulder)

and is reddish brown. This race is found in both dense lowland forest and savanna

from the Ivory Coast westward.

C - Syncerus caffer bracxhyceros

The distribution extends from the Ivory Coast through Nigeria to Northern

Cameroon.

Asian Wild buffalo (Bubalus bubalis)

Wild water buffalo

Tamara (Bubalis mindorensis

Indian wild buffalo

(Bubalus bubalis arni

Anoa

(Bubalus depressicornis}

African wild buffalo (Syncerus caffer)

Syncerus caffer caffer

S. caffer Brachyceros

S. caffer nan us

Flow chart 1 : Different types of wild buffalo in the world

1.3.2: Asian Wild Buffalo

In the past lot of wild buffaloes use to occur in the Asian countries, but in the

present time they are rare. Blower (1982} reported that wild buffalo use to occur

along lrrawatti river system in the Myanmar but now they are no more there.

1.3.2. A: Indian wild Buffalo (Bubalus bubalis L.)

Seals of the Indus valley civilization (2500B.C.) depicting the wild buffalo testify to

its then existence in the river basin. In the more recent historical past, the range of

the animal extended over the riverine and forest grassland in the Ganga,

Bramhaputra, Narmada and Godavari River systems. Today they are surviving in

Bramhaputra valley Grasslands Kaziranga, Manas, Dibru and Pabha protected

areas in Assam. A small herd survives in Kosi tappu in Nepal. In peninsular India

wild buffalo population, survive as small-scattered populations in Bhairamgarh,

lndravati, and Pamed in Bastar district of Madhya Pradesh (now Chhattisgarh).

The genetically pure population survives in Udanti WLS Aaipur.

According one estimate about 1800 wild buffaloes are reported to occur in

different parts (only Assam and Chhattisgarh) of India. In Assam there are three

major habitats in Kaziranga, Manas and Prabha protected areas. Estimated total

wild buffalo population in the state of Assam is about 1600. Some wild buffaloes

are reported in the grasslands around Dibrugarh.

1.3.2. 8: Tamarou (Bubalus bubalis mindorensis)- Philippines

Found only on Mindoro Island in the Philippines, is a small animal, 100 -120 em. at

the shoulder and weighting only 400 kg. It lives in forest and tall grass jungle, but

otherwise little is known about its ecology and is now very rare (Talbot and Talbot,

1960 &1963).

1.3.2. C: Anoa (Buubalus bubalis depressicornis)- Sulwasi

The other dwarf race, the anoa, is even smaller (60 - 100 em. At shoulder) and

occurs only in Sulwasi (Celibes), still less is known about this animal.

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Table: 1 -The basic difference between Indian and African wild buffalo

Sf Particulars Indian wild buffalo African wild buffalo

No. (Buba/us bubalis L.) (Syncerus caffel)

1. Hair On the middle, grow On the back and normally

foreword from rump to directed backward

nape

2. Ears Small and not fringed Large and heavily fringed with

hair.

3. Skin Has few sweat glands Has many sweat glands

4. Horns Larger Smaller

5. Movement Can run slowly Can run fast

1.3.3: Other countries

The wild buffalo occurs in many countries of the world, but pure wild stock is found

only in Asian and African countries. Besides, some feral populations are found in

Australia and some parts of the America. In the former times they ranged from

Mesopotamia to Indo china and in the ih century A.D. they were hunted in Persia.

Wild buffalo also occurred in the Myanmar boarder of Thailand (Lekagual and

McNelly, 1978)

1.4 : Wild buffalo in Udanti Wildlife Sanctuary

The Udanti WLS has good habitat for wild buffalo along with other wild herbivores.

In the past lot of wild buffalo herds were reported to occur in the Sal forest of

Chhattisgarh region along Udanti river (lnverarity, 1895). But gradually the

populations of wild buffalo decreased due to habitat degradation. There are about

79 wild buffaloes as per official records of the Udanti wild life sanctuary along with

other wild animals.

The forest crop is 15-25 m. high and the density is sparse. The canopy cover

being 50 -70 % when in leaf. The two types of forests occur in this area; first is

Shorea robusta and other associated species, and second are mixed forest with

Anogeissus latifolia, Cleistanthus co/linus and other associated species. The

Shorea robusta type of forest occurs in the plains area while mixed forest is found

in hilly and plateau areas. Tectona grandis also occurs in the area, it was

introduced by the forest department being timber of very high economic value.

Now it has naturalized in few patches and appears growing with the Sal. The

original forest is Sal type along with associated species.

Grasses are dominant in the plain areas and on the banks of Udanti and lndravan

rivers. Some common grass species like Themeda quadrivalvis, Heteropogon

contortus etc. are common on plateau areas also. I have observed over 2 meter

tall grass on the plateau area of Deodongri hill in side the sanctuary.

There is not sufficient water holes for drinking and wallowing of wild buffalo and

other wild animals particularly in the summer season. There are about 18 small

artificial ponds beside Udanti and lndravan rivers, which are main source of water

in the sanctuary. A lot of decimating factors such as forest fires, uncontrolled

grazing, encroachment and human settlements are there in the sanctuary.

1.5 : Objectives

..-To study the habitat conditions in and around the sanctuary .

..-To study activities of wild bu~alo

..-To study, suitability of habitat for wild buffalo in sanctuary .

..-To assess factors for decline of wild buffalo population in the sanctuary .

..-To suggest. ways to improve the habitat and population of wild buffalo .

..- To suggest, management strategy of the sanctuary.

1.6: Importance of the study

This research has been done on the habitat of wild buffalo in Udanti wildlife

sanctuary. It is the first systematic research on Indian wild buffalo in central India.

The main objectives of this study are pertaining to habitat management of this

species. This is one of the most threatened species in the world, which are now

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restricted in small isolated pockets. The wild buffalo naturally occurs in Manas,

Kaziranga and Pabha protected area in Assam but its reported that there are

some feral animals in Kaziranga (Ahemad, 1988). The few herds of pure animals

survive in lndravati National Park, Pamed and Bhairam Garh wildlife sanctuaries

beside Udanti WLS in Chhattisgarh.

The Udanti wildlife sanctuary has unique habitat for wild buffaloes because of

good availability of food, shelter and water. The present study conducted on the

habitat conditions of sanctuary and given long term management suggestions for

wild buffalo, their movements and behavior study.

1.7: Review of the literature

In the earlier times, the hunters observed animals at gunpoint. The published

information consists of incidental observations collected in course of shooting. The

majority of books are devoted to "Shikar" or hunting.

The renowned omithologist and conservationist Salim Ali (1927, 1938, 1979) gave

a good account of wildlife during the dominance of the Mogul dynasty from the

thirteenth century to sixteenth century A.D. He described the Moguls as great

hunters and preservers of wild life. Their ways of managing wildlife and the game

with limit on sports was remarkable. He further states that with the advent of the

British, particularly after consolidation of their political power in India, after the

suppression of the Indian mutiny in 1857, many hunters penetrated all parts of the

country resulting in fast decimation of wildlife.

About 100 years ago there was plentiful wildlife. Book by Rice (1857),

Shakespeare (1860),_Baker (1890) and Kinloch (18921 among others gave a vivid

picture of the great herds of hoofed animals and numerous large predators that

occurred in those days. Jordon (1874) reported regarding the herds of Blackbuck

in Punjab numbering more than 10000 animals. He informs that traveling through

almost any district, some body comes across them, sometime in large herds and

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herds after herds. "Fauna of British India" by Blanford (1888-1891 ), has

description about animals and their distribution.

The British officers lydekker (1924), Evans (1911), Stebbing (1911), Sterndale

(1884), Pollock (1896), Sanderson (1912), Champion (1927), Seidenfaden (1976),

Me Dougal (1977) and Seshadri (1986) have described the wild animals and the

habitat in those days. Captain Forsyth (1889) In his classical travelogue vividly

described the conditions prevailed during those days. Later on Brander (19231

studied the wild animals in central India in his book. Corbett (1957) contributed on

the hunting of wild animals particularly on the tigers and leopards. Prater (1971)

has written a book on the wild mammals of the country giving their habit, habitat

etc. Schaller (1967) and Dutta & Panwar (1979) made systematic studies on the

behavior of tiger and its prey in Kanha. Krishnan (1971, 1975) classified the

literature on the Indian wildlife under three categories: -

1. Shikar literature.

2. Accounts of naturalist and conservationist.

3. Faunal list, special studies, compilation and reports.

Sankhala (1978) made critical observations on the behavior and ecology of wild

animals. Lot of scientific notes and paper published in various journals especially

in the Bombay Natural History Society, which present maximum information on

Indian wildlife biology.

Wild animals are adopted and limited to niches occurring only in suitable

environment, which is the most fundamental need for every species. Thus

providing suitable environment for wild animals should be the primary concern of

wild life management. This requires a clear and comet understanding of structure,

function and dynamics of ecosystem (Leopold, 1939; Odum, 1963; Bailey et. a/,

1936).

II

Pan war ( 1982) started that the habitat requirement of wild animals must be known

in spatia-temporal context. He further started that examination of habitat with the

consideration of food, cover, shelter and sociological requirements. Beside these

essential needs, some other welfare requirement e.g. salt licks for ungulate and

wallows in dust, sand, mud and water should also be examined :as essential

habitat requirements for certain wild animals.

Kotwal (1987) has made detail study on habitat of major ungulates and carnivores

in Kanha National Park. He has first time systematically study on the habitat of

Kanha National Park with reference to wildlife management. Mathur et. a/. (1999)

edited bibliography of research Books/Reports/ papers on Wildlife and Protected

Areas in M.P.

1 : Distribution

Very little of the available literature contains information on the wild buffalo. There

are very few studies on the ecology and biology of the Indian wild buffalo. So far

no scientific studies have been done on wild buffalo in Udanti wild life sanctuary.

Forsyth (1889) mentioned that the herds of wild buffalo were in some part of

country were so numerous that it would have been almost impossible to abode

without encountering them. He writes wild buffalo population was more than the

Gaur (Bas gaurus) population. The animals were found around Brahmaputra, and

along Narmada river of Nimar, Bilaspur, Khandwa, Kanha and other parts of

Central India.

The classical book "Natural History of Mammalia of the India & Ceylon" by

Stemdale (1884) gave useful information on the habitat and distribution of wild

buffalo. He writes habitat and distribution of wild buffalo stretches from the

swampy Terrai at the foothills of Himalayas from Bhutan, in the plains of lower

Bengal as far east as Tirhut area in Assam and in Burma. In central India from

Midnapur to Rajpur and thence near to the Godawari and also in Ceylon.

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Aflalo (1904) mentioned Rhinoceros and wild buffalo still existed at the foot of

Himalayas. The wild buffalo were observed grazing with Swamp deer, Hog deer,

Sambar, and other wild herbivores. They herd together in the tall graceful cover of

friendly jungle grass- and wild pig, Porcupine, wild fowl, and other animals are to

be met in incredible numbers Inglish (1892).

Brander (1923) in his classical book of "wild animals in central India" has

mentioned that wild buffalo were found in Balaghat, Bastar, Raipur, Durg and

banjar valley of Mandla district in M.P. while Allapalli and Bhandara district in

Maharashtra and neighboring Orissa State.

James (1935) reported that the many herds of wild buffaloes were found in the

plain of Mahanadi river in Chhattisgarh region. He observed a solitary bull in the

Sal forest of Saraipali in Raipur district but it was killed by local villagers.

Gee (1964) reported that lot of animals found in Indian region large mammals as

Elephant, wild buffalo, Indian Bison, Rhinoceros etc. He has mentioned that wild

buffaloes were found in Brahmaputra, Narmada region and Simlipal hills of

Mayurbhanj district in Orissa. A small herd was also reported in Sal (Shorea

robusta) forest in valley of Kanha. Few wild buffaloes were occurring in the border

of M.P. and Andhra Pradesh in west south Orissa near the Godawari River. The

total population of wild buffalo in India was estimated about 1425 along with

Kaziranga, Manas, Pabha and some of other parts in the country. Department of

wildlife in Orissa (1969) also reported that the large herds of wild buffalo were

once found in open grassy area of Brahamani valley in Gangpur and Bonai in

Orissa. The last survivor in the area, a bull was reported to have been killed by

villagers in 1936 and perhaps it was the last animal in north of Mahanadi valley.

After 12 years in 1948, there was only 4 animals left in Bhawani Patna, but today

there are none. It was reported in1948 that few animals occurred in Motu and

Malkangiri area in Koraput district and southeastern parts of Khariar in Kalahandi

district but now none occurs.

The wild water buffalo historically occurred throughout most of the lowland parts of

south Asia in suitable riverine forest and grasslands. Several populations are

found in Indian reserves, such as Kaziranga and Manas in Assam and Bastar and

Raipur district in Chhattisgarh (Saharia, 1982; Rodgers et.a/. (1989); Panwar et.al.

1990 and Singh Chandra, 1992).

A preliminary survey done by Daniel and Grubh in 1966 mentioned distribution of

wild buffalo in past and present in Madhya Pradesh and estimated total population

between 200-250. After some time Divekar (1975), Oivekar et. al. (1982) And

Divekar et. al. (1983) have done same study and estimated total population range

between 50-70. Some herds of wild buffalo were found in Allapalli division of

Chandrapur district in Maharashtra but are now extinct. Divekar and Shushan

(1988) reported that about 125 wild buffaloes in different protected areas in

Madhya Pradesh while Sankhala (1993) estimated about 200 heads in the

lndravati Tiger Reserve of Bastar in Chhattisgarh.

Mooney (1930), Hasan (1978), Ranjitsinh (1978), and Pandey (1988) have made

preliminary studies on the distribution of wild buffalo in central India. Chaudhuary,

(1994) reported that the present population of wild buffalo in Assam are estimated

between 3000 to 3200, with 1200 in Manas and 1100 in Kaziranga. Beside about

150 are two areas adjacent to Arunanchal Pradesh and a small number reported

to exist in the Balpakaram National Park in Meghalaya. Lahan and Sonowal,

(1973) reported the population of wild buffalo gradually increased in Kaziranga

National Park, as 555 animals in 1972 to 660 in 1978. Lekagual and McNeely

(1978) mentioned that some wild buffalo were confined to the Uthaithani provinces

on the Myanmar border in Thailand and the total population was about 40. Blower

{1982) indicated that some animals occurred in Myanmar where wild buffalo

inhabited grassland terrain of the lrrawatti delta and river system but now they are

extinct.

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2: Morphological characters

The wild buffalo is the largest of the Indian bovine with (standing) height of 1.3 -

~ .~ m at the shoulder and length of the body is about 2.6 m while the tail being an

additional 0.5 meters. The average weight of animal is about 700 kg. Adults are of

slate black colour while calves have brownish yellow color. There are two types of

horns. In one, the horn curve is upwards in a semicircle, the tips being separated

by a small interval and in the other type, the spread is outwards almost horizontal

from the heed and curve slightly upward and inward near the tips. Both types may

be found in the same herd Prater (1971 ), Krishnan (1975), Dharam Kumar Singh,

(1959). Sterndale (1984) mentioned that hairless and back sweating body and

about 1 m long horns with skull and long narrow head. They are poor in hearing

but have moderately good eyesight and excellent noses.

The wild buffalo is more powerful as compared to domestic buffalo and can kill 8 to

9 dorn.,stic buffalo at one time. The herds of wild buffalo are very difficult to

approach closely for photography Gee (1964). Grzimeks (1989) described that

length is 250-300 em, the tail is 60 -100 em. and shoulder height about 150-180

em and weight reaches almost 1000 kg. The huge horns are crescent shaped,

gently bent backward. Record length is 194 em. The crosscut is triangular with

heavy ridges across the flat upper side. The hair is short and sparse. The broad

hooves are long and can be spread for apart (adapted to the swamp habitat).

Divekar, Grubh and Shekhar (1983) have also described the morphological

structure difference between wild buffalo and domestic buffalo in central India.

Ranjitsinh (1997) mentioned a good study in his book titled "Beyond the Tiger".

He writes that the wild buffalo occurs in some protected areas of Assam and

Madhya Pradesh (now Chhattisgarh). A large bull wild buffalo could weight over

900 kg and stand from 170 to 200 em at shoulder. The colour varies from grayish

brown to almost charcoal gray while legs from below the knee and hooves being a

dirty yellow. Calves are lighter in colour have a cream colored patch on the throat

and slightly brighter sash of the same colour on the chest, both of which marks

15

disappear gradually. Interestingly, these double throat and chest markings also

appear amongst domestic buffaloes. The tail is proportionally shorter than the

domestic animal, but the hooves are considerably larger. The horns are about 159

ern long. Verma, Kunal (1987) and Thomas (1993) also mentioned about the

habitat and morphological structure.

Blanford (1888-1891) listed four varieties on the basis of horn shape, colour and

size

(1) Colour- Blackish

- Hom sub- circular B. b. bubalis

- Horn directed mainly out ward B.b.macroceros

(2) Colour- Brown dull: B.b. fulvus

(3) Size medium : B.b. hosei

A detailed study done by Sah and Suselo (1996) on wild buffalo in Nepal. He

reported that the wild buffalo resembles the domestic buffalo in all respects for the

body size and shape of the horns. It has a heavier built black body with a large

head bearing a pair of horns curving toward the centre of its head.

3: Habits

Captain Forsyth (1889), Sterndale (1884), Prater (1971), Morris (1925), Gee

(1964) and Krishnan (1971) mentioned that the wounded buffalo and cow with

newborn calf are very dangerous. They have also written that the wild buffalo is

boldest of Indian bovine. lnverarity (1895) reported that the animals in herd never

charged but wounded bull create problems for any body. He wrote that a wild

buffalo killed superintendent of police in the year 1886 in Chanda district.

Gupta and Mishra (1974), Dhamer (1978), Kushwaha (1986), Heinen (1993) have

carried out studies on the ecology and behavior of the wild buffalo in Nepal. They

wrote that the wild buffalo is a social animal. Laurie ( 1978) indicated that the wild

buffalo spend much time on wallowing in the water bodies. They frequently deposit

16

dung and urine on their body and also in wallows and watering place for the

peculiar smell. Most authors agree that wild buffalo are a social animal. Gee

(1953, 1966), Forsyth (1889), Krishnan (1971-73), Sterndale (1889), Panday

(1988), Ranjitsinh and Divekar (1978 & 1975). Naronha (1952, 1953) and Dutta

A.K. (1991) writes that the wild buffaloes are highly social animals. They share the

habitat with Rhinoceros in Kaziranga and other wild ungulates in lndravati N.P.

Heinen (1993) conducted study on population, morphological structure and growth

and social behavior of wild buffalo of Koshi tapu in Nepal. He reported that wild

buffalo is highly social animal, every female remains with the group in to which

they were born. Also reported the tendency of males to live in-groups.

4: Habitat and feeding activity

The movements of animals, individually or in-groups, within a limited territory in a

given time are known as the movement of animal home range (Odum, 1971 ). The

wild buffalo feed chiefly at night or in early the morning, often making havoc in the

field and retire before the sun is high (Sterndale, 1884). Daniel and Grubh (1966)

conducted a preliminary survey on the status of wild buffalo in central India and

found seasonal change of home range by animals, summer concentration being

close to perennial streams, water and greener pastures. In these areas solitary

bulls are reported to have larger ranges than the herds. The food preferences of

wild buffalo are almost entirely like any grazers. Grasses such as Themeda and

Saccharum species are consumed. Daniel and his team also observed animals

eating shoots of Arundo donax and lmperata cylindrica. The perennial grass

Cynodon dactylon is a preferred species and various sedges (Cyperaceae) along

the watercourse are avidly eaten. Agricultural crops particularly young paddy and

pulses are raided.

The range of movement of wild buffalo was reported by Krishnan (1971 ), Forsyth

(1889) Prater (1948), Divekar (1982), Grzimek (1972). The size of home ranges of

wild buffalo may be two and half km. and upto 400 meter wide where they graze

predominantly at night. It was reported that wild buffalo live in the tall grass jungles

17

and brushwood areas, river valley and in lowland swamp near the edge of forest.

They eat grass, herbs, and aquatic plants. The wild buffalo would lie in the wallows

and stay there until afternoon.

Prater (1971) and Sankhala (1993) reported that the wild buffalo feed chiefly on

grass and graze in the morning and in the evening and some times at night. Lying

up by day in high grass or dense patches of cover or submerged in marsh or pool.

Dharam Kumar Singh (1959), Naronha (1992), Trivedi & Raj (1992), Sah and

Suselo (1996) and Ranjitsinh (1997) observed that wild buffalo live in swampy flat

grassland, where grass is tall and in thick forest area. The buffalo prefer tall reed

bed, flat-forested country close to water and extensive Elephant grassland with

shallow pools or mixed with wallows. The wild buffalo live in small herds and these

herds are capable of charging with the greatest of alacrity being very alert when

feeding or moving. The wild buffalo is more a grazer than a browser. During the

hot hours, wild buffalo wallow in swamps and streams and graze after sunsets.

Pandey (1988) has made observations on habitat and diurnal activities of wild

buffalo in lndravati N.P. He reported that the buffalo spend maximum time in the

forest. After sunset they come out from forest and move towards water bodies for

drinking and wallowing. Ranjitsinh (1997) has observed movements, grazing and

other daily activities of wild buffalo in Kaziranga N.P. Animals prefer to graze in

short grass areas where the shoots are young and green. This implies small

mouthfuls of food with slow but continuous progression and a prolonged grazing

period.

According to Eisenberg and Lockhart (1972) in the case of the wild buffalo the

major portion of the daily cycle is devoted to grazing and resting or wallowing in

water. Solitary bulls tend to remain in water for longer period than herds and they

also show a preference for certain wallows and watering places. In Shri Lanka,

they have a high tolerance for saline water and even drink such water, which the

Elephant and other ungulates will not.

IR

Scott (1968) observed behavior, movement and daily activities of wild buffalo in

upper Assam. He mentioned that wild buffalo visited to cropland inside the villages

for crop grazing during winter season. Laurie (1978) informed frequent depositing

of dung and urine in wallows and watering place may also very likely be to emboss

scent on the body.

5: Reproduction and genetic swarming

Prater (1971), Sterndale (1884), Krishnan (1971) and Sankhala (1993) informed

that in the drier areas the range of wild buffalo is large and they are given to

wandering. During the hot weather they cross the low hills in search of grazing.

Kotwal (1997) mentioned regarding migration route and possible corridor of wild

buffalo from Udanti WLS to Sunabeda WLS in Orissa during the summer season.

The fire is an important factor, which forced the animal for migration besides food,

water and shelter.

Female wild buffalo become sexually active at about three year age, but the

majority have their first calf at five year old and one thereafter every alternate year.

Only males that are 5 year or older usually mate with the female. The gestation

period is from 310 to 340 days and a single calf is born when the herd is resting.

The calf requires several hours to gain enough strength to follow the mother.

Grizmek (1972) mentioned regarding mating and birth of wild buffaloes. Like most

of the tropical animals, there is no fixed breeding season and the calves are

observed through the year. Only in the northern parts of their distribution the

mating take place predominantly in the fall with birth accordingly taking place in

early summer. After a gestation period of 300 - 340 days the cow gives birth to her

reddish brown to yellow -brown villous calf. The calves, which are nursed for six to

nine months, reach pubescence by the end of their second year.

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Sah and Suselo (1996) observe that the wild buffalo has no fixed breading season,

though in Nepal it is believed to occur in spring. The gestation period is about 12

month with female giving birth to one calf at a time. Scott (1968) writes the

gestation period to be same as domestic buffalo i.e. 10 months. Sterndale (1884)

reported the total gestation period of about 300 days and female produces one

(sometimes two) in the summer season. Thomas (1993) reported gestation period

between 300 -340 days.

Gee (1964), Brander (1923), Prater (1971) and Krishnan (1971-1972) mentioned

the rutting period of wild buffalo at the end of rains with gestation period about 310

to 330 days. Generally bulls are driven toward the herds during the rut. The

calving season is during March to May as reported by Brander (1923), Sanderson

(1912) and Forsyth (1889). According to Kenneth and Kenneth & Shantiapillai

(1986) three years old female buffalo become ready to mating with bull buffalo.

There is competition among the males for mating with cow buffalo. The gestation

period is between 310-340 days.

Forsyth (1889) expressed doubt about the inter-breeding between wild and

domestic buffalo. Brander (1923) indicated many reasons for the genetic

swarming. Krishnan (1975) and Prater (1971) also agreed for genetic swarming of

wild with domestic buffalo. Gee (1953) and Scott (1968) also mentioned about the

genetic swamping. He indicated that the larger fetus that results from the mating

with a wild bull causes some domestic cow to abort or die during birth. Seventy

five percent of the young born are believed to die owing to the mother not being

able to provide adequate milk, and a cow buffalo that is served by a wild bull is

reported to produce less milk than a normal born cow buffalo.

Warren, D. Thomas (1993) indicated the crossbreed between wild buffalo and

domestic buffalo in Southeast Asia and Australia. These hybrids grow to a larger

size and do not fit the farmer yokes and plows. They also tend to inherit their wild

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parent's ferocity, which makes them more dangerous to keep around. Thus hybrid

offspring are often destroyed as soon as they exhibit this temperament.

Recently a study done by Muley (1992,1994) in Kaziranga N.P. indicated that the

genetic swarming takes place as a result of which the pure wild population is very

few. During the breeding season, wild bulls thronged the Khuties (Cattle camp) to

mate with the domestic buffalo. The local livestock owners encourage crossing

with wild bulls because the hybrid calves fetch higher prices in the village market.

Kane (1989} and Thornback (1983} has also mentioned about the genetic mixing

of pure wild population with domestic and discussed the status of potential value of

Asiatic wild buffalo. Chaudhury (1997), Sppilet (1966) and Ranjitsinh (1997) are

quite doubtful about the genetic purity of wild buffalo in Assam. Many wild

buffaloes in Kaziranga had been contaminated due to hybridization with domestic

animals. Daniel and Grubh (1966} opine that genetic swarming is possible

between wild and domestic buffalo. The calf mortality is high, because the wild

cross calf being large often causes the death of the mother at delivery and 75%

calves die at birth or within 8 days. The other reason for death of calves is

insufficiency of milk on cow buffalo.

Grizmek (1972} mentioned that an old bull took the lead of a domestic buffalo herd

and mated with the cow in boundary of Kaziranga N. P. He has also indicated that

there is a serious danger for the pure race and there may be increase of feral

population. Heinen (1993}, Sah and Suselo (1996) wrote regarding interbreeding

between wild and domestic buffalo in Kaziranga N.P. and Koshi tapoo in Nepal.

The domestic buffalo owners agree that they prefer mating of wild bull with

domestic cow because they are able to charge higher prices for male hybrid

calves than for domestic calves sold as draught animal in nearby west Bengal, in

India.

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6: Life cycle and cause of decline in population

Brander (1923) mentioned that wild buffalo killed by poisonous arrows which the

aboriginal their still use and that the object of the slaughter was to gain few rupees

for the skin. Prater (1971) and Me Dougal (1977} reported that tiger killed some

wild buffalo but rarely kill the calves of buffalo.

Heinen (1993) reported that the life of wild buffalo is more than 12 years. Calf

mortality is high during rainy season than any other. Another important reason is

Injuries sustained due to fight between two bulls, particularly during rutting season.

Degradation of habitat and competition of food is another reason. The villagers,

who live at subsistence level and see no way to get compensation for their

damaged crop, become angry and sometimes kill the animals.

Ranjitsinh (1997) writes that the population of wild buffalo gradually decreased in

central India because use of poisonous arrows in-group hunting (PARAD) by local

tribals. He has also noted that tiger killed some calves. Gupta and Mishra (1974),

Divekar (1973) also agree the decline of wild buffalo population due to degradation

of habitat. Grzimek (1972) writes that the population decline of wild buffalo is by

hunting in uncontrolled manner and poaching with poisonous arrows. Some Indian

tribes eat the meat.

7: Disease

Daniel and Grubh (1966) observed virulent and bacterial diseases in wild buffalo,

which are transmitted by domestic cattle in central India. According to Schaller

( 1967) decline of wild buffalo population is due to combination of factors like land

clearing, uncontrolled killing and habitat destruction by livestock and disease. He

also mentioned that many herbivores, particularly Indian bison (Bos gaurus) were

affected by many bacterial and other virulent diseases.

Heinen (1993) reported that the wild buffalo occurred in Royal Chitwan National

Park, Nepal in 1960 but later become locally extinct probably due to diseases

carried by domestic buffalo. He also reported that the presence of diseased

domestic buffaloes in the mixed herd posses the danger of disease spread, which

may cause mortality. Chaudhury (1997) Arora (1994) and Ahmed (1988) wrote

that Anthrax, Rinderpest and Foot and Mouth disease are main enemy of wild

buffalo. Chaudhury (1994, 1997) reported that about 150 wild buffalo died by

rinderpest disease in Assam in 1981. lnverarity (1895) reported that lot of wild

buffalo killed by cattle diseases (Diarrhea) in central India while tiger occasionally

attack on the calves of wild buffalo.