Chapter 1Chapter 1

Why Be Ethical?Why Be Ethical?

Humans As Ethical Beings:Humans As Ethical Beings: The following conclusions are based on the works of Aristotle, Kant, and The following conclusions are based on the works of Aristotle, Kant, and

Levinas:Levinas:

the ethical is about our tendency to search for the goodthe ethical is about our tendency to search for the good The ethical is a part of what it means to be human; in other words, The ethical is a part of what it means to be human; in other words,

human beings tend towards the good.human beings tend towards the good. The ethical is the education of our freedom; it is the fulfillment or The ethical is the education of our freedom; it is the fulfillment or

wholeness of human life by way of our actions.wholeness of human life by way of our actions. The ethical presumes that we can be held responsible for what we The ethical presumes that we can be held responsible for what we

do.do. Ethical theories draw their power from an organizing principle:Ethical theories draw their power from an organizing principle:

– Happiness is the aim of the good life (Aristotle)Happiness is the aim of the good life (Aristotle)– Moral duty and obligation is an expression of the good will Moral duty and obligation is an expression of the good will

(Kant)(Kant)– The ethical impact of the face of the other is a trace of the The ethical impact of the face of the other is a trace of the

Good, or God (Levinas)Good, or God (Levinas)

Ethics or Morality? Which is itEthics or Morality? Which is it?? Ethics (Gk. Ethics (Gk. ta ethikata ethika: having to : having to

do with good character)do with good character)

Morality (Lt. Morality (Lt. moralitasmoralitas: having to : having to do with the customs, habits and do with the customs, habits and manners shaping human life)manners shaping human life)

Ethics Guide’s MoralityEthics Guide’s Morality musical theory vs playingmusical theory vs playing Learning the rules of Hockey vs Learning the rules of Hockey vs

playing a gameplaying a game Knowing the complimentary Knowing the complimentary

colours vs painting a roomcolours vs painting a room

The Ethical Experience:The Ethical Experience:Four ways of locating the ethical in youFour ways of locating the ethical in you

The Scream: The Scream: an an automatic response; automatic response; breaks through the calm breaks through the calm of the day; “adrenaline of the day; “adrenaline rush”rush”

The Beggar:The Beggar: a response a response to the “face” of others; to the “face” of others; their need (Levinas): our their need (Levinas): our responsibility to take care responsibility to take care of the “Other”; cannot of the “Other”; cannot ignore or forget, ignore or forget, regardless of your regardless of your decision on how to act.decision on how to act.

Obligation:Obligation: obedience to rules, laws, obedience to rules, laws, commands, and what is perceived to be commands, and what is perceived to be right (Kant); based on what you are asked right (Kant); based on what you are asked to do; curfew; based on a perception of to do; curfew; based on a perception of authority and your response to itauthority and your response to it

Contrast:Contrast: the intolerable cannot be the intolerable cannot be tolerated (eg. The Holocaust); based on tolerated (eg. The Holocaust); based on feelings of outrage, etc; overwhelmed at feelings of outrage, etc; overwhelmed at the suffering of others; goes against what the suffering of others; goes against what you know about how humans should treat you know about how humans should treat each othereach other

AssignmentAssignmentOption 1

You are to write a short story. In your story you must use an example of each of the 4 ways of experiencing the ethical. The main character in your story should be the one who experiences each of the different types of ethical. To help you organize your ideas you need to write a rough outline of your story first. You will be handing in this rough outline with your completed typed short story.

Option 2

You can create a comic strip that shows the 4 ways of experiencing the ethical. You must have one main character who experiences each of the different types of ethical and this character must be of your own creation. (Iron Man may not be your main Character) You must have a minimum of 5 panels for each of the different types of ethical and you must have a rough copy of your comic. You may only use stick people in your rough copy.

AristotleAristotleTeleological EthicsTeleological Ethics

Aristotle (384 – 322 BCE):Aristotle (384 – 322 BCE):

Life of AristotleLife of Aristotle privileged family; medical background (father)privileged family; medical background (father)

student of Plato (after death of parents when he was 17)student of Plato (after death of parents when he was 17)

became tutor of Alexander the Great; became tutor of Alexander the Great; friend of his father, friend of his father, became closely associated with him; Lyceum (school) became closely associated with him; Lyceum (school) in Athensin Athens

after the death against Alexander, there was a backlash after the death against Alexander, there was a backlash against all things under his rule, and Aristotle was charged against all things under his rule, and Aristotle was charged with heresywith heresy ; disrepect of the gods (Socrates – teacher ; disrepect of the gods (Socrates – teacher of Plato) escaped; died a year laterof Plato) escaped; died a year later

much of his work was lost in the destruction of the library in much of his work was lost in the destruction of the library in Alexandria in EgyptAlexandria in Egypt

Thomas Aquinas (AD 1225 – 1274) based much of his work Thomas Aquinas (AD 1225 – 1274) based much of his work in Catholic ethical theory on Aristotlein Catholic ethical theory on Aristotle

So how did Aristotle's ideas So how did Aristotle's ideas become a part of Catholic ethical become a part of Catholic ethical

reflection?reflection?

In the thirteenth century, In the thirteenth century, Thomas Aquinas (AD 1225-Thomas Aquinas (AD 1225-1274 ) through Arab scholars 1274 ) through Arab scholars rediscovered Aristotle. rediscovered Aristotle. Aquinas's teaching assured Aquinas's teaching assured Aristotle an enduring place in Aristotle an enduring place in the development of Catholic the development of Catholic ethical theory.ethical theory.

The Pursuit of HappinessThe Pursuit of Happiness At the core of Aristotle's ethics is political intent. At the core of Aristotle's ethics is political intent. Aristotle's first concern is not the individual. His Aristotle's first concern is not the individual. His

first concern is the first concern is the polis, polis, the Greek city-state. the Greek city-state. Aristotle's ethics state that human life is shaped Aristotle's ethics state that human life is shaped

to its full extent in the context of a community. to its full extent in the context of a community.

Aristotle does not equate happiness with pleasure. Aristotle does not equate happiness with pleasure. Happiness is an enduring state of someone who Happiness is an enduring state of someone who

does well the tasks that are typical of a human does well the tasks that are typical of a human being.being.

Happiness is the condition of the good person who Happiness is the condition of the good person who succeeds in living well and acting well. succeeds in living well and acting well.

Aristotle, ethics aims to discover what is good for Aristotle, ethics aims to discover what is good for us as human beings, what permits us to reach our us as human beings, what permits us to reach our potential, what is our internal compass, or what potential, what is our internal compass, or what we are intended to be. we are intended to be.

TeleologyTeleology Every art and every scientific inquiry, Every art and every scientific inquiry,

and similarly every action and purpose, and similarly every action and purpose, may be said to aim at some good. may be said to aim at some good.

According to Aristotle, we are intended According to Aristotle, we are intended to be rational. Our greatest capacity as to be rational. Our greatest capacity as humans is our intelligence. humans is our intelligence.

Humans are rational animals, and we Humans are rational animals, and we must base our actions, as much as must base our actions, as much as possible, on reasoning. possible, on reasoning.

The good person is one whose actions The good person is one whose actions as a rule are solidly based on excellent as a rule are solidly based on excellent reasoning and who spends a great reasoning and who spends a great amount of time thinking. amount of time thinking.

Human ExcellenceHuman Excellence To act virtuously, that is, To act virtuously, that is,

excellently, is to do things well, excellently, is to do things well, to act successfully as a human to act successfully as a human being. being.

Aristotle held that a good person Aristotle held that a good person would use reason to control would use reason to control desire. desire.

We become virtuous by choosing We become virtuous by choosing continually to do virtuous thingscontinually to do virtuous things

Moral virtue comes to us as a Moral virtue comes to us as a result of habit. result of habit.

The MeanThe Mean Aristotle was very aware of the need to maintain Aristotle was very aware of the need to maintain

balance in our actions. balance in our actions. Be moderate in all things. Be moderate in all things. To be generous is to stay somewhere between To be generous is to stay somewhere between

extravagance and stinginess. Try to stay in the extravagance and stinginess. Try to stay in the middle, but in a middle that suits you as an middle, but in a middle that suits you as an individual. For you, for example, the mean for individual. For you, for example, the mean for drinking may mean drinking in moderation, or not drinking may mean drinking in moderation, or not at all.at all.

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804):Immanuel Kant (1724-1804):

"Two things fill the mind with ever new and "Two things fill the mind with ever new and increasing admiration and awe... the starry increasing admiration and awe... the starry heavens above and the moral law within.”heavens above and the moral law within.”

Life of Immanuel KantLife of Immanuel Kant was born and raised in Konigsberg, a small city was born and raised in Konigsberg, a small city

in east Prussia now part of northeast Germanyin east Prussia now part of northeast Germany the fourth of eleven childrenthe fourth of eleven children his parents were devout members of a his parents were devout members of a

Protestant sect know as Pietism Protestant sect know as Pietism spent his whole life near his homespent his whole life near his home studied at the local university, and upon studied at the local university, and upon

completing his studies, made a meagre living completing his studies, made a meagre living working as a private tutor working as a private tutor

When he was forty-six years old, he was finally When he was forty-six years old, he was finally hired by the university as a professor of logic hired by the university as a professor of logic and metaphysics.and metaphysics.

Theoretical ReasonTheoretical Reason One of his primary concerns was clarifying how it is that One of his primary concerns was clarifying how it is that

humans come to know things. humans come to know things. What role does experience play in our coming to know What role does experience play in our coming to know

something? something? Can we know things that are beyond our immediate Can we know things that are beyond our immediate

experience? experience? What does this mean for scientific inquiry? Can we know What does this mean for scientific inquiry? Can we know

and predict cause and effect? and predict cause and effect? This is the area of reasoning by which we come to know This is the area of reasoning by which we come to know

how the laws of nature, the laws of cause and effect, how the laws of nature, the laws of cause and effect, govern human behaviour govern human behaviour

Practical ReasonPractical ReasonTo understand how people make choices, To understand how people make choices,

however, we must look elsewhere. however, we must look elsewhere. Within the realm of knowledge, humans Within the realm of knowledge, humans

act not only on impulse as affected by the act not only on impulse as affected by the laws of nature, but also out of conscious laws of nature, but also out of conscious choice based on principles. choice based on principles.

Using the first category of Using the first category of theoretical reason, theoretical reason, we we can know only what people can know only what people actually do.actually do.

Using the second category of Using the second category of practical reason, practical reason, we can come to understand what we we can come to understand what we ought to do.ought to do.

We know the effect of alcohol consumption upon We know the effect of alcohol consumption upon the body. Or to look at it from the perspective of the body. Or to look at it from the perspective of practical reason, we know that we ought not to practical reason, we know that we ought not to drink and drive. drink and drive.

Kant's EthicsKant's Ethics Like Aristotle, Kant also held that the good is the Like Aristotle, Kant also held that the good is the

aim of a moral life. aim of a moral life. He was primarily concerned about the certainty He was primarily concerned about the certainty

of the principles of ethical reasoning of the principles of ethical reasoning We cannot arrive at the same type of certainty We cannot arrive at the same type of certainty

as we can in physics and mathematics. as we can in physics and mathematics. Ethics presents us not with rational cognitive Ethics presents us not with rational cognitive

certainty, but with practical certainty. certainty, but with practical certainty.

God, Freedom and Immortality. God, Freedom and Immortality. God:God: Humans cannot out of Humans cannot out of

their own power achieve the their own power achieve the supreme good. There are too supreme good. There are too many circumstances beyond many circumstances beyond our control. For this reason, our control. For this reason, Kant proposes the existence of Kant proposes the existence of God to allow us to achieve the God to allow us to achieve the supreme good.supreme good.

Freedom: Freedom: If the supreme good is to If the supreme good is to be, in part, our achievement, then be, in part, our achievement, then what we what we ought ought to do, we to do, we can can do. To do. To have the duty to do something, we have the duty to do something, we must be must be able able to do it. Therefore, Kant to do it. Therefore, Kant argues, humans are by nature free.argues, humans are by nature free.

Immortality: Immortality: Achieving the supreme good is an Achieving the supreme good is an immense task. It is impossible to obtain it immense task. It is impossible to obtain it completely in this life. That is why there is completely in this life. That is why there is immortality, a life beyond, in which we can immortality, a life beyond, in which we can achieve the supreme good. achieve the supreme good.

The Good WillThe Good Will ethics is to be discovered in private life, in the inner con ethics is to be discovered in private life, in the inner con

victions and victions and autonomy autonomy of the individual. of the individual. good will is our most precious possession, a good in good will is our most precious possession, a good in

itself.itself. What is this "good will?" For Kant it is the will to do our What is this "good will?" For Kant it is the will to do our

duty for no other reason than that it is our duty. duty for no other reason than that it is our duty. deontological deontological - from the Greek word - from the Greek word deon, deon, meaning meaning

"duty." "duty." a human action is morally good when it is done for the a human action is morally good when it is done for the

sake of duty. sake of duty. For example, you might not want to go to your great For example, you might not want to go to your great

aunt's funeral, but it is your duty. You choose to go to aunt's funeral, but it is your duty. You choose to go to honour the family.honour the family.

moral worth is measured not by the results of one's moral worth is measured not by the results of one's actions, but by the motive behind them. actions, but by the motive behind them.

Kant's Use of Moral MaximsKant's Use of Moral Maxims duty is determined by duty is determined by

principles (maxims) principles (maxims) according to which we act. according to which we act.

An ethical maxim is one on An ethical maxim is one on which which every rational person every rational person would would necessarily necessarily act if act if reason were fully in charge of reason were fully in charge of his or her actions. his or her actions.

"I ought never to act except "I ought never to act except in such a way that I can also in such a way that I can also will that my maxim should will that my maxim should become a universal law." become a universal law."

The Person As An End, Not a MeansThe Person As An End, Not a Means "Act in such a way that you "Act in such a way that you

always treat humanity, always treat humanity, whether in your own whether in your own person or in the person of person or in the person of another, never simply as a another, never simply as a means but always at the means but always at the same time as an end."same time as an end."

Kant does Kant does not not say that we say that we should never treat others should never treat others as a means, rather, that as a means, rather, that people never be treated people never be treated only only as a means as a means

Emmanuel Levinas (1905-1995)Emmanuel Levinas (1905-1995)

"...I am responsible for the Other without waiting for reciprocity, were I to die for it.

Life Of Emmanuel LevinasLife Of Emmanuel Levinas born in 1905 in Kaunas, Lithuania, to pious born in 1905 in Kaunas, Lithuania, to pious

Jewish parentsJewish parents At the age of seventeen he moved to France to At the age of seventeen he moved to France to

begin his studies in philosophy at the begin his studies in philosophy at the University of StrassbourgUniversity of Strassbourg

In 1928 he continued his studies in Freibourg, In 1928 he continued his studies in Freibourg, GermanyGermany

experience a profound contrast between experience a profound contrast between Western philosophy and his own much more Western philosophy and his own much more deeply rooted Jewish faithdeeply rooted Jewish faith

When World War II broke out in 1939, he was When World War II broke out in 1939, he was captured by the Germans. captured by the Germans.

His whole family died in the Holocaust.His whole family died in the Holocaust. At the age of forty, he searched out an At the age of forty, he searched out an

extraordinary Jewish teacher, Mordachi extraordinary Jewish teacher, Mordachi ChouchaniChouchani

He instructed Levinas in the ways of the He instructed Levinas in the ways of the Jewish TalmudJewish Talmud

Levinas never forgot his Jewish roots. When Levinas never forgot his Jewish roots. When once he was invited to give a lecture at the once he was invited to give a lecture at the University of Louvain, they inadvertently put University of Louvain, they inadvertently put the lecture on the Sabbath. Although the the lecture on the Sabbath. Although the lecture hall was filled, Levinas did not show lecture hall was filled, Levinas did not show because observing the Sabbath was of because observing the Sabbath was of higher value.higher value.

The Sameness Of ThingsThe Sameness Of Things Levinas perceived the Western Levinas perceived the Western

philosophical tradition attempting to philosophical tradition attempting to overcome all difference and diversity by overcome all difference and diversity by grouping everything under an all-grouping everything under an all-encompassing unity, which it called encompassing unity, which it called "Being.""Being."

Westerners, he said, think out of a unified Westerners, he said, think out of a unified totality. It thinks away difference. totality. It thinks away difference.

Difference is reduced to being accidental Difference is reduced to being accidental

The Singularity Of ThingsThe Singularity Of Things

The Hebrew tradition gloried in the singularThe Hebrew tradition gloried in the singular He could find nothing that would hold all of He could find nothing that would hold all of

these singularities together in some kind of these singularities together in some kind of unityunity

He contrasted the Western notion of He contrasted the Western notion of "totality" with the Hebrew notion of "totality" with the Hebrew notion of "infinity.""infinity."

The Good Is InfiniteThe Good Is Infinite Like Aristotle’s and Kant's ethics, Like Aristotle’s and Kant's ethics,

Levinas is in search of the goodLevinas is in search of the good Levinas went in search of the Good, Levinas went in search of the Good,

which he said goes beyond Beingwhich he said goes beyond Being For Levinas this concept of Being is For Levinas this concept of Being is

dangerous because it takes away dangerous because it takes away from reality what is its most from reality what is its most fascinating quality: that each person fascinating quality: that each person or thing is incredibly uniqueor thing is incredibly unique

Everything we encounter is finiteEverything we encounter is finite

The Face As Witness Of The GoodThe Face As Witness Of The Good If the Good is Infinite and is always one step ahead of us, If the Good is Infinite and is always one step ahead of us,

where do we encounter the traces that God has been where do we encounter the traces that God has been there? there?

Levinas goes to the experience of the human face that Levinas goes to the experience of the human face that turns to me and looks at meturns to me and looks at me

Think of a time you had an absolute experience of Think of a time you had an absolute experience of another: a face-to-face experience that touched you another: a face-to-face experience that touched you deeplydeeply

She or he is "Other."She or he is "Other." the Other calls you not to reduce his or her face to being the Other calls you not to reduce his or her face to being

the same as any other facethe same as any other face You are not to take the otherness awayYou are not to take the otherness away

The Face As EthicalThe Face As Ethical The face that Levinas is referring to The face that Levinas is referring to

is not the face of an authority figureis not the face of an authority figure the Other is a stranger, one who is the Other is a stranger, one who is

totally defencelesstotally defenceless The face of the stranger demands The face of the stranger demands

that you recognize it and provide it that you recognize it and provide it hospitalityhospitality

this face cannot force you to do this face cannot force you to do anythinganything

the face makes you responsible, by the face makes you responsible, by making you aware that you are not making you aware that you are not as innocent as you thought you as innocent as you thought you werewere

Made Responsible By The FaceMade Responsible By The FaceLevinas’ ethics does not bend us Levinas’ ethics does not bend us

in God's direction, but it twists in God's direction, but it twists us in the direction of our us in the direction of our neighbourneighbour

God's infinite goodness touches God's infinite goodness touches us without our knowledgeus without our knowledge

God touches us through the God touches us through the face of the Other who begs face of the Other who begs spare change of usspare change of us