Chapter 1Philosophy of Science:

An Introduction

Introduction

• Philosophy of science is the perspective the nurse utilizes in every patient, family, or group encounter.

• Each individual has his or her own philosophy that determines the ideas he or she is or is not open to.

• It is important for nurses to examine their philosophy and question the assumptions they make.

What Is Science?

• Science is from the Latin word scientia, which means “knowledge.”

• It refers to both processes and outcomes of processes, such as general laws and observations.

• Laws are utilized in systematic ways to create a body of knowledge about a topic.

Natural Hard Sciences• Physics, mathematics, and chemistry are examples of

natural sciences.• Considered “pure,” or stand alone, unique bodies of

knowledge.• Based on the assumption that reality is objective and,

therefore, reproducible and reliable.• Explanations are reasonable, constant and consistent,

accurate, objective, discoverable, and understandable • In medicine, they assume a disease focus rather than a

person focus.

Soft Applied Sciences• Sociology, psychology, and anthropology are

examples of applied sciences. • Focus is on the application of bodies of knowledge to

meet human needs.• Rely on inherent assumptions of natural sciences but

do not assume that reality is objective.• In medicine, soft applied sciences are found in social

work, psychotherapy and examination of healthcare disparities.

Human Science• Emphasizes the importance of individual scientists on

the scientific process.• Posits that the nature of science and role of the

scientist are different when a subject is viewed as human science rather than natural or applied science.

• The scientist and the subject cannot be separated from each other

• In medicine, human science is the nurse’s recognition of himself or herself as a scientist involved in providing care.

Scientific Method: Physical Science

• Natural science relies on a linear problem solving process, or the scientific method.

• Method is base on the assumption that observation is universal.

• The goal is accurate, reproducible events that do not take researcher individuality or consciousness into account (control through prediction).

• Decisions scientists make impact results, which introduces a subjective element.

The Aim of Science

• Natural sciences aim to develop knowledge for the sake of developing knowledge and search for truth.

• Applied sciences aim to utilize knowledge by applying it to a specific purpose.

• Human science aims to improve quality of life and highlight individual importance by understanding what helps people maximize their functional abilities.

Scientific Method: Human Science

• Due to its concrete rather than abstract nature, human science utilizes different methods than natural sciences.

• Scientists and subjects are treated as parts of the same whole and methods are dynamic while still being rigorous.

• Contextual consistency, purposive sampling, question validity, and message validation are emphasized.

Criteria for Science (1 of 2)

• Science must differentiate itself from non-science or pseudoscience; this is particularly true of natural sciences and relies on five criteria:– Intersubjective testing: Two people observing the

same entity the same way should obtain the same results

– Reliability: The same result is achieved time and again under the same conditions

Criteria for Science (2 of 2)

– Definiteness and precision: Creating identical circumstances for repeat experiments leads to the same results.

– Coherence: A focus on the connectedness of the parts of an experiment and their relation to one another.

– Comprehensiveness and scope: The ability of an outcome to be used for something other than its intended purpose.

Questions for the Practitioner

• Is nursing pure or applied science?• Is care provided for the purpose of prediction and

control?• Are there universals in patient care provision?• Does an external world independent of human

consciousness color patient care?• Does nursing satisfy the five science criteria?• Is nursing practice objective?

Philosophy• Philosophy comes from the Greek philosophia which

means “love of wisdom.” • Involves the search for meaning and represents a

perspective and its set of beliefs.• Is both a process and an outcome.• It is the application of a belief to situations known

and unknown.• Relies on epistemology and ontology in the

application of a belief to situations.

Philosophy of Science

• Philosophy of science is where the two disciplines meet to examine a body of knowledge and the approaches used to study it.

• In nursing, it is an examination of concepts, theories, and laws as they relate to practice, understanding, deliberate thought, and evolution of praxis.

• Requires mindfulness of objective and individual perspectives and comfort with the assumptions and underpinnings of the various philosophical perspectives.

How Do We Know?

• Key Question in philosophy of science• Tradition• Authorities (institution, police, professor, church)• Doctrine• Reason• Common sense• Science

– Knowledge derived from methods that may be linear or complex (chaotic) depending on the view and approach

Analytic Philosophy (1 of 3)

• Focuses more on the use of the process of logic and rational discourse than on the subject itself.

• Focuses on the search for a single truth through scientific process.

• Closely associated with logical positivism, rigid adherence to the scientific method, and the belief in external world structure.

• Based on the belief that a statement is meaningful only if it is proven true or false through experimentation.

Analytic Philosophy: Logical Positivism (2 of 3)

• Four rules of logical positivism– Phenomenalism– Nominalism,– The denial of cognitive value in value judgments and

normative statements– The essential unity of the scientific method

• Requires a rigid adherence to the scientific method, a belief in cause and effect, replicability, and an unwavering belief in an external world structure that remains independent of self.

• Belief in verifiability principle.

Analytic Philosophy (2 of 3)

• Criticized as too rigid, too deductive, and lacking recognition of the human experience.

• Logical positivism segued into empiricism.• The scientific method is paramount, but truths must be

generated by experience

• Both logical positivism and empiricism were incorporated into the received view (realism).• Theories are either right or wrong and must be formalized

and axiomized• Based on the search for a single truth

Continental Philosophy (1 of 3)

• Focuses on the connection of an idea to the world and historical context around that idea.

• About the relationships among people, ideas, meaning, and historical connectedness rather than theories or truths.

• Human science is dominated by continental philosophy and is based on connectedness, not cause and effect.

• It examines lived experiences in the past as well as the present and historical context.

• Phenomenology: There is value in universal experience.– Focus on examining phenomena that appear in the consciousness of the

subjects – From an examination of personal experience, the essences of the

phenomena are drawn

• Hermeneutics: deals with the interpretation of a message that is being delivered. – Meaning and understanding are the aims of philosophical inquiry– Assumes that people are social and dialogical beings; that culture,

language, skills, and experiences create shared understandings; that there is a continual circle of connectedness and understanding; that understanding precedes interpretation; and that the interpreter and the interpreted are seen as one

Continental Philosophy (2 of 3)

Continental Philosophy (3 of 3)

• Post-structuralism: The message’s meaning is determined by the recipient’s perception and the vehicle for delivery is not significant to the message.– The study of structures is a cultural phenomenon open to

interpretations/ misinterpretations– Equalizes the imbalance of power between providers and patients

• All varieties evolve around context, meaning, and the knowing of the subject.

• Collectively, continental philosophies may also be called the perceived view, antirealism, or idealism.

Perceived View• A continental philosophy suggesting that theories are

neither right nor wrong and that observation leads to value-laden theories.

• Observation involves utilization of the senses and the mind and is subjective due to the physical and mental components involved.

• Many different methods and kinds of theories must be used to obtain either truth or understanding.

• Use methods appropriate to the question which may be either quantitative, qualitative, or both.

Chaos and Complexity• Contemporary philosophers synthesize analytic and

continental philosophy into a new and emerging philosophy of science.

• This philosophy incorporates chaos and complexity science to bring together truth and understanding in a dynamic way.

• Posits that the universe is a whole made of interrelated parts.– Complex adaptive, dynamic systems are connected to the

environment and influenced both by what comes before and what comes after

• Assumptions include embeddedness, distributed control, multi-directionality, coexistence of order and disorder, and unpredictable outcomes.

Question the Assumptions

• Philosophy of science is complex and many schools of thought exist.

• When reflecting on your philosophy, it is important to consider several questions:– What are the assumptions of each philosophy?– Do you aim to control or understand?– Is there only one way to resolve a problem?– What is your praxis wedded to?– How can you be the best practitioner possible?– What do patients, families, and communities need?– Are you the nurse you want to be?

Conclusion

• Science and philosophy require examination of both knowledge and understanding.

• It is important to understand the ideological differences of different scientific and philosophical schools and incorporate portions of each in your individual philosophy.

• Utilizing a philosophy that constantly questions assumptions will help you evolve as a nurse.