Chapter 1: Environmental Problems and Their Legislative Control in the Philippines … · 2018. 4....

1

Chapter 1: Environmental Problems and TheirLegislative Control in the PhilippinesToday

This chapter describes the latest information about environmental problems andtheir legislative control in the Philippines today. Specifically, it covers regulatoryvalues for water and air pollution, and explains the "Environmental Users FeeSystem" in the Laguna Lake area, which has been reported in the newspapers, andso on. For the provisions of environment-related legislation, refer to Appendix 2.

3

1. Outline of the Philippines

Situated southwest of Japan, the Philippines is a constitutional republic comprising about7,000 islands including Luzon, the main island, Mindanao, Samar, Negros, Panay andPalawan. The Philippines has a long history of exchanges with Japan. Since it takesonly about three and a half hours by air from Japan to the Philippines today, the countryattracts many tourists and companies from Japan.

The total area of the Philippines is about 300,000 square km with a population ofapproximately 70 million. The principal people are Malays, which are divided intoVisayans, Tagalogs and several dozen other ethnic groups. More than 80 languages arespoken in the country. The official languages are Pilipino and English. AmongSoutheast Asian countries, the Philippines is one of only a few nations where English isspoken by people in daily life. Most of the people are devout Roman Catholics. Thecapital of the Philippines is Metropolitan Manila.

Figure 1-1 Rough Map of the Philippines

4

2. Government Environmental Policies and Organization

Because various government departments were separately responsible, governmentenvironmental policies in the Philippines could not be described as "integrated."However, the new constitution was adopted in 1986, environmental administrative bodieswere reformed in accordance with Executive Order No. 192 in the following year. TheDepartment of Environment and National Resources (DENR) took charge of allenvironmental administration. The DENR is a body that has the integrated andstrengthened authority of the former Department of Natural Resources and the Ministryof House Settlements. Its task is to make policy decisions on environment and naturalresources and to balance development activities with environmental management, withthe aim to achieve sustainable development.

The DENR consists of 8 staff offices, 6 staff bureaus, 4 attached agencies and 13 regionaloffices in the administrative districts.

The 8 staff offices are: the Special Concerns Office, Public Affairs Office, Planning andPolicy Studies Office, Foreign-Assisted and Special Projects Office, Field OperationsOffice, Management Services Office, Legislative Affairs Office and Legal Affairs Office.The 6 staff bureaus are: Forest Management Bureau, Mines and Geosciences Bureau,Environmental Management Bureau, Ecosystems Research and Development Bureau,Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau and Lands Management Bureau. The attached 4agencies are: Pollution Adjudication Board, National Mapping and Resource InformationAuthority, Natural Resources Development Corporation and National ElectrificationBureau.

The total number of staff at the DENR today is about 35,000. About 5,000 are assignedto the headquarters, and the remaining 30,000 work at the regional offices. About 7,000of the regional office staff are forest rangers.

Within the DENR is the newly established Environmental Management Bureau (EMB)with jurisdiction over environmental management, pollution prevention, andenvironmental assessment, established on the Executive Order No. 192, which took overthe responsibilities of the Environment Center of the Philippines, the National PollutionControl Commission, and the National Environment Protection Council. It administerscontrol over air and water quality and conducts environmental assessments as well ascoordinates with other governmental bodies. The EMB consists of four divisions, theLegal Division, Research & Development Division, Environmental Quality Division andEnvironmental Education Division, as well as sections under direct control of the directorof the bureau, such as the Administrative Division, Management and Financial AffairsDivision, Secretariat and the like. The number of full-time staff is about 170.

Of special significance among the other environmental ministries and departments is theLaguna Lake Development Authority (LLDA). The LLDA is an environmental policyimplementation body with jurisdiction over development and the environment in theLaguna Lake region southeast of the capital, Manila. All applications with regard todevelopment activities in the Laguna Lake area must go through LLDA.

5

The DENR issued "The Philippine Environmental Quality Report, 1990-1995" inNovember 1996, which described the environmental situation and environmental policiesof the government in the Philippines for the six years from 1990 through 1995. This wasthe first publication of the DENR as an environmental white paper and is expected to bepublished continuously in the future.

3. Overview of Environmental Legislation

As with other Southeast Asian nations, the Philippines is experiencing rapid populationgrowth in its cities. The air is being polluted in the metropolitan area around Manila,rivers and inland waters in urban areas are suffering water pollution, waste products areincreasing in volume and creating environmental pollution resulting from their disposal,and natural environments are increasingly under threat. These are the environmentalproblems the country is confronting and their resolution is a pressing task.

Legislation equivalent to the Philippines Basic Environment Law which deals withenvironmental issues in general are the Presidential Decree 1151: the PhilippineEnvironmental Policy, and the Presidential Decree 1152, the Philippine EnvironmentalCode, both adopted under the Marcos regime in 1977. However, these environmentallaws had shortcomings: for example, multiple executive bodies were designated to be incharge of one specific problem, creating reduplication and necessitating coordinationamong bodies concerned. Also, shortage of personnel, equipment, and financialresources meant difficulty in implementing these laws.

Under the administration of President Aquino, who took office in 1986, a new constitutionwas adopted and environmental rights became part of constitutional rights. In thisregard, the basic principles enshrined in the Presidential Decrees 1151 and 1152 wereupheld. With respect to the environmental administrative system, the DENR was put insole charge, and the environmental laws are now undergoing review in the form oflegislation being passed through the national assembly, with many bills having beenpresented and debated since 1992. Some bills are equivalent to a new BasicEnvironment Law, but have not yet been passed because in the national assembly, thegroup giving priority to development and economic growth holds a majority over the groupgiving priority to environment preservation, according to a responsible persons at theDENR.

The bills presented to the national assembly are said to contain higher monetarypenalties and incentives under which companies that more than satisfy environmentalcriteria will be exempt from some taxes. This should improve the present situation,under which those who do not satisfy the criteria and pay the penalties enjoy an economicadvantage.

Because bills for amending environmental laws have not yet been passed to respond tothe actual state of the environment today, the DENR has reviewed the formerenvironment standards and emission standards and is promulgating urgent items in theform of administrative decrees without approval from the legislature.

6

Presidential Decree 1151 lays down the national environmental policies, nationalenvironmental targets, the right to enjoy a healthy environment, guideline for theEnvironmental Impact Statement (EIS), and guidelines for implementation bodies. Ofinterest to private corporations among these is the guideline relating to EIS. Whenengaging in activities and projects that is bound to have a major impact on theenvironment, all organizations, including government organizations and privateenterprises, are required to draw up and submit an EIS. Presidential Decree 1152,which follows on in the policy principles of PD 1151, stipulates the management system tobe adopted in the five areas of air quality, water quality, land use, natural resources, andwaste products.

The following is a summary of the ongoing situation with regard to the three problems ofwater pollution, air pollution, and waste products, which are the main environmentalareas affected especially by the activities of corporations, and the legislative measuresthat are being taken to control them.

4. Countermeasures against Water Pollution

1) The Present Situation of Water Pollution

Water pollution of rivers and lakes in the Philippines is now in a very serious state,especially in the Manila metropolitan area, where the major rivers are heavily pollutedwith industrial and domestic effluent, agricultural chemicals included in agriculturaleffluent, heavy metals, and other toxic substances.

The Laguna Lake, located to the south of Manila, is now at crisis point, because ofpollution caused by effluent from surrounding factories. Pollution in Laguna Lakeconsists of 40 percent agricultural effluents, 30 percent industrial effluents and 30percent domestic effluents. An LLDA survey shows that 700 factories (equivalent to 47percent of about 1,500 factories around the Lake) have waste water treatment equipment,but waste water from such equipment is still thought to contribute significantly to waterpollution in Laguna Lake. As for domestic effluents, approximately 60 percent of the 8.4million people living in the surrounding area discharge unprocessed waste water andgarbage straight into Laguna Lake.

Meanwhile, in rural areas, water quality is deteriorating due to agricultural chemicals,chemical fertilizers, effluent from mining operations, and waste water flowing in fromwider areas because of such problems as deforestation. Marine pollution has alsodramatically worsened over the past decade, owing to dumping of untreated water,industrial effluent, waste water from mining, oil spills from shipping, soil erosion becauseof deforestation and agriculture.

In order to prevent such pollution of rivers, lakes and the sea and in order to improvewater quality, effluent standards must be tightened, but it is also important to makecompanies and others concerned to adhere strictly to effluent standards and regulationswhich are in force. Moreover, improvements must be made in sewerage and wastedisposal and changes must be made in the national lifestyle so that domestic effluent can

7

also be put under control.

2) Overview of Legislative Controls Relating to Countermeasures against WaterPollution

The latest legislation relating to countermeasures against water pollution, which hasbeen amended many times, is the DENR Administrative Order No. 34, Series of 1990,"Revised Water Usage and Classification/Water Quality Criteria Amending Section Nos.:68 and 69, Chapter III of the 1978 NPCC Rules and Regulations" and the DENRAdministrative Order No. 35, Series of 1990, "Revised Effluent Regulations of 1990,Revising and Amending the Effluent Regulations of 1982," which were promulgated onMarch 20, 1990.

DENR Administrative Order No. 34 divides water usage into: 1) fresh waters such asrivers, lakes and reservoirs, and 2) coastal waters and sea areas. Fresh waters areclassified into five categories, Class AA, A, B, C and D. Coastal waters and sea areas areclassified into four categories, Class SA, SB, SC and SD. The Order sets water qualitycriteria for organic pollutants, etc. for each category. Figures 1-2 through 1-6 show thecriteria.

The DENR Administrative Order No. 35 lays down the maximum figures for effluentcriteria relating to harmful materials and other severe poisons for the protection of publichygiene. The criteria are classified into five categories: protected waters I (class AA andSA), protected waters II (class A, B and SB), fresh waters class C, sea class SC and seaclass SD. Each category is divided between existing facilities and new facilities.Similarly, the Order lays down maximum figures for effluent criteria relating to generaland other pollutants, which are classified into six categories: protected waters I, protectedwaters II, fresh waters class C, fresh waters class D, sea class SC, sea class SD and otherunclassified waters. Each category is divided between existing facilities and newfacilities. Figures 1-7 and 1-8 show the criteria figures.

Factories and plants operating in the Philippines are required to satisfy these effluentcriteria and to ascertain which effluent criterion apply to their facilities in accordancewith the classifications, such as fresh waters, etc., laid down by the DENR.

As shown in Figure 1-9, BOD effluent criteria figures were put into force in January 1995.The BOD effluent criteria figures are applied to factory effluents with a BOD value forunprocessed effluent that exceeds 3,000 mg/l. Therefore the criteria are applied to therelevant factories. The prescribed official analysis method is shown in the DENRAdministrative Order Nos.34 and 35.

8

Figure 1-2 Water Usage and Classification

(1) Fresh Surface Waters (rivers, lakes, reservoirs, etc.)

Classification Beneficial Use

Class AA Public Water Supply Class I. This class is intended primarily for watershaving watersheds which are uninhabited and otherwise protected andwhich require only approved disinfection in order to meet the NationalStandards for Drinking Water (NSDW) of the Philippines.

Class A Public Water Supply Class II. For sources of water supply that will requirecomplete treatment (coagulation, sedimentation, filtration and disinfection)in order to meet the NSDW.

Class B Recreational Water Class I. For primary contact recreation such asbathing, swimming, skin diving, etc. (particularly those designated fortourism purposes).

Class C 1) Fishery Water for the propagation and growth of fish and other aquaticresources;

2) Recreational Water Class II (Boating, etc.)3) Industrial Water Supply Class I (For manufacturing processes after

treatment).

Class D 1) For agriculture, irrigation, livestock watering, etc.2) Industrial Water Supply Class II (e.g. cooling, etc.);3) Other inland waters, by their quality, belong to this classification.

(2) Coastal and Marine Waters

Classification Beneficial Use

Class SA 1) Waters suitable for the propagation, survival and harvesting of shellfishfor commercial purposes;

2) Tourist zones and national marine parks and reserves established underPresidential Proclamation No. 1801; existing laws and/or declared assuch by appropriate government agency.

3) Coral reef parks and reserves designated by law and concernedauthorities.

Class SB 1) Recreational Water Class I (Areas regularly used by the public forbathing, swimming, skin diving, etc.);

2) Fishery Water Class I (Spawning areas for Chanos chanos or “Bangus”and similar species).

Class SC 1) Recreational Water Class II (e.g. boating, etc.);2) Fishery Water Class II (Commercial and sustenance fishing);3) Marshy and/or mangrove areas declared as fish and wildlife sanctuaries;

Class SD 1) Industrial Water Supply Class II (e.g. cooling, etc.);2) Other coastal and marine waters, by their quality, belong to this

classification.

DENR Administrative Order No.34 , Series of 1990; Revised Water Usage and Classification / Water

Quality Criteria Amending Section Nos: 68 and 69, Chapter III of the 1978 NPCC Rules and Regulations

Criteria of Water Use Regulation ( EMB/DENR, March 20 1990 )

9

Note for Figures 1-3 ∼ 1-6.

(a) Except as otherwise indicated, the numerical limits in Figures 1-3 and 1-5 areyearly average values. Values enclosed in parentheses are maximum values.

(b) For irrigation purposes, SAR should have a minimum value of 8 and a maximumvalue not to exceed 18. Boron should not exceed 0.75 mg/L.

(c) No abnormal discoloration from unnatural causes

(d) The allowable temperature increase over the average ambient temperature for eachmonth. This rise shall be based on the average of the maximum daily temperaturereadings recorded at the site but upstream of the mixing zone over a period of one (1)month.

(e) Sampling taken between 9:00 AM and 4:00 PM

(f) Not more than 30% increase

(g) Not more than 30 mg/L increase

(h) Not more than 60 mg/L increase

(i) Do not apply if natural background is higher in concentration. The latter willprevail and will be used as baseline.

(j) Applicable only to lakes, reservoirs, and similarly impounded water.

(k) When applied to lakes or reservoirs, the Phosphate as P, concentration should notexceed an average of 0.05 mg/L nor a maximum of 0.1 mg/L.

(l) Not present in concentrations to affect fish flavor/taste.

(m) These values refer to the geometric mean of the most probable number of coliformorganism daring a 3-month period and that the limit indicated shall not be exceededin 20 percent of the samples taken during the same period.

(n) For spawning areas for Chanoschanos and other similar species

(o) Limit is in terms of dissolved copper

nil Extremely low concentration and not detectable by existing equipment

-- Means the standard of these substances are not considered necessary for the presenttime, considering the stage of the country’s development and DENR capabilities,equipment and resources.

nr Means No Recommendation made

10

Figure 1-3 Water Quality Criteria for Conventional and Other Pollutants Contributing toAesthetics and Oxygen Demand for Fresh Waters (a)

PARAMETER UNIT CLASSAA

CLASSA

CLASSB

CLASSC

CLASSD(b)

Color PCU 15 50 (c) (c) (c)

Temperature(d)

(max. rise in deg.Celsius)

°C rise -- 3 3 3 3

pH (range) 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5 6.0-9.0

Dissolved Oxygen(c)

(Minimum)% satn 70 70 70 60 40

mg/L 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 3.0

5-Day 20°C BOD mg/L 1 5 5 7(10) 10(15)

Total SuspendedSolids

mg/L 25 50 (f) (g) (h)

Total Dissolved Solids mg/L 500(i) 1,000(i) -- -- 1,000(i)

Surfactants (MBAS) mg/L nil 0.2(0.5) 0.3(0.5) 0.5 --

Oil Grease(Petroleum EtherExtract)

mg/L nil 1 1 2 5

Nitrate as Nitrogen mg/L 1.0 10 nr 10(i) --

Phosphate asPhosphorus

mg/L nil 0.1(k) 0.2(k) 0.4(k) --

Phenolic Substancesas Phenols

mg/L nil 0.002 0.005(l) 0.02(l) --

Total Coliforms MPN/100mL

50(m) 1,000(m) 1,000(m) 5,000(m) --

or Fecal Coliforms MPN/100mL

20(m) 100(m) 200(m) -- --

Chloride as Cl mg/L 250 250 -- 350 --

Copper mg/L 1.0 1.0 -- 0.05(o) --

DENR Administrative Order No.34 , Series of 1990;Revised Water Usage and Classification / Water Quality

Criteria Amending Section Nos: 68 and 69, Chapter III of the 1978 NPCC Rules and Regulations Criteria of

Water Use Regulation (EMB/DENR, March 20 1990 )

11

Figure 1-4 Water Quality Criteria for Toxic and Other Deleterious Substances for FreshWaters (For the Protection of Public Health)

PARAMETER UNIT CLASSAA

CLASSA

CLASSB

CLASSC

CLASSD

Arsenic(i) mg/L 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.1

Cadmium(i) mg/L 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.05

Chromium(i)

(hexavalent)mg/L 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.1

Cyanide mg/L 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 --

Lead(i) mg/L 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.5

Total Mercury(i) mg/L 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002

Organophosphate mg/L nil nil nil nil nil

Aldrin mg/L 0.001 0.001 -- -- --

DDT mg/L 0.05 0.05 -- -- --

Dieldrin mg/L 0.001 0.001 -- -- --

Heptachlor mg/L nil nil -- -- --

Lindane mg/L 0.004 0.004 -- -- --

Toxaphane mg/L 0.005 0.005 -- -- --

Methoxychlor mg/L 0.10 0.10 -- -- --

Chlordane mg/L 0.003 0.003 -- -- --

Endrin mg/L nil nil -- -- --

PCB mg/L 0.001 0.001 -- -- --

Note: 1 Limiting value of organophosphates and organochlorines may in the meantime serve asguidelines in the interim period pending the procurement and availability of necessarylaboratory equipment. For Barium, Cobalt, Fluoride, Iron, Lithium, Manganese, Nickel,Selenium, Silver and Vanadium, the 1978 NPCC Rules and Regulations, Section 69 maybe considered.




12

Figure 1-5 Water Quality Criteria for Conventional and Other Pollutants AffectingAesthetics and Exerting Oxygen Demand for Coastal and Marine Waters.(a)

PARAMETER UNIT CLASSSA

CLASSSB

CLASSSC

CLASSSD

Color PCU (c) (c) (c) (c)

Temperature(d)

(max. rise in deg. Celsius)°C rise 3 3 3 3

pH (range) 6.5-8.5 6.0-8.5 6.0-8.5 6.0-9.0

Dissolved Oxygen(e)

(Minimum)% satn 70 70 70 50

mg/L 5.0 5.0 5.0 2.0

5-Day 20°C BOD mg/L 3 5 7(10) --

Total Suspended Solids mg/L (f) (g) (g) (h)

Surfactants (MBAS) mg/L 0.2 0.3 0.5 --

Oil Grease(Petroleum Ether Extract)

mg/L 1 2 3 5

Phenolic Substances asPhenols

mg/L nil 0.01 (l) --


70(m) 1,000(m) 5,000(m) --

Fecal Coliforms MPN/100mL

nil 200(m) -- --

Copper mg/L -- 0.02(n)(o) 0.05(o) --




13

Figure 1-6 Water Quality Criteria for Toxic and Other Deleterious Substances for Coastaland Marine Waters (For the Protection of Public Health)

PARAMETER UNIT CLASSSA

CLASSSB

CLASSSC

CLASSSD

Arsenic (i) mg/L 0.05 0.05 0.05 --

Cadmium (i) mg/L 0.01 0.01 0.01 --

Chromium (i) (hexavalent) mg/L 0.05 0.1 0.1 --

Cyanide mg/L 0.05 0.05 0.05 --

Lead (i) mg/L 0.05 0.05 0.05 --

Total Mercury(i) mg/L 0.002 0.002 0.002 --

Organophosphate mg/L nil nil nil --

Aldrin mg/L 0.001 -- -- --

DDT mg/L 0.05 -- -- --

Dieldrin mg/L 0.001 -- -- --

Heptachlor mg/L nil -- -- --

Lindane mg/L 0.004 -- -- --

Toxaphane mg/L 0.005 -- -- --

Methoxychlor mg/L 0.10 -- -- --

Chlordane mg/L 0.003 -- -- --

Endrin mg/L nil -- -- --

PCB mg/L 0.001 -- -- --

Note: 1 Limiting values of organophosphates and organochlorines may in the meantimeserve as guidelines in the interim period pending the procurement andavailability of necessary laboratory equipment. For Barium, Cobalt, Fluoride,Iron, Lithium, Manganese, Nickel, Selenium, Silver and Vanadium, the 1978NPCC Rules and Regulations, Section 69 may be considered.

DENR Administrative Order No.34 , Series of 1990; Revised Water Usage and Classification / Water Quality



14

Figure 1-7 Effluent Standards: Toxic and Other Deleterious Substance(Maximum Limits for the Protection of Public Health)(a)

ProtectedWaters

Category I(Class AA

& SA)

ProtectedWaters

Category II(Class A, B,

& SB)

Inland WatersClass C

MarineWaters

Class SC

MarineWaters

Class SD

Parameter Unit

OEI NPI OEI NPI OEI NPI OEI NPI OEI NPI

Arsenic mg/L (b) (b) 0.2 0.1 0.5 0.2 1.0 0.5 1.0 0.5

Cadmium mg/L (b) (b) 0.05 0.02 0.1 0.05 0.2 0.1 0.5 0.2

Chromium(hexavalent)

mg/L (b) (b) 0.1 0.05 0.2 0.1 0.5 0.2 1.0 0.5

Cyanide mg/L (b) (b) 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.5 0.2 -- --

Lead mg/L (b) (b) 0.2 0.1 0.5 0.3 1.0 0.5 -- --

Mercury(Tot.)

mg/L (b) (b) 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.05 0.01

PCB mg/L (b) (b) 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 -- --

Formal-dehyde

mg/L (b) (b) 2.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 -- --

NOTE:(a) Except as otherwise indicated, all limiting values are maximum and shall not be exceeded.(b) Discharge of sewage and/or trade effluents are prohibited or not allowed.

DENR Administrative Order No. 35, Series of 1990; Revised Effluent Regulations of 1990, Revising and

Amending the Effluent Regulations of 1982 (EMB/DENR, March 20 1990 )

15

Figure 1-8 Effluent Standards: Conventional and Other Pollutants (a)

Protected WatersCategory I

(Class AA & SA)Category II

(Class A, B, & SB)

InlandWatersClass C

Parameter Unit

OEI NPI OEI NPI OEI NPIColor PCU (b) (b) 150 100 200(c) 150(c)

Temperature(max. rise in degreeCelsius in RBW)

°C rise (b) (b) 3 3 3 3

pH (range) (b) (b) 6.0-9.0 6.0-9.0 6.0-9.0 6.5-9.0COD mg/L (b) (b) 100 60 150 100Settleable Solids(1-hour)

mg/L (b) (b) 0.3 0.3 0.5 0.5

5-Day 20°C BOD mg/L (b) (b) 50 30 80 50Total SuspendedSolids

mg/L (b) (b) 70 50 90 70

Total Dissolved Solids mg/L (b) (b) 1,200 1,000 -- --Surfactants (MBAS) mg/L (b) (b) 5.0 2.0 7.0 5.0Oil Grease (PetroleumEther Extract)

mg/L (b) (b) 5.0 5.0 10.0 5.0


mg/L (b) (b) 0.1 0.05 0.5 0.1


(b) (b) 5,000 3,000 15,000 10,000

InlandWaters

(Class D)

CoastalWaters

(Class SC)

Class SD & OtherCoastal WatersNot Classified

Parameter Unit

OEI NPI OEI NPI OEI NPIColor PCU -- -- (c) (c) (c) (c)Temperature (max.rise in degree Celsiusin RBW)

°C rise 3 3 3 3 3 3

pH (range) 5.0-9.0 6.0-9.0 6.0-9.0 6.0-9.0 5.0-9.0 5.0-9.0COD mg/L 250 200 250 200 300 2005-Day 20°C BOD mg/L 150(d) 120 120(d) 100 150(d) 120Total Suspended Solids mg/L 200 150 200 150 (g) (f)Total Dissolved Solids mg/L 2,000(h) 1,500(h) -- -- -- --Surfactants (MBAS) mg/L -- -- 15 10 -- --Oil / Grease(Petroleum EtherExtract)

mg/L -- -- 15 10 15 15


mg/L -- -- 1.0(i) 0.5(i) 5.0 1.0


(j) (j) -- -- -- --

16

NOTE1. In cases where the background level of Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) in freshwater

rivers, lakes, reservoirs and similar bodies of water is higher than the Water QualityCriteria, the discharge should not increase the level of TDS in the receiving body ofwater by more than ten percent of the background level.

2. The COD limits generally apply to domestic wastewater treatment plant effluent.For industrial discharges, the effluent standards for COD should be on a case to casebasis considering the COD-BOD ratio after treatment. In the interim period thatthis ratio is not yet established by each discharger, the BOD requirement shall beenforced.

3. There are no effluent standards for chloride except for industries using brine anddischarging into inland waters, in which case the chloride content should not exceed500 mg/L.

4. The effluent standards apply to industrial manufacturing plants and municipaltreatment plant discharging more than thirty (30) cubic meters per day.

(a) - Except as otherwise indicated, all limiting values are 90th percentile values. Thisis applicable only when the discharger undertakes daily monitoring of its effluentquality, otherwise, the numerical values in the tables represent maximum values notto be exceeded once a year.

(b) - Discharge of sewage and/or trade effluents is prohibited or not allowed.(c) - Discharge shall not cause abnormal discoloration in the receiving waters outside of

the mixing zone.(d) - For wastewaters with initial BOD concentration over 1,000 mg/L but less than

3,000 mg/L, the limit may be exceeded up to a maximum of 200 mg/L or a treatmentreduction of ninety (90) percent, whichever is more strict. Applicable to both old andnew industries.

(e) - The parameters Total Suspended Solids (TSS) should not increase the TSS of thereceiving water by more than thirty (30) percent during the dry season.

(f) - Not more than 30 mg/L increase (dry season)(g) - Not more than 60 mg/L increase (dry season)(h) - If effluent is the sole source of supply for irrigation, the maximum limits are 1,500

mg/L and 1,000 mg/L, respectively, for old industries and new industries.(i) - Not present in concentration to affect fish flavor or taste or tainting(j) - If effluent is used to irrigate vegetable and fruit crops which may be eaten raw,

Fecal Coliforms should be less than 500 MPN/100mL.


Amending the Effluent Regulations of 1982 (EMB/DENR, March 20 1990)

17

Figure 1-9 Effluent Standards for New Industries Producing Strong Wastes uponEffectivity of these Regulations, and for All Industries Producing StrongWastes starting January 1, 1995.

Maximum Allowable Limits inmg/L Based on Receiving Body of Water

Industry Classification Basedon BOD of Raw Wastewater

Inland Waters(Class C and D)

Coastal Waters(Class SC and SD)

1. Industries producing within3,000 to 10,000 mg BOD/L

130 or 98% removal 200 or 97% removal

2. Industries producing within10,000 to 30,000 mg BOD/L


3. Industries producing morethan 30,000 mg BOD/L


Note: Including old or existing industries producing strong waste whose wastewatertreatment plants are still to be constructed.

1. Use either numerical limits or percentage removal whichever is lower (orwhichever is more strict).

2. For parameters other than BOD and COD Figure 1-8 Effluent Standards:Conventional and Other Pollutants shall apply.



18

Figure 1-10 Approved Methods of AnalysisPARAMETER METHOD OF ANALYSIS

ARSENIC Silver Diethyldithiocarbamate Method (Colorimetric)BOD Azide Modification (Dilution Technique)BORON Carmine Method (Colorimetric Method)CADMIUM Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (Wet ashing

with concentration HNO3+HCl)CHLORINATEDHYDROCARBONS

Gas Chromatography (ECD)

CHROMIUM (Hexavalent) Diphenyl Carbazide Colorimetric MethodCOLOR Visual Comparison Method (Platinum Cobalt Scal)CYANIDE Specific Ion Electrode MethodDISSOLVED OXYGEN Azide Modification (Winkler Method), Membrane

Electrode (DO meter)FECAL COLIFORMS Multiple-Tube Fermentation Technique or Membrane

FilterLEAD Atomic Absorption SpectrophotometryNITRATE AS NITROGEN Bruccine Method for Saline Waters, specific Ion

Electrode Meter for Fresh WaterOIL AND GREASE Gravimetric Method (Petroleum Ether Extraction)ORGANO PHOSPORUSCOMPOUNDS

Gas Chromatography (FPD)

PCB Gas Chromatography (ECD)pH Glass Electrode MethodPHENOLIC SUBSTANCES Chloroform Extraction MethodPHOSPHATE AS PHOSPORUS Stannous Chloride MethodSETTLEABLE SOLIDS Imhoff Cone MethodSURFACTANT (MBAS) Methylene Blue Method (Colorimetric)TEMPERATURE Use of Mercury-Filled ThermometerTOTAL COLIFORMS Multiple-Tube Fermentation Technique or Membrane

FilterTOTAL MERCURY Cold Vapor Technique, (Mercury Analyzer, AAS)TOTAL SUSPENDED SOLIDS Gravimetric MethodNOTE: Other methods found in the Philippine Standard Methods for Air and Water

Analysis, the “Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and WasteWaters,” published jointly by American Public Health Association, the AmericanWaterworks Association and the Water Pollution Control Federation of the U.S.or in accordance with such other method of analyses as the DENR may prescribe.

DENR Administrative Order No.34, Series of 1990;Revised Water Usage and Classification / Water Quality


Water Use Regulation (EMB/DENR, March 20 1990)



19

3) Environmental Users Fee System

Furthermore, since January 1997 a new countermeasure has been implemented in theLaguna Lake area, which is suffering serious water pollution caused by factory effluents,according to PD984, Section 6, item g (Pollution Control Law) and Executive Order No.927 "Defining Certain Powers and Functions of the Laguna Lake Development Authority(LLDA)." This is a system of collecting "Environmental Users Fees" (pollution charges)in proportion to the burden on the environment.

PD 984 invests the DENR (then the NPCC) with "the authority to issue, renew or denypermits under such conditions as it may deem reasonable for the prevention andabatement of pollution for the discharge of sewage, industrial waste --- and imposereasonable fees and charges for the issuance or renewal of all permits herein required."The Executive Order No. 927 invests the LLDA with the authority "to collect fees for theuse of the lake waters and its tributaries for all beneficial purposes including but notlimited to fisheries and waste disposal purpose, --- the share of the LLDA shall form partof its corporate funds and shall not be remitted to the National Treasury." The sanctionsystem has not changed. Under the new system, however, the previous "Authority toConstruct" and "Permit to Operate" have been replaced by the "Permit to Discharge,"which is based on the existing water and air quality standards to be renewed annually.

A brochure issued by the LLDA describes that "to ensure that the rapid economic growthof the country is environmentally sustainable, it is important to make environmentalmanagement efforts more effective. In this context, DENR plans to introduce a systemof environmental users fee to complement its existing regulatory framework. Under theproposed system, in addition to meeting the existing discharge standards specified in theregulations, activities that utilize environmental resources would also be required to paya fee for every unit of pollution they discharge. This would help the Government achieveits objectives of preserving the environment in a reliable and cost-effective manner."

This Environmental Users Fee system is expected to be applied not only to the areaaround Laguna Lake but also eventually to all polluting activities from industrial,commercial, domestic and agricultural sources in the country.

However, in the first year of introduction, the system is being applied to about 120industrial sources discharging waste water into Laguna Lake, which is under thejurisdiction of the LLDA, based on BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand). These 120factories contributes 90 percent of the total water pollution discharged into Laguna Lakeby industries. These 120 factories would be selected from the following five industrialsectors:

・Food processing・Piggeries / Slaughterhouse・Beverages・Dyes and textiles・Paper and pulp

The fees consist of a fixed and a variable fee components for BOD concentration. Thefixed charge covers the cost of processing the discharge permit, monitoring and

20

evaluation.

Total annual environmental users fee = Fixed fee + Variable fee<Fixed fee>

・ Waste water discharges greater than 150 m3/day: 15,000 Philippine pesos・ Waste water discharges between 31 and 150 m3/day: 10,000 Philippine pesos・ Waste water discharges 30 m3/day or less: 5,000 Philippine pesos

<Variable fee>・ Total BOD concentration is 50 mg/l or less: 5 Philippine pesos per kg of

total BOD・ Total BOD concentration is greater than 50 mg/l:

30 Philippine pesos per kg oftotal BOD

Total annual BOD (in kilogram) = (Average BOD concentration (mg/l)) × (daily Amount of waste water (m3/day)) ×

300 (number of annual operating days) × 10-3 (Conversion factor (m3/L/kg/mg))

In the second stage, application of the system will be extended to other organic wastes asthe toxics and hazardous chemicals. Also the coverage will be expanded to the domesticand commercial sources across the country.

The brochure of the LLDA describes the effects of this system as follows.

Old system: 1. Command and control, Burden of proof was on government calling toquestion technical capability of regulators ; 2. Cheaper to pay fine than set up a treatmentplant resulting in polluted water that affects production in other industries ; and 3.Domestic polluters not accountable for pollution.

New System : 1. Burden of proof is on industry. Ultimate measure is quality of outflowbringing about a real incentive to minimize pollution ; 2. Real economic incentive to set upa treatment plant. To avoid higher user’s fee, companies may adopt waste minimizationstrategies and new cleaner technologies ; and 3. All polluters pay. Environmentalmanagement is a shared responsibility among the government, industry and community.

4) Prospective Trends in Environmental Control over the Area around Laguna Lake

Water quality criterion "Class C" is applied to the areas around Laguna Lake, such asMetropolitan Manila, Cavite, Laguna and Batangas. In Class C, a BOD effluent criteriavalue of 50 mg/l is applied to new plants. According to the LLDA person in charge,"Stricter criteria will be applied step by step to the areas around Laguna Lake, becausethe government is planning to use the water of the Laguna Lake as drinking water in thefuture." That suggests that companies coming into the area from now on will need toprepare treatment equipment in advance to be able to satisfy criteria stricter than thepresent ones. Though it is not clear how the criteria will be revised, they are expected tobe upgraded from Class C to B and then to A.

However, regarding the revision of the criteria, the person in charge said, "We will notrevise the criteria all at one time. We are planning to upgrade them step by step in

21

proportion to the degree of improvement of companies. We will tackle this with thecooperation of industry and sometimes NGOs, not in a form in which the governmentforces the criteria on companies unilaterally."

5) Analysis of Water Quality

There are no private laboratories (Analysis Organization) authorized by the DENR. TheDENR is preparing guidelines for the government to authorize laboratories, and theguidelines are subject to approval by the concerned departments in the government.This is because the government laboratories alone cannot deal with the situation due tothe development of new measures such as introduction of the Environmental Users Feesystem.

6) Penalties for Violating the Criteria

Penalties for violating the criteria are less than 5,000 pesos per day, based on PresidentialDecree No. 984.

5. Countermeasures against Air Pollution

The causes of air pollution in Philippine cities can be divided into two, according to type ofsource: mobile sources such as automobiles and fixed sources such as power plants andfactories. Notably, research conducted in the Manila metropolitan area in 1990 revealedthat an estimated 21% of particle-like substances, 83% of nitrogen oxides, 99% of carbonmonoxides and 12% of sulfur oxides are due to automobile exhaust.

A program has been put in place to combat this automobile emission. Privately ownedvehicles that are more than five years old are legally required to undergo exhaust testswhen they are registered. Two testing sites have been established in Manila for thispurpose, but improvements on diesel engines and jeepneys are insufficient and these areperpetrating air pollution.

To deal with fixed sources of pollution, newly built factories are required to have pollutionpreventive equipment. Before start of operation is approved, EnvironmentalManagement Bureau DENR conducts emission tests, lays down the pollution andenvironmental standards and assesses pollution control equipment.

The latest legislation relating to air pollution, which has been amended several times ashas the legislation relating to water pollution, is the DENR Administrative Order No. 14and No. 14a "Revised Air Quality Standards of 1992, Revising and Amending the AirQuality Standards of 1978," which were promulgated on March 18, 1993. The Orderlays down quality guideline for criteria pollutants, which are divided into short term andlong term. Concentrations, averaging exposure time and analysis methods are laiddown for source specific air pollutants. Furthermore, the Order stipulates pollutants,sources, standard values and analysis methods relating to the national emissionstandards for source specific air pollutants.

For emission control of sulfur compounds, the Order also stipulates ratios for sulfur

22

contained in liquid and solid fuel used at existing fixed emission sources, as well asemission standards for sulfur oxides in stationary sources. These are shown in Figures1-11 through 1-14.

Automobile emissions are controlled by PD1181; Prevention, Control & Abatement of AirPollution from Motor Vehicles & for Other Purposes / Motor Vehicle Pollution Control,and Government Notice No. 551, which stipulates installation of pollution preventionequipment in automobiles.

23

Figure 1-11 National Ambient Air Quality Guideline for Criteria PollutantsPollutant Short Term (a) Long Term (b)

ug/Ncm ppm Averagingtime

ug/Ncm ppm Averagingtime

Suspended Particulate

Matter (e)- TSP 230 (f) 24 hours 90 -- 1 yr. (c)

PM-10 150 (g) 24 hours 60 -- 1 yr. (c)

Sulfur Dioxide (e) 190 0.07 24 hours 80 0.03 1 yr.

Nitrogen Dioxide 150 0.08 24 hours -- -- --

PhotochemicalOxidants

140 0.07 1 hour -- -- --

as Ozone 60 0.03 8 hours -- -- --

Carbon Monoxide 35 mg/Ncm 30 1 hour -- -- --

10 mg/Ncm 9 8 hours -- -- --

Lead (d) 1.5 -- 3 months (d) 1.0 -- 1 yr.

Note:a. Maximum limits represented by ninety eight percentile (98%) values not to be exceeded more

than once a year.b. Arithmetic meanc. Annual Geometric Meand. Evaluation of this guideline is carried out for 24-hour averaging time and averaged over three

moving calendar months. The monitored average value for any three months shall notexceed the guideline value.

e. SO2 and Suspended Particulates are sampled once every six days when using the manualmethods. A minimum number of twelve sampling days per quarter or forty eight samplingdays each year is required for these methods. Daily sampling may be done in the future oncecontinuous analyzers are procured and become available.

f. Limits for Total Suspended Particulates with mass median diameter less than 25-50 um.g. Provisional limits for Suspended Particulates with mass median diameter less than 10

microns until sufficient monitoring data are gathered to base a proper guideline.

DENR Administrative Order No.14；Revised Air Quality Standards of 1992， Revising and Amending the Air

Quality Standards of 1978 (DENR, March 18 1993)

24

Figure 1-12 National Ambient Air Quality Standards for Source Specific Air Pollutantsfrom Industrial Sources/Operations

Concentration (c)*Pollutants (a)ug/Ncm ppm

Averagingtime (min)

Method of Analysis/Measurement (b)

1. Ammonia 200 0.28 30 Nesselerization2. Carbon Disulfide 30 0.01 30 Tischer Method3. Chlorine and Chlorine

compounds expressed as Cl2

100 0.03 5 Methyl Orange

4. Formaldehyde 50 0.04 30 Chromotropic acidmethod or MBTH-Colorimetric method

5. Hydrogen Chloride 200 0.13 30 Volhard Titrationwith Iodine solution

6. Hydrogen Sulfide 100 0.07 30 Methylene Blue7. Lead 20 30 AASb

8. Nitrogen Dioxide 375 0.20 30 Griess-Saltzman260 0.14 60

9. Phenol 100 0.03 30 4-Aminoantipyrine10. Sulfur Dioxide 470 0.18 30 Colorimeteric-

Pararosaline340 0.13 60

11. Suspended ParticulateMatter

TSP 300 -- 60 GravimetricPM-10 200 -- 60 -do-

Notes:a. Pertinent ambient standards for Antimony, Arsenic, Cadmium, Asbestos, Nitric Acid and

Sulfuric Acid Mists in the 1978 NPCC Rules and Regulations may be considered asguides in determining compliance.

b. Other equivalent methods approved by the Department may be used.c. Ninety-eight percentile (98%) values of 30-min. sampling measured at 25°C and one

atmosphere pressure.

DENR Administrative Order No.14；Revised Air Quality Standards of 1992, Revising and Amending the Air


25

Figure 1-13 National Emission Standards for Source Specific Air Pollutants (NESSAP)POLLUTANT* STANDARD

APPLICABLE TOSOURCE

MAXIMUMPERMISSIBLE

LIMITS (mg/Ncm)

METHOD OFANALYSISa

Antimony & its Cmpds. Any source 10 as Sb AASb

Arsenic & its Cmpds. Any source 10 as As AASb

Cadmium & its Cmpds. Any source 10 as Cd AASb

Carbon Monoxide Any industrial source 500 as CO Orsat AnalysisCopper & its Cmpds. Any industrial source 100 as Cu AASb

Hydrofluoric Acid andFluorine Cmpds.

Any source other than themanufacture ofAluminum from Alumina

50 as HF Titration withAmmoniumThiocyanate

Hydrogen Sulfide i) Geothermal powerplants

c, d Cadmium SulfideMethod

ii) GeothermalExploration and WellTesting

E

iii) Any source other than(i) and (ii)

7 as H2S Cadmium SulfideMethod

Lead Any trade, industry orprocess

10 as Pb AASb

Mercury Any source 5 as elemental Hg AASb/cold-VaporTechnique or HgAnalyzer

Nickel and its Cmpds.Except Nickel Carbonylg

Any source 20 as Ni AASb

Nox i) Manufacture of NitricAcid

2,000 as acid and NOxcalculated as NO2

Phenol-disulfonicacid Method

ii) Fuel burning steamgenerators

-do-

Existing Source 1,500 as NO2

New SourceCoal-fired 1,000 as NO2

Oil-fired 500 as NO2

iii)Any source other than(i) and (ii)

-do-

Existing Source 1,000 as NO2

New Source 500 as NO2

Phosphorous Pentoxide Any source 200 as P2O5 SpectrophotmetryZinc & its Cmpds. Any source 100 as Zn AASb

a Other equivalent methods approved by the Department may be used.b Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometryc All new geothermal power plants starting construction by 01 January 1994 shall control H2S

emissions to not more than 150 g/GMW-Hr.d All existing geothermal power plants shall control H2S emissions to not more than 200

g/GMW-Hr. within 5 years from the date of effectivity of these revised regulations.e Best practicable control technology for air emissions and liquid discharges. Compliance with

air and water quality standards is required.f Provisional Guidelineg Emission limit of Nickel Carbonyl shall not exceed 0.5 mg/Ncm.* Limits of other air pollutants not included in this table but appearing in the 1978 regulations

shall be maintained.DENR Administrative Order No.14；Revised Air Quality Standards of 1992, Revising and Amending the AirQuality Standards of 1978 (DENR, March 18 1993)

26

Figure 1-14 Control of Sulfur Compound Emission

(1) Sulfur Content of Fossil Fuels for Existing Sources

(a). Liquid Fuel Metro Manila Outside Metro Mla

(i). Fuel Oil (All grades)

July 1, 1993 3.5% 3.8%

January 1, 1996 3.0% 3.0%

(ii). Industrial Diesel

July 1, 1993 0.7% 0.8%

January 1, 1996 0.5% 0.5%

(b). Solid Fuel (Coal)

July 1, 1993 2.5% 2.5%

January 1, 1996 1.0% 1.0%

(2) Maximum Permissible Emission Limits for Sulfur Oxides in Stationary Sources

(1). Existing Sources

(i). Manufacture of Sulfuric Acid andSulf(on)ation Process

2.0 gm/Ncm as SO3

(ii). Fuel Burning Steam Generators 1.5 gm/Ncm as SO2

(iii).Other Stationary Sources except (i) and (ii) 1.0 gm/Ncm as SO3

(2). New Sources

(i). Manufacture of Sulfuric Acid andSulf(on)ation Process

1.5 gm/Ncm as SO3

(ii). Fuel Burning Steam Generators

January 1, 1994 1.0 gm/Ncm as SO2

January 1, 1998 0.7 gm/Ncm as SO2

(iii).Other Stationary Sources except (i) and (ii) 0.2 gm/Ncm as SO3

DENR Administrative Order No.14；Revised Air Quality Standards of 1992, Revising and Amending the Air


27

6. Countermeasures against Solid Waste

Figure 1-15 Amount of Solid WasteProduced in MetropolitanManila (per day)

Year Amount

1982 2,633 t

1988 3,339 t

1993 4,911 t

1994 5,000 - 5,400 t

The volume of solid waste produced per dayin Metropolitan Manila is about 0.6 kg percapita (as of 1994) and has increased steadilyeach year, as shown in Figure 1-15. It issaid that 77 to 90 percent of solid waste inMetropolitan Manila are processed at threetreatment facilities or recycled, and theremaining 10 to 23 percent is dumped invacant lots, roadsides, riverbanks and rivers.

At present, almost all waste are disposed in open dumpsites without waste watertreatment facilities or water barrier sheeting, but such disposal sites are going to beclosed. For instance, the disposal site in Tondo known as "Smoky Mountain" was closedin May 1993, and the disposal site in Pasig was closed in September 1994. However,even the "sandwich method" of covering filled waste material with soil is not being usedfor reason of expense, nor are appropriate disposal sites being built. Such being thesituation, waste disposal sites have given rise to various pollution including sanitationproblems such as insect plague, as well as spontaneous combustion of refuse, malodor,and water pollution. Besides, there is considerable amount of refuse that goes withoutbeing collected and becomes illegally dumped in rivers and lakes. This is another bigcause of water pollution. Meanwhile, a survey reveals that two existing sites will be ableto process only about 40 percent of collected waste because enough substitute sites for theclosed sites have not been built.

The collection and disposal of solid waste is the responsibility of local authorities,according to the law. Despite the methods of disposal adopted as described above, theincreased cost of refuse disposal is now a problem.

Major laws dealing with waste are:- PD 825: Providing Penalty for Improper Disposal ofGarbage and Other Forms of Uncleanliness and for Other Purposes, issued in 1975, whichlays down penalties for illegal disposal of waste; PD 856: Code on Sanitation, whichstipulates the waste disposal responsibility of local authorities. In this PD 856,standards for drinking water, sewage, and waste disposal are given. In Chapter 5 of thePD 1152, issued in 1977, a waste disposal plan and waste disposal methods are laid down.

In order to tackle these waste disposal problems, the construction of a waste relay stationand a controlled landfill site is planned. Speedy execution of these projects are nowurgently required.

As for industrial waste, Republic Act; RA 6969; Toxic Substances and Hazardous andNuclear Wastes Control Act of 1990 was enacted in 1990. However, action is laggingbehind. Research into what waste materials are produced by major industries andestablishing a disposal plan based on these findings, construction of disposal sites andtreatment facilities - all these are requiring swift attention. The problem is thatlandfilling with toxic waste is prohibited at present, yet there are no facilities to process

28

the waste.

Not only Japanese companies but also other foreign affiliate companies, are calling for theconstruction of facilities to process toxic solid waste. Presidential Task Force on WasteManagement coordinated by the DENR, was established in 1987. The government isnow beginning to tackle this problem. The World Bank and the European Union (EU)have already conducted a survey to identify locations for facilities to process toxic waste.The survey shows that when it comes to processing facility sites, many residents protestagainst the construction of facilities near their home, or in their town or province. Thegovernment at one point decided to prepare a landfill site in Carmona southwest ofManila, but this has not gone ahead due to strong opposition by the local authorities andmunicipalities. According to the DENR person in charge, the government will solve thisproblem within a couple of years, so companies are required to store sludge and the like.

7. Future Trends of Environmental Measures

The Philippine government now implements regulative measures based on laws andeconomic measures such as the environmental users fees. Furthermore, the governmentis planning to launch a project called "Ecowatch," a sociocultural approach, as a thirdmeasure from the end of 1997.

This project classifies companies by stage of pollution prevention by assigning them"symbolic colors." Names of companies are announced publicly, providing a kind ofcompany version of the ecolabel system. Companies with no specific measures to preventpollution are classified as "black." Companies addressing pollution issues to some degreebut not satisfying the criteria are classified as "red." Companies satisfying the criteriaare classified as "blue." Companies implementing measures that more than satisfy thecriteria are classified as "green." Companies that stay green for 3 years or more areclassified as "gold."

For the time being, the LLDA is running this project independently, and is planning toapply the project to the whole country in the future.

The government also has an Industrial Environmental Management Project (IEMP) topromote reductions in the amounts of effluent and environment inspections. Thepurposes of this project are: 1) to prevent or reduce pollution at the source; 2) to reclaimindustrial wastes; and 3) to encourage cost-effective pollution abatement technologies.The details include 1) Pollution Reduction Initiative which involves promotion ofpollution management appraisals, environmental risk assessment and technologytransfer initiatives; 2) Policy Studies and Public/Private Dialogues which supports awide range of policy analysis to institute improvements in the existing industrialregulatory framework; and; 3) the Capability Building Component which helps effecttechnology transfer to local organizations and professionals needing to improve theirindustrial pollution management skills.

Chapter 1: Environmental Problems and Their Legislative Control in the Philippines … · 2018. 4....

Documents

Transcript of Chapter 1: Environmental Problems and Their Legislative Control in the Philippines … · 2018. 4....