Chapter 1: Anatomical Terminology, Medical Imaging, Organ System Overview

I. Levels of Organization of Organisms

A. atoms (elements of periodic table)

B. molecules (proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, nucleic acid)

C. cells (epithelial, bone, muscle, nervous)

D. tissues (epithelial, connective, muscular)

E. organ (stomach, heart, brain, lung)

F. organ system (muscular, skeletal, digestive, nervous)

G. whole organism (each different species)

II. Anatomy - the study of the structures of an organism

A. Gross Anatomy - structures as seen by unaided eye

B. Developmental Anatomy - study of the anatomy of the developing organism

Chemical levelAtoms combine to form molecules

Cellular levelCells are made up of molecules

Tissue levelTissues consist of similar types of cells

Organ system levelOrgan systems consist of different organs that work together closely

Organ levelOrgans are made up of different types of tissues

Organismal levelThe human organism is made up of many organ systems

Atoms

Molecules

Smooth muscle cell

Smooth muscle tissue

Connective tissue

Smooth muscle tissue

Epithelial tissue

Blood vessel (organ)

Heart

Blood vessels

Cardiovascular system

Levels of Structural Organization

Figure 1.1

1. Embryology - fertilization to third month of fetus

C. Histology ("tissues" "to study") - structures that can be seen with the microscope such as cells and tissues

1. Cytology - study of cell structure/function

D. Systemic Anatomy - study of individual organ system

E. Regional Anatomy - study of structures in particular area

F. Pathology ("disease" "to study") - study of changes in structure due to disease/injury

III. Structure - Function Relationships

A. Anatomy - study of structurePhysiology - study of function

B. Structure determines FunctionFunction determines Structure

C. Charles Darwin - "Origin of the Species" (1858) - Changes in structure affect function: basis of evolution of all organisms

IV. Anatomical Terminology - The Language of Anatomy

1. Prefixes Indicating Location, Direction, and Tendency

Prefix Meaning Example_________________

Ab- from, away abnormal - away from normal

Ad- to, near, toward adrenal - near the kindey

Ante- before antepartum - before delivery of child

Brady- slow bradycardia - slow heart beat

Brev- short brevity - in a short time

Circum- around circumocular - around the eye

Co- with, together coordinate - work together

Con- with, together congenital - with birth

Contra- against contraindicated - not indicated

Counter- against counterirritant - against irritation

Dis- apart from disarticulated - taking a joint apart

Ect- outside ectonuclear - outside the nucleus

End- within endocardium - lining inner heart

Epi- upon, on top of epidermis - upon the skin

Ex- out from exhalation - breathe out

Hypo- under, lower hypodermic - under the skin

Hyper- above, higher hyperactive - higher level activity

Im- not immature - not mature

In- not incurable - not curable

Infra- under, below infrapatellar - below the knee

Peri- around pericardium - sac around the heart

Post- after postmortem - after death

Pre- before prenatal - before birth

Pro- before prognosis - a fore-knowing

Super- above, on top superciliary - above the eyebrow

Supra- above, on top suprapubic - above the pubic bone

Sym- with, together symphony - sounds played together

Syn- with, together synarthrosis - union of bones

Trans- through, across transurethral - through the urethra

2. Prefixes Indicating Number and Measurement

Uni- one unicycle - one wheel

Mono- one mononuclear - one nucleus

Bi- two bilateral - two sides

Bin- two binocular - two eyes

Di- two dicephalic - two heads

Ter- three tertiary - the third part or stage

Tri- three trilobar - three lobes

Quadr- four quadriceps - muscle w four heads

Tetra- four tetracylcine - four-ringed molecule

Poly- many polydactyly - many digits (more than 5)

Oligo- few oligosaccharide - few sugars linked together

Micro- small microscope - equipment to view small things

Macro- large macrophage - large eating cell

Mega- great/enormous megadontia - huge teeth

3. Prefixes Denoting Organs, Structures, Things

Acoust- sound acoustics - quality of sound

Aud- ear, hear audition - to hear someone

Abdomin/o abdomen abdominal - relating to the abdomen

Acr/o extremity, limbs acromegaly - abnormally large limbs

Blast/o early, embryonic blastocyte - embryonic type cell

Aden/o gland adenopathy - disease of a gland

Angi/o vessel angiogram - picture of a vessel

Arthr/o joint arthritis - inflammation of a joint

Bucc/o cheek buccolabial - relating to cheek and lip

Cardi/o heart cardiology - study of the heart

Corp- body corpus callosum - connecting body

Chondr/o cartilage chondrocyte - cartilage cell

Cephal/o head cephalic - relating to the head

Cyst/o bladder cystoscopy - view of the bladder

Cyt/o cell cytokinesis - cell movement

Dent/o tooth dental - referring to teeth

Dermat/o skin dermatitis - skin inflammation

Duoden/o duodenum duodenal - relating to the duodenum

Encephal/o brain encephalitis - brain inflammation

Gastr/o stomach gastrointestinal - stomach and intestine

Hepat/o liver hepatitis - liver inflammation

Gloss/o tongue glossopathy - tongue disease

Glute- buttocks gluteus minimus - small buttocks muscle

Laryng/o larynx laryngitis - larynx inflammation

My/o muscle myocardium - heart muscle

Nephr/o kidney nephrologist - one who studies kidneys

Neur/o nerve neurosurgeon - surgeon of nervous system

Oste/o bone osteocyte - bone cell

Ot/o ear otitis media - middle ear inflammation

Ophthalm/o eye exophthalmos - eyes bulge out

Path/o disease pathological - relating to disease

Pneumon/o lung pneumonia - condition of the lung

Rhin/o nose rhinoplasty - reform the nose

Stomat/o mouth, opening stomatitis - mouth inflammation

Thorac/o chest or thorax thoracocentesis - puncture of the thora

4. Suffixes Denoting Relations, Conditions, and Agents

Suffix Meaning Example____________________________

-ac related to cardiac - related to the heart

-ious related to contagious - communicable by contact

-ic related to pyloric - related to pyloric valve of stomach

 

-ism condition mutism - condition of being mute

-osis condition scoliosis - S-shaped condition of backbone

-tion condition constipation - constant blockage condition

-ist agent (a person) opthalmologist - eye doctor

-or agent operator

-er agent examiner

-ician agent physician

-centesis to puncture amniocentesis - puncture the amnion (fluid)

-ectomy to cut out and remove appendectomy - cut out & remove appendix

-ostomy to cut and form opening colostomy - opening to drain the colon

-otomy to cut or slice tracheotomy - cut the trachea

-pexy to fix or repair gastropexy - repair the stomach

-plasty to reform or repair rhinoplasty - reform the nose

-rraphy to suture, sew ateriorraphy - suture an artery

-scopy to view otoscope - instrument to view ear

-algia pain neuralgia - nerve pain

-cide kill or destroy germicide - substance that kills germs

-emia of the blood cholesterolemia - cholesterol in the blood

-gram writing or record electrocardiogram - record of heart action

-graph recording instrument electrocardiograph - records the heart

-itis inflammation appendicitis - appendix inflammation

-ology the study of ophthalmology - study of the eye

-oma tumor lymphoma - tumor of lymphatics

-orrhea flow menorrhea - flow during menstruation

-malacia soft osteomalacia - bone softening

-phasia speech dysphasia - slurred or blunted speech

-phobia fear arachnophobia - fear of spiders

B. Anatomical Position

1. subject stands erect2. upper limbs placed at sides with palms forward3. feet flat on floor in natural forward direction

C. Directional Terms (practice using them in the lab!)

1. superior (cephalic) : inferior (caudal)2. anterior (ventral) : posterior (dorsal)3. medial : lateral4. ipsilateral (same side) : contralateral (opposite)5. proximal : distal6. superficial : deep7. parietal : visceral

D. Planes and Sections

1. sagittal - divides into right and left parts

a. midsagittal - right down the middleb. parasagittal - away from the midline

2. frontal (coronal) - divides anterior & posterior3. horizontal (transverse) - divide superior & inferior

E. Body Cavities

1. Dorsal Body Cavity

a. cranial cavity (brain)b. vertebral cavity (spinal cord)

2. Ventral Body Cavity (viscera - organs found here)

a. thoracic cavity

i. pleural cavity (space separating the parietal pleura and visceral pleura of lungs - like balloon pushed in with fist)

ii. mediastinum - all contents of thoracic cavity except the lungs (eg. heart)

b. abdominopelvic cavity

i. abdominal - stomach, spleen, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, small intestine ii. pelvic - urinary bladder, cecum, appendix, sigmoid colon, rectum, reproductive organs

3. Other Body Cavities

a. oral cavity (mouth)b. nasal cavity (sinuses for air passage)c. orbital cavities (eyes)d. middle ear cavities (in temporal bone)e. synovial cavities (freely moveable joints)

V. Divisions of Abdominopelvic Cavity

A. Quadrants (from the umbilicus - belly button)

1. right upper quadrant (RUQ)2. left upper quadrant (LUQ)3. right lower quadrant (RLQ)4. left lower quadrant (LLQ)

B. Regions (nine regions around umbilicus)

VI. Specific Terms for Various Regions

VII. Medical Imaging Techniques

A. Classic X-ray : radiography (radiograph)

1. good for dense structures (bones and tumors)

B. Computed Tomography (CT) or Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT) Scanning

1. employs X-ray technology to create clearer image2. tumors, aneurysms, kidney stones, gallstones, etc.

D. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

1. uses magnetic properties of molecules, not X-rays2. presence of cancer cells, chemical disease of brain, spinal cord disorders,

blood flow problems, injury after stroke, measure effects of drugs on tissues

3. used chiefly on soft tissues such as brain & heart

D. Dynamic Spatial Reconstruction (DSR)

1. employs X-ray technology to see organ action/motion2. measures physiology of heart, lungs, vessels; can

indicate abnormality/deformity in structure; tissue damage

E. Ultrasound (US)

1. uses high frequency sound waves2. gall stones, pelvic organs, blood flow, fetal development

F. Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

1. uses radioisotopes such as Carbon-11, Nitrogen-132. effects of drugs, site of molecules, cancer cells3. very good at studying glucose absorption by neurons in the brain during

certain tasks

G. Digital Subtraction Angiography (DSA)

1. takes X-ray picture before and after administration of contrast substance to the vessels

2. used to study vessels of the brain and heart to help prevent strokes and heart attacks

VIII. Major Organ Systems

A. There are 12 major organ systems of the body:

1. integumentary (skin)2. skeletal (bone)3. muscular (muscles)4. nervous (CNS and PNS)5. endocrine (hormones/regulation)

6. cardiovascular (heart and blood vessels)7. lymphatic (lymph fluid)8. respiratory (lungs)9. digestive (stomach, intestine)10. urinary (kidneys, bladder)11. reproductive (male and female genitalia)12. immune (not really organs, cells in the blood/body)

IX. Integumentary System

A. Major Components

1. skin (epidermis, dermis, etc.)2. hair3. sweat and oil glands4. sensory organs and glands

B. Major Functions

1. helps to regulate body temperature2. protects against external injury and desiccation3. eliminates salts and urea4. produces vitamin D5. responds to temperature, pressure, and pain

X. Skeletal System

A. Major Components

1. bone2. cartilages3. tendons4. ligaments5. joints

B. Major Functions

1. provide protection for internal organs (skull, ribs)2. provide support for body3. mechanical advantage for muscular actions (levers)4. storage of vital minerals - calcium5. site of blood cell formation (marrow)

XI. Muscular System

A. Major Components

1. muscles of different type/function

a. striated muscle (voluntary)b. smooth muscle (involuntary)c. cardiac muscle (heart)

B. Major Functions

1. striated muscle

a. primarily to contract on commandb. allows voluntary motions such as walking,

grasping, and moving in general, facial expressions

2. smooth muscle

a. contracts to allow involuntary motionb. along arteries, digestive tract

3. cardiac muscle

a. contracts in rhythmic fashion involuntarilyb. propels blood through lungs and body

XII. Nervous System

A. Major Components

1. brain and spinal cord (Central Nervous System)2. nerves and sensory organs (Peripheral N S)

B. Major Functions

1. detect changes in internal and external environment2. respond to changes to keep body homeostatic 3. organize activities of muscles and glands

XIII. Endocrine System

A. Major Components

1. pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pineal glands 2. ovaries, testes, pancreas

B. Major Functions

1. maintains body homeostasis, growth, development2. produce hormones in response to a variety of stimuli

(increased sugar level, impending doom, sexual attraction, length of day)

3. hormones then act on target organ to cause change

XIV. Cardiovascular System

A. Major Components

1. heart2. blood vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries)3. blood (serum, proteins, red & white cells)

B. Major Functions

1. primarily a transport system moving blood

a. oxygen, carbon dioxide, ions (salts Na,K,Ca,Cl)b. nutrients and wastec. hormones and proteinsd. white blood cells and antibodies

XV. Lymphatic System

A. Major Components

1. lymph nodes and vessels2. spleen3. thymus4. other scattered lymph tissue

B. Major Functions

1. location of lymphocytes involved in body immunity2. remove pathogens and debris from blood3. returns leaked fluid to blood vessels

XVI. Respiratory System

A. Major Components

1. nasal passages2. pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi3. lungs

B. Major Functions

1. remove carbon dioxide from blood2. allow blood to uptake oxygen from environment

XVII. Digestive System

A. Major Components

1. oral cavity, esophagus2. stomach3. small and large intestine4. rectum5. other: teeth, salivary glands, liver, pancreas

B. Major Functions

1. breakdown foods into minute particles to be absorbed by the blood and delivered to body

2. remove unused foodstuff from the body as feces

XVIII. Urinary System

A. Major Components

1. kidneys2. ureters3. bladder4. urethra

B. Major Functions

1. remove nitrogen-based waste molecules (urea, uric acid, ammonia) from the blood and body

2. maintain water balance and ion/acid balance of blood

XIX. Reproductive System

A. Major Components

Male: testes, scrotum, penis, and duct system for sperm

Female: ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina

B. Major Functions

1. produce gametes (sperm and egg)

2. allow means for conception to occur3. provide environment for fetal development

XIII. Immune System (Special)

A. Major Components

1. white blood cells and other special immune cells

B. Major Functions

1. identify foreign material and eliminate it

Chemical levelAtoms combine to form molecules

1

2

3

4

Cellular levelCells are made up of molecules

Tissue levelTissues consist of similar types of cells

5 Organ system levelOrgan systems consist of different organs that work together closely

Organ levelOrgans are made up of different types of tissues

6 Organismal levelThe human organism is made up of many organ systems

Atoms

Molecules

Smooth muscle cell

Smooth muscle tissue

Connective tissue

Smooth muscle tissue

Epithelial tissue

Blood vessel (organ)

Heart

Blood vessels

Cardiovascular system

Levels of Structural Organization

Figure 1.1