CH.8: EARLY HISTORY OF EGYPT

CHAPTER 8 EARLY HISTORY OF EGYPT

8.1 OLD KINGDOM: 5TH DYNASTY8.2 4TH DYNASTY8.3 3RD DYNASTY8.4 ARCHAIC PERIOD: 2ND DYNASTY8.5 1ST DYNASTY8.6 PRE-DYNASTIC PERIOD8.7 PREHISTORY8.8 DISCUSSION

Dr. R.M. de Jonge ©, [email protected]

SUMMARY The 5 turns on the front side encode the 5th Dynasty, and the 4 turns on the back side encode the 4th Dynasty. The passages of the inner parts correspond to the Dynasties in the history of Egypt. For each dynasty, the disc provides the duration in generations of 30.5 years, the number of Kings, the years of reign of each King, the population number, and the number of seaworthy ships. In the 1st Dynasty a comet catastrophe occurred with c.2,600 casualties in Egypt. In the Pre-Dynastic Period, in c.3201, another comet catastrophe occurred with about 3,000 casualties. New data are now available for Dynas-ties 1, 2, and 3.

8.1 OLD KINGDOM: 5TH DYNASTYThe 5 turns on the front side represent the important 5th Dynasty of the Old Kingdom, which officially lasted 140 years, from 2465 till 2325 (Figs.8.4 and 8.5). Passage A5 on the front side represents the 5th Dynasty. The "branche", having 5 leaves, occurs 5 times on this side, confirming it (Table 2.2). Passage B5 on the back side also represents this Dynasty. The "glove", having 5 fingers, occurs 5 times on the disc, confirming it (Refs.1-6).

KingsOn the front side, passages A19-27 and A1-9 represent the 9 Kings of the 5th Dynasty (compare the previous series, see Ch.7). Both series finish with Kings, and the last series finishes at the end of a paragraph. These series of passages contain together 5+4= 9 Rulers, confirming it. The last passages A26 and A27 of the first series contain together 4+5= 9 symbols, confirming the 9 Kings. This series of passages finishes in paragraph 9, confirming it. In the inner part all 9 Kings of this Dynasty are shown. On both edges the 6+3= 9 Rulers are shown, once again. The 9 paragraphs of the back side confirm them, again (Refs.16-26).

DurationOn the back side, the 5 passages B19-23 and B1-5 encode the duration of the period (compare the previous series, see Ch.7), 5 generations, or 5x30.5= 152 years, so according to the disc from 2525 to 2373. The last passages B23 (E5) and B5 of the series have 5 symbols, confirming the 5 generations of the 5th dynasty. Last passage B23 encodes the holy Tropic of Cancer, at 23N. It symbolizes the cultus of the SunGod Ra,

promoted during this Dynasty. Last passage B5 finishes with the sign of “religion”. Note, that this passage is the first one of a series of almost identical passages B5, B10, and B13.

On the front side, the 5 passages A31 plus 19-22, and A31 plus 1-4 confirm the duration, 5 generations (see Ch.7). Passage A23 (E5) contains the “falcon”, symbol of the SunGod Ra. It is used for separation, again. Last passage A4 finishes at the end of a paragraph. Passages 18 and 15 on both sides determine the duration of the 5th Dynasty, between 18 and 15 double generations ago.

CrisisPassage B1 of the generation series B1-5 consists of the combination of symbols “head and tail of a comet”, referring to the huge Comet Catastrophe of c.2344 which ended the 5th Dynasty (Ch.7). This Catastrophe occurred in the first generation of the 6th Dynasty, represented by passage B30 (Refs.7-9,41-52). That is why B1 became the last generation of the 5th Dynasty.- Passage B19 of the generation series B19-23 contains a “corpse”, referring to the numerous victims of this Catastrophe in Egypt. Almost half of the people were killed. That is why B19 became the last generation of the 5th Dynasty.- A31, the first passage of the two generation series on the front side, has a combination of four symbols, which is equal to passage A6. Due to the Comet, passage A6 became the 6th Dynasty of the Catastrophe. That is why A31 became the last generation of the 5th Dynasty.

PopulationThe huge Comet Catastrophe with 180,000 casualties in Egypt was at the start of the 6th Dynasty. Before this Catastrophe, at the end of the 5th Dynasty, the population was 190,000+180,000= 370,000 men (Ch.7). Passages A31 plus 19-22 encoded the duration of the dynasty, 5 generations. The first passage A31 contains a “messenger”, suggesting a population of 310 thousand men at the start of the 5th Dynasty. The next or 2nd passage A19 does not contain a king, so, the 2nd number (1) is not confirmed. However, passage A23 has a “falcon”, symbol of the SunGod Ra, confirming the number has to be written down in 23-18+1= 6 figures. So, the initial population was 300,000 men.

Years of reign Years of reign are always indicated by series of symbols. These series run from the start of a passage to a “King, Queen, or symbol of God” at the end of a passage. If these series are joined, it is indicated by ('). It means the years of reign of consecutive Kings are shown in a very nice way (Refs.53-59).

On the front side, the first King Userkaf is shown in passage 3. The 7 symbols of the passage are his 7 years of reign, from 2517 till 2510 (officially: c.2563-2556). The year 2517 is the last year of reign of the last King of the previous, 4th Dynasty. His successor King Sahure is also shown in passage 3. The 12 preceding symbols, the first ones on the disc, are his 12 years of reign, from 2510 till 2498 (2556-2544). In this short time period, America has been discovered via the Atlantic Ocean (Refs.31-33,60-65)! His successor King Nefererkare is represented by the symbol of God in passage 7. The 20 preceding symbols, ending in A3’, are his 20 years of reign, from 2498 till 2478 (2544-2524). His successor King Shepsekare is shown in passage 9. The 7 preceding symbols of the passage are his 7 years of reign, from 2478 till 2471 (2524-2517). His successor King Neferefre is shown in passage 10’. The 4 preceding symbols are his 4 (officially 3) years of reign, from 2471 till 2468 (2517-2514).

His successor King Niuserre is shown in passage 16. The 25 preceding symbols, ending in A11', are his 25 (officially 24) years of reign, from 2468 till 2444 (2514-2490). His successor King Menkauhor is shown in passage 18. The 8 preceding symbols, ending in A17', are his 8 (or 9) years of reign, from 2444 till 2435 (2490-2481). His successor King Djedkare is shown in passage 24. The 32 preceding symbols, ending in A19', are his 32 years of reign, from 2435 till 2403 (2481-2449). His successor King Unas, the last King of the 5th Dynasty, is shown in passage 20. The 33 preceding symbols, ending in A25', are his 33 years of reign, from 2403 till 2370 (2449-2416).

Along the edgeOn the edge of the front side, years of reign are confirmed by series of symbols. The first King Userkaf is shown in passage 20. The 7 preceding symbols, ending in A19', are his 7 years of reign. His successor King Sahure is represented by the symbol of God in passage 23. The 12 preceding symbols, ending in A21', are his 12 years of reign. Passage 23 symbolizes the Holy Tropic of Cancer, and the Southern Egyptian Empire, the center of the Sunreligion, at 23N. It also symbolizes the place where the Tropic of Cancer leaves the coast of Africa, at 23N. At this latitude people always wanted to cross the Atlantic, in honor of the SunGod. King Sahure succeeded in doing that. The symbols for the "power of God" also occur in passage 16, referring to the Southern Crossing of the Atlantic from the Cape Verde Islands, at 16N (Refs.34-40,60-65).

His successor King Nefererkare is shown in passage 27. The 20 preceding symbols, ending in A23', are his 20 years of reign. His successor King Shepsekare is shown in passage 20. The 7 preceding symbols, ending in A19’, are his 7 years of reign. His successor King Neferefre is represented by the symbol of God in passage 23’. The 3 symbols are his 3 years of reign. His successor King Niuserre is shown in passage 24. The 24 preceding symbols, ending in A19', are his 24 years of reign. His successor King Menkauhor is shown in passage 24 or 22. The 8 or 9 preceding symbols, ending in A23’ and A21’, are his 8 or 9 years of reign. His successor King Djedkare is shown in passage 24. The 32 preceding symbols, ending in A17’, are his 32 years of reign. His successor, the last King Unas, is represented by the symbol of God in passage 23, and shown in passage 20. The 33 preceding symbols, ending in A28' and A25', are in both cases his 33 years of reign.

ConfirmationFor the 5th Dynasty, years of reign are confirmed by passages. In passage A7, the first King Userkaf is represented by the symbol of God, because of his 7 years of reign. His successor King Sahure is shown in passage 12, because of his 12 years of reign. This passage, part of the important combination, contains a "boat", referring to the first crossing of the Atlantic Ocean during his reign. It is unlikely that he ruled for 14 years, as sometimes assumed. His successor King Nefererkare is shown in passage 20, because of his 20 years of reign. His successor King Shepsekare is represented by the symbol of God in passage 7, because of his 7 years of reign. His successor King Neferefre is shown in important passage 3, because of his 3 years of reign. His successor King Niuserre is shown in passage 24, because of his 24 years of reign. His successor King Menkauhor is shown in passage 8 as a “Queen”, or in passage 9, because of his 8 or 9 years of reign. His successor King Djedkare is shown in passage 20, the first one on the edge, because of his 31+1= 32 years of reign. His successor, the last King Unas, is also shown in passage 20, which can be considered as the second one on the edge, because of his 31+2= 33

years of reign.

Fig.8.1 King Sahure (at the right side) as god of the sea (the waves). He discovered the two southern crossings of the Atlantic. The sailing distances of 2 Moiras= 20 degrees over open sea were the longest crossings ever accomplished. (Pyramid temple of Sahure in Abusir, near Cairo, c.2500 BC)

The Egyptian FleetIn 2190, at the end of the 6th Dynasty, Egypt had a population of 230 thousand men, and a fleet of only c.149 seaworthy ships (Ch.7). At the end of the 5th Dynasty, which is the last one before the Catastrophe, the population was higher: c.370 thousand men. So, we may expect that around the year of 2370, the Egyptian fleet contained an estimated number of at least (37/23)x149= c.240 ships. This estimation is too low, because of the influence of the huge Catastrophe at the start of the 6th Dynasty.

In 2520, at the end of the 4th Dynasty, Egypt had a population of 300 thousand men, and a fleet of c.209 seaworthy ships (see below). At the end of the 5th Dynasty, the population was 370 thousand men. So, we may expect that around the year of 2370, the Egyptian fleet contained an estimated number of (37/30)x209= c.258 ships (Refs.27-30). This estimation is also too low, because it was 2520-2370= 150 years later in time.

The front side has 5 turns, corresponding to the 5th Dynasty. Passage A18 is at the start of a series of 3 passages, finishing with a King. It encodes 180 ships. A12 may form a similar series of 3 passages, encoding 120 ships. Both passages are situated on the 4th turn, representing Egypt, 4° south of Crete, at 35-4= 31°N. So, it appears there were 180+120= 300 ships.- Passage B2 on the back side typically encodes 200 ships. B9 may encode 90 ships. So, these passages show a total of 200+90= 290 ships.

The edge represents Egypt, especially the second part of it. Passage B27 has a “boat”, forming a series of 3 passages, finishing with the “head and tail of a comet” in B29, which determined the year of the Catastrophe which ended the 5th Dynasty (Ch.7). It encodes 270 ships. B19 typically corresponds with 19 ships, and B22 corresponds with another 22 ships. So, in total these passages show 270+19+22= 311 ships. So, on the average, Egypt appears to have c.300 seaworthy ships at the end of the 5th Dynasty.

Pyramids and TemplesThe front side has 5 turns, corresponding to the 5th Dynasty. It also has 11 paragraphs, together encoding the 5+11= 16 pyramids at the end of this dynasty.- The edge symboli-zes Egypt. Passage 30 on the edge has a “temple”, typically encoding 30 temples. The “palace” in A9 may also represent one temple. So, it appears, there were a total of 30+1= 31 temples.

Passage B18 on the back side has two “temples”. The first one may form a series of 2 passages, finishing on the edge. It encodes 18 temples in Egypt. All other relevant passages with a “palace” or a “temple” may form series of only 1 passage. So, the second number will not be confirmed. So, in total these series encode 6+1+18+1+2+2= 30 Egyp-tian temples at the end of the 5th Dynasty.

SchoolsIn 2190, at the end of the 6th Dynasty, Egypt had c.202 schools. Because of the higher population, the country will now have an estimated number of (37/23)x202= c.325 schools. The “temples and palaces” on the disc may also represent schools. The front side has 5 turns, corresponding to the 5th Dynasty. Passage A30 on the edge typically encodes 300 schools in Egypt. A9 has a “palace”. It typically encodes another 90 schools. So, the front side shows a total number of 300+90= 390 schools.

The edge of the back side represents Egypt. When the passages are counted along the edge, the relevant passages E3 and E8 with “temples” may encode a total of 380 schools. The inner part also has “palaces” and “temples”. The relevant passages may encode a total of 6+17+180+180= 383 schools at the end of the 5th Dynasty. So, it appears, there were on the average c.385 schools in Egypt. When the ratio “lower vs. higher schools” is the same as at the end of the 6th Dynasty, there were (162/202)x385= c.309 “lower schools”, and (40/202)x385= c.76 “higher schools” (Refs.16-26).

TABLE 8.1

EARLY EGYPTIAN HISTORY ACCORDING TO THE PHAISTOS DISC, 1458 BC

OLD KINGDOM, 5TH DYNASTYc.2525 Start 5th Dynasty (2465*) Population: 300,000, 9 Kings, 5 generationsc.2517 Userkaf (7)c.2510 Sahura (12), discovery of America via Southern Crossing of the Atlantic, and Azores Crossing

c.2498 Nefererkare (20) , discovery of America via Upper North Crossing (Greenland)c.2478 Shepsekare (7)c.2471 Neferefre (3)c.2468 Niuserre (24)c.2444 Menkauhor (8/9)c.2435 Djedkare (32)c.2403 Unas (33), discovery of return route via BermudaEgyptian Fleet: c.300 seaworthy shipsPyramids: c.16, Temples: c.31Schools: c.385; lower schools: c.309, higher schools: c.76c.2370 End of Dynasty because of Comet Catastrophe, c.2344c.2373 End of 5th Dynasty, population: 370,000 (2325*)

* according to archaeological research(..) years of reign; the names of the Pharaohs are not mentioned on the disc; discoveries: Ch.9 (Refs.31-40).

8.2 4TH DYNASTYThe 4 turns on the back side represent the important 4th Dynasty of the Old Kingdom, which lasted officially 160 years, from 2723 to 2563. On the front side, the 4 turns of the inner part confirm it. The 4 paragraphs on the edge confirm it again. Passage A4 on the front side represents the 4th Dynasty. The "burin" occurs 4 times on the disc, confirming it. This is the symbol for administration and bureaucracy, which greatly developed during this dynasty. Passage B4 on the back side represents this Dynasty, too.

KingsOn the front side, passages A28-23, and A28-31 plus A1-5, and A10-18 represent the 9 Kings of the 4th Dynasty (compare the previous series). Last passage A23 (E4) of the first series symbolizes the holy Tropic of Cancer, at 23°N. Last passage A18 of the last series may be considered as the end of the inner part. The first and last series contain together 3+6= 9 Kings, confirming the 9 Kings. Note the division in passage A27. The 9 passages A27b-22 confirm the 9 Kings. The last passages A21 and A22 (E4) of this series contain together 4+5= 9 symbols, confirming them, again. In the inner part all 9 Kings of this Dynasty are shown. Note, that the third series A10-18 contains two symbols of the "burin", again. On both edges the 6+3= 9 Rulers are shown. The 9 paragraphs of the back side confirm them (Refs.16-26).

DurationOn the back side, the 5 passages B24-28 and B6-10 encode the duration of the period, 5 generations, or 5x30.5= 153 years, according to the disc from 2678 till 2525 (compare the previous series). Last passage B28 of the first series has 4 symbols, finishing with a King, confirming the 4th Dynasty. It is placed in the 9th paragraph, confirming the 9 Kings. It contains the "papyrus", symbol of administration and bureaucracy, too. Last passage B10 of the other series has 5 symbols, confirming the 5 generations. Note, that passage B10 is the second of the series of almost identical passages B5, B10, and B13.

On the front side, the 5 passages A23-27 and A5-9 confirm the duration, 5 generations.

The first series finishes with a King in paragraph 9, confirming the 9 Kings. Last passage A9 of the other series finishes with a King at the end of a paragraph. It confirms the 9 Kings, again.

Passages A20 and A17 on the front side determine the duration of the 4th Dynasty, between 20 and 17 double generations ago. The “burin” in passages A18-20 involved occurs 4 times on the disc, confirming the 4th Dynasty. Passages B20 and B17 on the back side confirm the duration of the 4th Dynasty, between 20 and 17 double generations ago. In passages B18-20 involved, the "temple" and the "boat" occur 5 times on one of the sides, confirming the 5 generations. B18 and B19 have 5+4= 9 symbols, confirming the 9 Kings.

PopulationPassage A31 on the front side determined the population at the end of the 4th Dynasty (300 thousand). The back side with its 4 turns symbolizes the 4th Dynasty. Passage B23 on this side has a "messenger", encoding a population of 230,000 men at the start of this Dynasty. The next or 2nd passage B24 has also a "messenger", confirming the 2nd number (3), and passage B28, already used, has a "King", confirming the number has to be written down in 28-22= 6 figures.

Years of reignYears of reign are indicated by series of symbols, as usual. If these series are joined, it is indicated by ('). In passage 8 on the front side, King Snefru is represented by the Queen. The 24 preceding symbols, ending in A3, are his 24 years of reign, from 2661 till 2637 (officially: c.2723-2699). The year 2661 is the last year of reign of the last King of the previous, 3rd Dynasty. His successor King Cheops is shown in passage 13. The 23 prece-ding symbols, ending in A9', are his 23 years of reign, from 2637 till 2614 (2699-2676). His successor King Djedefre is shown in passage 12. The 8 preceding symbols, ending in A9’, are his 8 years of reign, from 2614 till 2606 (2676-2668). His successor King Chephren is represented by the symbol of God in passage 10. The 26 preceding symbols, ending in A4, are his 26 years of reign, from 2606 till 2580 (2668-2642).

His successor King Menkaure is also shown in passage 10. The 18 preceding symbols, ending in A7, are his 18 years of reign, from 2580 till 2562 (2642-2624). A10 is the first passage of the group 10-12 about the voyages of discovery of King Menkaure to the east, resulting in the discovery of America. His 18 years of reign correspond to the latitude of the south point of the Gulf of Campeche, Central America, at 18N (Refs.31-40,60-65).

His successor King Ratoisis is shown in important passage 15. The 25 preceding symbols, ending in A11', are his 25 years of reign, from 2562 till 2537 (2624-2599). His successor King Bikka is shown in the next passage 16'. The 4 preceding symbols are his 4 years of reign, from 2537 till 2533 (2599-2595). His successor King Shepseskaf is shown in passage 20. The 7 preceding symbols, ending in A19, are his 7 years of reign, from 2533 till 2526 (2595-2588). His successor, the last King Thamphitis, is shown in passage 22. The 9 preceding symbols, ending in A21’, are his 9 years of reign, from 2526 till 2517 (2588-2579).

ConfirmationFor the 4th Dynasty, years of reign are confirmed by passages. The first King Snefru is shown in passage A24 on the front side, because of his 24 years of reign. His successor

King Cheops is represented by the symbol of God in passage 23, because of his 23 years of reign. His successor King Djedefre is represented by the Queen in passage 8, because of his 8 years of reign. His successor King Chephren is shown by the inner part, and in passage 8 on the edge, because of his 18+8= 26 years of reign.

His successor King Menkaure is shown in passage 18, because of his 18 years of reign. A18 with a "boat" is the last passage of the important combination encoding boat voyages to the south point of the Gulf of Campeche, at 18N. It also symbolizes the back side of the planet Earth, 18 Moiras, or 180°, west of the Nile Delta. His successor King Ratoisis is shown by the edge and in passage 12, because of his 13+12= 25 years of reign. His successor King Bikka is represented by the symbol of God in passage 4 of the edge, because of his 4 years of reign. His successor King Shespeskaf is represented by the symbol of God in passage 7, because of his 7 years of reign. Finally, his successor, the last King Thamphitis, is shown in passage 9, because of his 9 years of reign (Refs.53-59).

Fig.8.2 Statue of the 5th king Menkaure (c.2580-2562 BC) of the Fourth Dynasty of Egypt, who discovered America via the Aleutian Islands at the south side of the Bering

Sea.

The Egyptian FleetIn 2370, at the end of the 5th Dynasty, Egypt had a population of 370 thousand men, and a fleet of c.300 seaworthy ships. At the end of the 4th Dynasty, the population was only c.300 thousand men. So, we may expect that around the year of 2520, the Egyptian fleet contained an estimated number of (30/37)x300= c.243 ships. This estimation is too high, because it was 2520-2370= 150 years earlier in time.

In 2660, at the end of the 3rd Dynasty, Egypt had a population of 230 thousand men, and a fleet of c.149 seaworthy ships (see below). At the end of the 4th Dynasty, the population was 300 thousand men. So, we may expect that around the year of 2520, the Egyptian fleet contained an estimated number of (30/23)x149= c.194 ships. This estimation is a bit too low, because it was 2660-2520= 140 years later in time.

The back side has 4 turns, corresponding to the 4th Dynasty. Passage B2 in the inner part may encode 200 ships. B9 may encode another 9 ships. So, in total these passages may represent 200+9= 209 ships.- However, B2 may also encode 20 ships, and B9 90 ships. The edge symbolizes Egypt. If all “boats” form series of 2 passages, these represent 19, 22, and 27 ships, respectively. Passage A18 on the front side typically corresponds to 18 ships, and A12 corresponds to another 12 ships. All these contributions together represent a total of 20+90+19+22+27+18+12= 208 ships.

The edge represents Egypt. B19 on the back side may encode 190 ships. B22 may encode 22 ships. In total these passages represent 190+22= 212 ships.- However, sometimes the passages are counted along the edge. E1, E4, and E9 may represent 149 ships. B2 in the inner part may correspond to 20 ships, and B9 to 9 ships. A12 and A18 on the front side may encode another 12+18= 30 ships. So, in total all these passages represent 149+20+9+30= 208 ships, again. So, on the average, it appears there were c.209 seaworthy ships in Egypt at the end of the 4th Dynasty (Refs.27-33).

Pyramids and TemplesThe back side has 4 turns, corresponding to the 4th Dynasty. Because of the paragraph-line of B11 this side has a total of 9+1= 10 paragraphs, encoding the 10 pyramids at the end of this dynasty.- Passage B6 encodes 6 temples. B17 corresponds to another 17 temples. Together, these passages may represent 6+17= 23 temples.- The edge symboli-zes Egypt. B21 encodes 21 temples. B26 may form a single passage. In that case it may encode 2 temples. So, the edge may show a total of 21+2= 23 temples.- The first “temple” in passage 18 may encode 18 temples. The second one may form just one passage, just like the passages 21 and 26 on the edge. These passages may show a total of 18+1+2+2= 23 temples, again. So, it appears, that the number of 23 Egyptian temples at the end of the 4th Dynasty is confirmed.

SchoolsIn 2370, at the end of the 5th Dynasty, Egypt had c.385 schools. Because of the lower population, the country will now have an estimated number of (30/37)x385= c.312 schools. The “temples and palaces” on the disc may also represent schools.- The back side has 4 turns, corresponding to the 4th Dynasty. Passage B6 may encode 6 schools, and passage 17 may encode 170 schools. B18 has two “temples”. So, this passage may indicate 18 schools, twice. B21 may represent 21 schools, and B26 may count for 26 schools. So, the back side of the disc may represent a total of 60+170+18+18+21+26= 313 schools.

The edge of the front side represents Egypt. A30 may encode 300 schools. Passage A9 may count for another 9 schools, totalling the number to 300+9= 309 schools. The average of c.311 schools in Egypt at the end of the 4th Dynasty matches the estimated number exactly. When the ratio “lower vs. higher schools” is the same as at the end of the 5th Dynasty, there were (309/385)x311= c.250 “lower schools”, and (76/385)x311= c.61

“higher schools” (Refs.16-26).

TABLE 8.2


OLD KINGDOM, 4TH DYNASTYc.2678 Start 4th Dynasty (c.2723*) population: 230,000, 9 Kings, 5 generationsc.2661 Snefru (24)c.2637 Cheops (23)c.2614 Djedefre (8)c.2606 Chephren (26)c.2580 Menkaure (18), discovery of Japan, and America via Aleutian Islands and via Bering Straitc.2562 Ratoisis (25)c.2537 Bikka (4)c.2533 Shespeskaf (7)c.2526 Thamphitis (9)Egyptian Fleet: c.209 seaworthy shipsPyramids: c.10, Temples: c.23Schools: c.311; lower schools: c.250, higher schools: c.61c.2517 (End of reign)c.2525 End of 4th Dynasty, population: 300,000 (2465*)

* according to archaeological research(..) years of reign; discoveries: Ch.9 (Refs.31-40)

8.3 3RD DYNASTYThe 3 turns of the inner part of the back side (Fig.8.5) represent the 3rd Dynasty, the first one of the Old Kingdom, which lasted officially 55 years, from 2778 to 2723. The 3 "temples" in the inner part confirm it. The 3 paragraphs on the edge confirm it, again. Passage B3 on this side also represents the 3rd Dynasty. Important passage A3 on the front side (Fig.8.4) represents it, too.

KingsOn the front side, passages A24-31 (using 27a/b), A6-14, and A19-27, represent the probably 9 Kings of the 3rd Dynasty (compare the previous series). The first series finishes with a King at the end of this side. The last series finishes with a King, too. Some of the Kings are shown in the passages. The end of the last series contains 9 symbols, confirming the 9 Kings. This series of passages finishes in paragraph 9, confirming them. In the inner part all 9 Kings of this Dynasty are shown, the first one in passage A3, confirming the 3rd Dynasty. On both edges the 6+3= 9 Rulers are shown. The 9 para-graphs of the back side confirm them again.

The "branch" in passage A3 occurs 6 times on the back side (Table 2.2), representing the

6 "major Kings" of the 3rd Dynasty. The "hammer" and "branch" in passage B3 occurs 6 times on this side, confirming the 6 major Kings. The last passages of the second kings series A6-14 contain 6 symbols, confirming the 6 major Kings of this Dynasty (Refs.16-26).

Duration and EducationOn the back side, the 3 passages B29-30 plus B19/1, but especially B11-13, encode the duration of the period, 3 generations, or 3x30.5= 91 years, according to the disc from 2769 till 2678 (compare the previous series). Three symbols in the last series occur 3 times on one of the sides or both sides, confirming the 3 generations of the 3rd Dynasty.

Note, that passage B13 is the 3rd of the series of almost identical passages B5, B10, and B13, confirming the 3rd Dynasty. These passages symbolize the first generation of the 5th, the 4th, and the 3rd Dynasty, respectively. The translation of the first two passages read: “Education learns the tipsy Cat-god to doubt” (Ch.5). It shows that the schools in this whole time period were well organised. The translation of the last passage reads: “Education leads to the merriment of the young Cat-god”, which confirms it.

The first generation series starts in the 9th paragraph, confirming the 9 Kings. Last passage B13 of the second series is the start of the 6th paragraph, confirming the 6 major Kings. Finally, the "cover" in passage B3 occurs 3 times on the front side, confirming the 3 generations of the 3rd Dynasty. It may be noted, that the Phaistos Disc is the only reliable source of information for the duration of the 3rd Dynasty. The Pre-Palatial Period on Crete started at the beginning of this time period, c.2769.

On the front side, the 3 passages A28-30, and A10-12, confirm the duration of 3 genera-tions (compare the previous series). Both series finish at the end of a paragraph, the last one with a King. Four symbols in the first series occur 3 times on one of the sides or both sides, confirming it. The "King" in passage A3 occurs 3 times on the edge of the back side, confirming the 3 generations of the 3rd Dynasty.

Double generationsPassages A22 and A20 on the front side determine the duration of the 3rd Dynasty, between 22 and 20 double generations ago. In passages A21 and A22, the "cover", "draught-screen" and "plane" occur 3 times on one side or both sides, confirming the 3 generations of the 3rd Dynasty. The 4+5= 9 symbols confirm the 9 Kings. The "draught-screen", "messenger", and "branch" occur 6 times on one of the sides or both sides, confirming the 6 major Kings.

Passages B22 and B20 on the back side confirm the duration of the 3rd Dynasty, between 22 and 20 double generations ago. In passages B21 and B22, the "draught-screen" and "cover" occur 3 times on one side or both sides, confirming the 3 generations of the 3rd Dynasty. The "branch", "draught-screen", and "temple" occur 6 times on one of the sides or both sides, confirming the 6 major Kings.

PopulationPassage B23 determined the population at the end of the 3rd Dynasty (230 thousand). The previous passage B19 has a "messenger", encoding a population of 190,000 men at the start of the 3rd Dynasty. The next or 2nd passage has a “King”, confirming the 2nd number (9), and passage B24 at the end of the paragraph has a "messenger", confirming

the number has to be written down in 24-18= 6 figures. Passage B19 also represents the first generation in the first generation series of this dynasty.

‘Volcano Catastrophe’Near Elephantine in the south of Egypt is the small islet of Sehel in the middle of the River Nile. It is the location of the famous “Famine Stela”, which tells the story of a terrible drought during the reign of the second king Djoser (c.2753-2723). In his 18th year of reign the famine lasted already seven years, and its description clearly fits a Volcano Catastrophe. The “shrines (were) covered with dust”, and there were no floo-dings of the Nile. It was a period of drought and famine in Egypt, but also worldwide. Tree ring data and ice core samples confirm the Disaster. Passage A3 on the front side contains two “corpses”, which indicate a Catastrophe in the 3rd Dynasty (c.2769-2678). Passage B3 on the back side has a “cover”, or Volcano, confirming it.

King Djoser started to reign in c.2753, which is in the first generation (c.2769-2739) of the 3rd Dynasty. This time period lasted for 30 years, so it is a second government generation, shown by the passages on the back side. His first year 2753 is represented by passage B16, and the year of 2739 by last passage B30. However, years of reign are also shown by individual symbols. Counting these symbols starts in the year of 1457+ (5x242)= 2667, at the back side of the disc. As usual, counting continues with the last symbol on that side, going backwards. His first year 2753 is represented by the “bee” in passage B9, and the year of 2739 by the symbol of the “cover” in B13. As will be shown below, B9 encodes the number of casualties, and B13 corresponds with the first generation, when the Catastrophe happened.

Passage B19 encodes the 3rd year of reign of the king, in 2750. It has a “corpse”, referring to a Catastrophe. It also encodes the first generation of the generation series B29-19. The symbol of the “cover”, or Volcano, in B10 confirms this year, and the nature of the Disaster. Passage B1 in the center bears a Volcano, and it confirms the first generation of the series B29-1. It also corresponds with the latitude of the Ibusuki Volcanic Field, Kyushu, Japan, at 30+1= 31°N. The big Eruption of this Volcano is reported in the literature. It has a caldera having a width of 3 km. Passage B10 encodes its position, 10 Moiras, or 100°, east of the Nile Delta.

Passage B22 encodes his 6th year of reign, in 2747. It has the sign of “religion”, refer-ring to a smaller Volcano Catastrophe. It also encodes the time period of the Disaster, 22 double generations ago. The symbol of “volcano” in B10 confirms this year, and the nature of the Disaster. The “scraper” in B22 has 27 dots, referring to passage B27 at the other side of the edge. It bears a “corpse” and a “volcano”, again, confirming the Cata-strophe. It also corresponds with the latitude of the Shiveluch Volcano, Kamchatka Peninsula, Russia, at 30+27= 57°N. The big Eruption of this Volcano is mentioned in the literature. Passage B13 encodes its position, 13 Moiras, or 130°, east of the Nile Delta. B13 also corresponds with the first generation of the series B10-13. The similar passage B5, together with B7, confirms the latitude, at 57°N. B5 contains two different symbols of the “Volcano”, and B7 also has two “Volcanoes”. Its paragraph line points to B16, which represents the first year of reign of Djoser, in 2753. Passage B3 has a “Volcano”, confirming the latitude, at 90-33= 57°N, as well as the 3rd Dynasty.

The paragraph line of B13, just mentioned, points to passage B23 on the edge. It has a

“Volcano”, referring to a Catastrophe in the 7th year of reign of the king, in 2746. The symbol of the “Volcano” in B11 confirms this year, and the nature of the Disaster. Passage B1 in the center bears a Volcano, and it confirms the first generation of the series B29-1. It also corresponds with the latitude of the Cotopaxi Volcano, Equador, at 1°S. The big Eruption of this Volcano is reported in the literature. It has a caldera about 2 km wide. Passage B11 encodes its position, 11 Moiras, or 110°, west of the Nile Del-ta. A25 on the front side is the second passage of the kings series A24-31 (using 27a/b). It encodes the second king Djoser of the 3rd Dynasty. The passage confirms the position of the Volcano, 25 Moiras, or 250°, east of the Nile Delta. It clearly illustrates that it was a worldwide Catastrophe.

Passage B30 encodes the 14th year of reign of the king, in 2739. It has two different signs of a “Volcano”, both referring to a Catastrophe. It also symbolizes the 30 years of reign of the king. The symbol of the “Volcano” in B13 confirms this year, and the nature of the Disaster. Passage B13 also corresponds with the first generation of the generation series B10-13. Passage B30 corresponds with the position of the Volcano Piton de la Fournaise, on the French island of Réunion, in the Western Indian Ocean, 3 Moiras, or 30°, east of the Nile Delta. The very big Eruption of this Volcano is reported in the literature. Passage B21, with a “Volcano”, encodes its latitude, at 21°S. Its huge consequences were noticed 21 double generations ago, starting in this year of 2739. Passage A21 on the front side also has a “Volcano”, confirming it. It has a VEI index of more than 5.

Passage B30 has a “shield” with 7 burls. It illustrates the 7 years of famine in the sec-ond year of 2739. B7 has two “Volcanoes”, confirming it. Passage A7 on the front side has a “shield”, twice confirming it. Passage A3 has a shield and 7 symbols, twice con-firming the 7 years of famine in the 3rd Dynasty. The symbols of next passage A4 mean: “Please, write it down”. The passage represents the 18th year of reign, 2735, when king Djoser made his Stela, as shown in the south of Egypt. On the Stone the king negotiates with three local gods, which may represent the three main Volcanoes. The symbol of the “corpse” in B14 on the back side confirms his 18th year of reign, and the many victims of the famine. Passage B30 represents the second generation of the series B28-19/1, when Djoser made his Stela.

Passage A21 on the front side contains a “messenger” and a “Volcano”, encoding the population of Egypt at the time of the last Eruption on Réunion, at 21°S, 210 thousand men. The next passage has a “shield, king”, confirming the second number (1), and A26 has a “shield Volcano” and a “corpse”, confirming the number has to be written down in 26-20= 6 figures. The second “corpse” in A3, encoding the 3rd Dynasty, points to neighboring passage A9. It has two “corpses”, encoding 9,000 casualties in Egypt (4.3%). Passage A12, confirming the first generation in the series A10-12, has a “corpse, king”, which shows the number has to be written down in 12-8= 4 figures. Passage B9 on the back side has a “corpse”, confirming the 9,000 casualties. Passage A12, confirming the second generation in the series B11-13, confirms the number has to be written down in 12-8= 4 figures. (Refs.66,67)

Upper and Lower EgyptPassage A3 on the front side contains the symbols of the "wood" and the "papyrus", suggesting a division of the country in Upper and Lower Egypt for at least part of the 3rd Dynasty. Passages B2 and B3 on the back side contain similar symbols of the "sedge" and

the "bee", confirming this situation in both the 2nd and 3rd Dynasties. The struggle for unification of Egypt in this time period is discussed in the literature (Refs.16-26). A possible scenario for the Kings reigning in this Dynasty is described below (see also Table 8.3).

Years of reign: back sideYears of reign are indicated by series of symbols, as usual. If these series are joined, it is indicated by ('). It means the years of reign of consecutive Kings are shown in a nice way.

On the back side, the first King Sanakht is shown in passage 20. The 17 preceding symbols along the edge, ending in B29', are his 17 years of reign, from 2770 till 2753 (officially: 2778-2761). The year 2770 is the last year of reign of the last King of the previous, 2nd Dynasty. His successor King Djoser is represented by the Royal Son in passage 28. The 29 preceding symbols, ending in B21', are his 29 (officially 30) years of reign, from 2753 till 2723 (2761-2731). The discovery of Australia by King Djoser was during the first generation of this Dynasty, so between 2753 and 2739 (Ch.9) (Refs.31-33).

His successor King Sekhemkhet is shown in passage 20, again. The 17 preceding symbols along the edge, ending in B29', are his 17 (officially 16) years of reign, from 2723 till 2707 (2731-2715). His successor King Khaba is also shown in passage 20. The 19 preceding symbols, ending in B16, are his 19 years of reign, from 2707 till 2688 (2715-2696). After this King, so during the last generation, there are indications that Egypt was not united any longer. It appears that half of the country was ruled by less important Kings.

Upper EgyptOn the back side, King Sa is shown in passage B20. The 19 preceding symbols, ending in B16, are his 19 years of reign, from 2688 till 2669. During his reign New Zealand was discovered (Ch.9). The King in passage 3, representing the 3rd Dynasty, looks along the end of B9 to this series. His successor King Ba is also shown in passage 20. The 8 prece-ding symbols are his 8 (officially 7) years of reign, from 2669 till 2662. His successor King Qahedjet, is shown in passage 28. The 3 preceding symbols are his 3 years of reign, from 2662 till 2659.

Lower EgyptKing Nebtawi is shown in passage 28. The 3 preceding symbols are his 3 years of reign, from 2688 till 2685. His successor, the last King Huni, is shown in passage 20. The 24 preceding symbols, ending in B15, are his 24 years of reign, from 2685 till 2661. During his reign New Zealand was discovered. The King in passage 3, representing the 3rd Dynasty, looks along the end of B9 to this series.

Inner part of front sideOn the inner part of the front side, years of reign are indicated by series of symbols, too. The first King Sanakht is shown in passage 6. The 17 preceding symbols, ending in A3, are his 17 years of reign. His successor King Djoser is shown in passage 13. The 30 preceding symbols, ending in A7', are his 30 years of reign. His successor King Sek-hemkhet is also shown in passage 13. The 16 preceding symbols, ending in A10', are his 16 years of reign. King Khaba is shown in passage 12. The 19 preceding symbols, ending in A9', are his 19 years of reign.

On the front side, King Sa of Upper Egypt is shown in passage 12. The 19 preceding symbols, ending in A9', are his 19 years of reign. His successor King Ba is shown in passages 3', 8' and 9'. The 7 preceding symbols are in all cases his 7 years of reign. His successor King Qahedjet is represented by the symbol of God in passage 7'. The 3 prece-ding symbols are his 3 years of reign. King Nebtawi of Lower Egypt is also represented by the symbol of God in passage 7'. The 3 preceding symbols are his 3 years of reign. His successor, the last King Huni, is shown in passage 9'. The 24 preceding symbols, ending in A4', are his 24 years of reign.

Edge of front sideOn the edge of the front side, years of reign are indicated by series of symbols, too. The first King Sanakht is shown in passage 24. The 17 preceding symbols, ending in A21', are his 17 years of reign. His successor King Djoser is shown in passage 22. The 30 preceding symbols along the edge, ending in A28, are his 30 years of reign. His successor King Sekhemkhet is also shown in passage 22. The 16 preceding symbols, ending in A19', are his 16 years of reign. King Khaba is shown in passage 20. The 19 preceding symbols along the edge (dropping passage 19), ending in A28, are his 19 years of reign.

On the front side, King Sa of Upper Egypt is shown in passage 20 on the edge. The 19 preceding symbols, dropping A19 and ending in A28, are his 19 years of reign. His successor King Ba is shown in passage 20. The 7 preceding symbols, ending in A19', are his 7 years of reign. His successor King Qahedjet is represented by the Queen in passage 24'. The 3 preceding symbols are his 3 years of reign. King Nebtawi of Lower Egypt is represented by the symbol of God in passage 23'. The 3 preceding symbols are his 3 years of reign. His successor, the last King Huni, is shown in passage 24. The 24 prece-ding symbols, ending in A19', are his 24 years of reign.

ConfirmationFor the 3rd Dynasty, years of reign are confirmed by passages with a King. On the front side, the first King Sanakht is shown in passage 16, because of his 16 (officially 17) years of reign. His successor King Djoser is shown in passage 31, because of his 31 (officially 30) years of reign. His successor King Sekhemkhet is shown in passage 16, because of his 16 years of reign. His successor King Khaba is represented by the 19 passages of the inner part, because of his 19 years of reign.

King Sa of Upper Egypt is shown by the inner part of the front side. The 19 passages are his 19 years of reign. His successor King Ba is represented by the symbol of God in passage 7, because of his 7 years of reign. His successor King Qahedjet is shown in important passage 3, because of his 3 years of reign. King Nebtawi of Lower Egypt is shown in passage 3, because of his 3 years of reign. His successor, the last King Huni, is shown in passage 24, because of his 24 years of reign.

DiscussionInformation about the earliest dynasties is very limited (Refs.14-26,53-59). Except for single notes, carvings on potsherds etc., the main records are:

The Palermo stone….(carving) Dynasty 5 c.2400 BC The Cairo stone…….(carving) Dynasty 5 c.2400 BC The Karnak list…….(on stone) Dynasty 18 c.1500 BC

The Abydos list……(on stone) Dynasty 19 c.1300 BC The Sakkara list……(on stone) Dynasty 19 c.1300 BC The Turin canon…(on papyrus) Dynasty 19 c.1300 BC Manetho’s list...(papyrus/stone) Greek Period c. 200 BC

The only one of these records that was made to give a correct version of history, is Manetho's list. The others were all made for different purposes, not entirely known. By combining these records scholars have got a rather good picture of the order of Kings, but the time span for the earliest dynasties and the order of some Rulers, especially from Dynasties 2 and 3, is still a subject of discussion. The Phaistos Disc, describing true history, is capable of solving some of these problems.

Fig.8.3 The 2nd king Djoser (c.2753-2723 BC) of the Third Dynasty of Egypt, who discovered Australia via the eastern crossing from New Guinea, at Cape York.

The Egyptian FleetIn 2520, at the end of the 4th Dynasty, Egypt had a population of 300 thousand men, and a fleet of c.209 seaworthy ships. At the end of the 3th Dynasty, the population was only 230 thousand men. So, we may expect that around the year of 2660, the Egyptian fleet contained an estimated number of (23/30)x209= c.160 ships. This estimation is a bit too high, because it was 2660-2520= 140 years earlier in time.

In 2920, at the end of the 1st Dynasty, Egypt had a population of 140 thousand men, and a fleet of c.90 seaworthy ships (see below). At the end of the 3rd Dynasty, the population

was 230 thousand men. So, we may expect that around the year of 2660, the Egyptian fleet contained an estimated number of (23/14)x90= c.148 ships. This estimation might be correct, because developments were slow in this early time period.

The inner part of the back side has 3 turns, corresponding to the 3rd Dynasty. The edge represents Egypt. Sometimes the passages are counted along the edge. “Boats” appear in passages E1, E4, and E9. So, there were c.149 seaworthy ships (Ch.6).- Passage A18 on the front side encodes 18 ships. A12 encodes another 12 ships. B2 on the back side corresponds to 20 ships, and A9 corresponds to 90 ships. When the individual passages B19, B22, and B27 are taken, these represent a total of 1+2+2= 5 ships. All together these represent a total of 18+12+20+90+5= 145 ships.- However, the last passages can also be counted along the edge. In that case we obtain from E1, E4, and E9 a total of 1+4+9= 14 ships. Now a total of 18+12+20+90+14= 154 ships are obtained. So, on the average, there were c.149 seaworthy ships in Egypt at the end of the 3rd Dynasty.

Pyramids and TemplesPassage B25 on the edge of the back side has the “grater”, the only symbol of a pyramid on the disc. It may form a series of one passage, only confirming the first number (2). So, it represents the 2 pyramids in Egypt at the end of the 3rd Dynasty.- The inner part of the back side has 3 turns, corresponding to the 3rd Dynasty. Passage B17 encodes 17 temples in Egypt. Next passage B18 encodes 18 temples, which is confirmed, because of the second symbol. These passages show the c.17 temples at the end of this dynasty.

SchoolsIn 2520, at the end of the 4th Dynasty, Egypt had c.311 schools. Because of the lower population, the country will now have an estimated number of (23/30)x311= c.238 schools. The “temples and palaces” on the disc may also represent schools.

The inner part of the back side has 3 turns, corresponding to the 3rd Dynasty. Passage B6 may encode 60 schools, and passage 18 may encode 180 schools. In total, these encode 60+180= 240 schools. The edge of the back side represents Egypt. B21 (E3) may encode 210 schools, and B26 encodes 26 schools, totalling the number to 210+26= 236 schools. The average of c.238 schools in Egypt at the end of the 3rd Dynasty matches the estimated number exactly. When the ratio “lower vs. higher schools” is the same as at the end of the 4th Dynasty, there were (250/311)x238= c.191 “lower schools”, and (61/311)x238= c.47 “higher schools” (Refs.16-26).

TABLE 8.3


OLD KINGDOM, 3TH DYNASTYc.2769 Start 3rd Dynasty (c.2778*) population: 190,000, 9 Kings, 3 generationsc.2769 Start Pre-Palacial Period on Cretec.2770 Sanakht (#1)(17)c.2753 Djoser (Netjerykhet) (#2)(30), discovery of Australia

c.2750 /47/46/39, ‘Volcano Catastrophe’ (Famine Stela) c.9,000 casualties in Egypt (4.3%), population 210,000 menc.2723 Sekhemkhet (#3)(16)c.2707 Khaba (#4)(19) UPPER Egyptc.2688 Sa (#5)(19), discovery of New Zealand, Micronesia, Melanesia, and Polynesiac.2669 Ba (#8)(7)c.2662 Qahedjet (#9)(3)c.2659 (End of reign) LOWER Egyptc.2688 Nebtawi (#6)(3)c.2685 Huni (#7)(24), discovery of New Zealand, Micronesia, Melanesia, and PolynesiaEgyptian Fleet: c.149 seaworthy shipsPyramids: 2, Temples: c.17Schools: c.238; lower schools: c.191, higher schools: c.47c.2661 (End of reign)c.2678 End 3th Dynasty, population: 230,000 (c.2723*)


8.4 ARCHAIC PERIOD: 2ND DYNASTYThe 2 sides of the Phaistos Disc represent the 2 Dynasties of the Archaic Period. The back side represents the 2nd and latest Dynasty, and the front side deals with the 1st and oldest Dynasty. Passage B2 on the back side represents the 2nd Dynasty. Passage A2 on the front side also represents this Dynasty. It may be noted, that we dit not find a clear distinction between the Archaic Period and the Old Kingdom. We did not find a clear reason for the end of the 2nd Dynasty, too (Refs.16-26).

KingsOn the front side, the 9 passages A19-27, and A15-23, and A28-23, and A28-31 plus A1-5, represent the probably 9 Kings of the 2nd Dynasty (compare the previous series). The first series finishes with a King. The second and third series finish with A23, corresponding with the holy Tropic of Cancer, at 23°N. Some of the Kings are shown in the passages. The end of the first series contains 9 symbols, confirming the 9 Kings. This series of passages finishes in paragraph 9, confirming them. In the inner part all 9 Kings of this Dynasty are shown. On both edges the 6+3= 9 Rulers are shown. The 9 para-graphs of the back side confirm them, again (Refs.53-59).

DurationOn the back side, the 5 passages B20-24, and B2-6, but especially B14-18, encode the duration of the period, 5 generations, or 5x30.5= 153 years, according to the disc from 2922 till 2769 (compare the previous series). All series finish at the end of a paragraph. The first two series start with B20 (E2) and B2, both representing the 2nd Dynasty. They each finish with 9 symbols, confirming the 9 Kings.- On the front side, the 5 passages A31-22, A1-5, and A13-17 confirm the duration, 5 generations (compare the previous

series). It may be noted, that the Phaistos Disc is the only reliable source of information for the duration of the 2nd Dynasty.

Passages A24 and A21 (E2) on this side determine the duration of the 2nd Dynasty, between 24 and 21 double generations ago. Last passage A24 is at the end of a paragraph. In passages A22-24, the "lid", "Queen" and "shield" occur twice on one side or both sides, confirming the 2nd Dynasty. The "King", "horn", and "falcon" occur 5 times on one of the sides, confirming the 5 generations.

Passages B24 and B21 on the back side confirm the duration of the 2nd Dynasty, between 24 and 21 double generations ago. Last passage B24 is at the end of a paragraph. In passages B22-24, the "fish" occurs twice on the front side, confirming the 2nd Dynasty. The 2 "messengers" occur 5 times on the back side, confirming the 5 generati-ons of the 2nd Dynasty. Both combinations B22-23 and B24-23 each have 4+5= 9 symbols, confirming the 9 Kings.

PopulationPassage B19 on the back side determined the population of Egypt at the end of the 2nd Dynasty, 190 thousand men. Passage B24 determines the start of the 2nd Dynasty, 24 double generations ago. The first separation line of this passage points to a “messenger” in passage B14, encoding a population of 140,000 men at the start of the 2nd Dynasty. The next or 2nd passage B15 has a “Queen”, confirming the 2nd number (4), and B19 also has a “messenger”, confirming the number has to be written down in 19-13= 6 figures.

Passages A1 and A4 on the front side have the symbol of the “ordinary man”, occurring twice on the disc, confirming the population of 140,000 men at the start of the 2nd Dynasty. Passage A2 has a “messenger” for the 2nd Dynasty, confirming the 2nd number (4), and A6 has also a “messenger” and even a “King”, confirming the number has to be written down in 6 figures. This Egyptian population of 140 thousand men is equal to the present population on Crete at the end of the New Palace Culture, in the year of 1458 (Ch.3, Refs.1-15).

Years of reignDuring probably the whole 2nd Dynasty, the country was devided in Upper Egypt in the south, and Lower Egypt in the north. Attempts for unification did not succeed. Also, the order of some rulers is still a subject of discussion. The most probable scenario is the following.

Back side: Upper and Lower EgyptYears of reign are indicated by series of symbols, as usual. If these series are joined, it is indicated by ('). On the back side, the 1st King Hotepsekhemwy of Upper Egypt is represented by the Royal Son in passage 28. The 37 preceding symbols, ending in B19', are his 37 (officially 38) years of reign, from c.2922 till 2884. The year 2922 is the last year of reign of the last King of the previous, 1st Dynasty. The 2nd King Raneb of Lower Egypt is also shown in passage 28. The 40 preceding symbols, ending in B19', are his 40 (officially 39) years of reign, from c.2922 till 2883. Again, the year 2922 is the last year of reign of the last King of the previous, 1st Dynasty.

His successor the 3rd King Ninetjer of Upper Egypt is represented by the Queen in

passage 15, and by the Royal Son in passage 28. The 48 preceding symbols, ending in B4 and B16', respectively, are his 48 (officially 47) years of reign, from 2884 till 2837. His successor the 4th King Weneg of Lower Egypt is shown in passage 20. The 17 preceding symbols along the edge, ending in B29', are his 17 years of reign, from 2883 till 2866. His successor the 5th King Sened of Lower Egypt is represented by the Royal Son in passage 28. The 40 preceding symbols, ending in B19' are his 40 (officially 41) years of reign, from 2866 till 2825.

His successor the 6th King Neferkare of Upper Egypt is shown in passage 20. The 17 preceding symbols along the edge, ending in B29', are his 17 years of reign, from 2837 till 2820. His successor the 7th King Neferkaseker of Lower Egypt, is also shown in passage 20. The 24 preceding symbols, ending in B15, are his 24 (officially 25) years of reign, from 2825 till 2800. His successor the 8th King Peribsen of Upper Egypt is repre-sented by the Queen in passage 15, and by the Royal Son in passage 28. The preceding 48 symbols, ending in B4 and B16', are his 48 years of reign, from 2820 till 2772. This year coincides with the end of the 2nd Dynasty. His successor the 9th King Khasekhem(wy) of Lower Egypt is represented by the Royal Son in passage 28. The 29 preceding symbols, ending in B21', are his 29 (officially 30) years of reign, from 2800 till 2770. Again, this year coincides with the end of the 2nd Dynasty.

Front sideOn the front side, series of symbols, mostly on the edge, confirm the years of reign. The first King Hotepsekhemwy is shown in passages 20 and 24. The 38 preceding symbols along the edge, ending in A24’ and A28’ respectively, are in both cases his 38 years of reign. The next King Raneb is also shown in passages 20 and 24. The 38 preceding symbols along the edge are in both cases his 38 (officially 39) years of reign. The next King Ninetjer is shown in passage 22. The 47 preceding symbols along the edge, ending in A24', are his 47 years of reign. The next King Weneg is represented by the symbol of God in passages 23, and shown in passage 27. The 17 preceding symbols, ending in A20' and A24', are in both cases his 17 years of reign. His successor King Sened is shown in passage 20. The 41 preceding symbols along the edge, ending in A23', are his 41 years of reign.

The next King Neferkare is represented by the symbol of God in passage 23, and shown in passage 27. The 17 preceding symbols, ending in A20' and A24', are in both cases his 17 years of reign. The next King Neferkaseker is shown in both passages 24 and 31. The 24/26 preceding symbols, ending in A19' and A25', are his 24/26 (officially 25) years of reign. The next King Peribsen is represented by the Queen in passage 24, and shown in passage 31. The 48 preceding symbols along te edge, ending in A25' and A20', are in both cases his 48 years of reign. The next and last King Khasekhem(wy) is shown in passage 22. The 30 preceding symbols along the edge, ending in A28', are his 30 years of reign.

ConfirmationYears of reign are confirmed by passages on the front side. The first King Hotepsekhem-wy is represented by the Queen in passage 8, because of his 30+8= 38 years of reign. The next King Raneb is shown in passage 9, because of his 30+9= 39 years of reign. The next King Ninetjer is shown in passage 16, because of his 31+16= 47 years of reign. The next King Weneg is shown in passage 18, because of his 18 (officially 17) years of reign. His successor King Sened is shown in passage 10, because of his 31+10= 41 years of reign.

The next King Neferkare is shown in passage 18, because of his 18 (officially 17) years of reign. The next King Neferkaseker is shown in passage 24, because of his 24 (offi-cially 25) years of reign. The next King Peribsen is shown in passage 18, because of his 30+18= 48 years of reign. The next and last King Khasekhem(wy) is shown in passage A31/B30, because of his 31/30 (officially 30) years of reign.

Literature The 2nd Dynasty is a more or less chaotic period in the history of Egypt, and much of it is unknown. Some quotations from the literature may illustrate it (Table 8.4) (Refs.16-26, 53-59):...“The first 5 Kings (until Sened, #5) and the last one (Khasekhemwy, #9) are documented and positioned with accuracy, but some chiefs in the mid period probably ruled for short terms (?), and maybe from different parts of the country. At the end of the 2nd Dynasty the union was recovered.”...“Notable is that the Abydos list has one King after Sened (#5), where three other important lists have four.” (Abydos is an ancient royal graveyard on the west bank of the River Nile, at 26°N, Upper Egypt. The Abydos List dates from c.1300 BC.)...Ninetjer“Sealings with the name of Ninetjer (#3) have been found in various places in Lower Egypt, and most of all in Sakkara. The notations about different celebrations are all except one referring to events from Lower Egypt (?). After King Ninetjer (#3) something happened to the Egyptian society that made many centralised functions collapse or decline.” (Sakkara is an ancient royal graveyard on the west bank of the River Nile near Memphis and Cairo, at 30°N, Lower Egypt.)...Weneg“During the period of unrest after King Ninetjer (#3) a few names pop up on scanty fragments and among them a King called Weneg (#4). He was probably the pharaoh preceding (?) Ninetjer at least in Lower Egypt, because a division of the country for a short period can't be excluded.”...Sened“When King Sened (#5) was in power, Egypt was probably divided once again into its southern and northern parts, with him as the King in North (Lower Egypt), from the capital Memphis. A text mentions King Peribsen (#8), who probably was Sened's counterpart in the southern part of the country at the same time.”...Neferkare“In the Abydos kingslist from a wall in the temple of King Seti I from the 19th dynasty, Neferkare (#6) does not exist and nor does his immediate successor (Peribsen, #8)(?). In both the Sakkara and Turin lists Neferkare has the position between Sened (#5) and Neferkaseker (#7), and in Manetho's list he is in the same place under the Greek-formed name Nepherkheres.”...Peribsen“Peribsen (#8) was a ruler who had his roots in the South, and was probably ruling from

there throughout his time on the throne. Not a single trace of him is found in Lower Egypt.”

The Egyptian FleetIn 2660, at the end of the 3rd Dynasty, Egypt had a population of 230 thousand men, and a fleet of c.149 seaworthy ships. At the end of the 2nd Dynasty, the population was only 190 thousand men. So, we may expect that around the year of 2770, the Egyptian fleet contained an estimated number of (19/23)x149= c.123 ships (Refs.27-33).

In 2920, at the end of the 1st Dynasty, Egypt had a population of 140 thousand men, and a fleet of c.90 seaworthy ships. At the end of the 2nd Dynasty, the population was 190 thousand men. So, we may expect that around the year of 2770, the Egyptian fleet contained an estimated number of (19/14)x90= c.122 ships. Both estimation are probably a bit too high. It is well-known, that the 2nd Dynasty was a troubled time period.

The 2nd Dynasty is symbolized by the back side of the disc. Passage B2 on this side en-codes 20 ships. B9 may encode 90 ships. So, it appears there were a total of 20+90= 110 ships.- Passage A18 on the front side corresponds to 18 ships. A12 corresponds to another 12 ships. However, the edge represents Egypt. B19 on the back side typically encodes 19 ships, B22 may encode 22 ships, and B27 encodes 27 ships. So, these passa-ges indicate a total of 18+12+19+22+27= 98 ships.- However, the last passages are sometimes counted along the edge. If so, E1 typically encodes 10 ships, E4 encodes 4 ships, and E9 may encode 90 ships. So, the edge alone provides a total number of 10+4+90= 104 ships. This is also the average number. So, it appears, there were c.104 seaworthy ships at the end of the 2nd Dynasty. This is less than the estimated number.

TemplesPassage A30 on the front side is at the end of a paragraph. It may encode just 3 temples. A9 encodes 9 temples. Together this side shows the presence of 3+9= 12 temples.- On the back side the individual passages 6, 17, 18, 21, and 26 encode a total of 6+1+2+2+2= 13 temples. So, it appears, there were c.12 temples at the end of this dynasty.

SchoolsIn 2660, at the end of the 3rd Dynasty, Egypt had c.238 schools. Because of the lower population, the country will now have an estimated number of (19/23)x238= c.197 schools. The “temples and palaces” on the disc may also represent schools.

Passage A30 on the front side typically encodes 30 schools. A9 may encode 90 schools. B6 on the back side may correspond to 60 schools. Together, these passages show 30+90+60= 180 schools.- However, B6 may also correspond to 6 schools, and B17 may encode 170 schools. Together these may show the presence of 6+170= 176 schools.- Passage A18 confirms the presence of 180 schools, twice. So, at the end of the 2nd Dynasty, there were c.180 schools in Egypt, which is less than estimated. When the ratio “lower vs. higher schools” is the same as at the end of the 3rd Dynasty, there were (191/238)x180= c.144 “lower schools”, and (47/238)x180= c.36 “higher schools”.

TABLE 8.4


ARCHAIC PERIOD: 2ND DYNASTYc.2922 Start 2nd Dynasty (c.2898*) Population: 140,000, 9 Kings, 5 generations UPPER Egyptc.2922 Hotepsekhemwy (#1)(38)c.2884 Ninetjer (#3)(47)c.2837 Neferkare (#6)(17)c.2820 Peribsen (#8)(48), discovery of Madagascarc.2772 (End of reign)c.2770 End of the 2nd Dynasty. LOWER Egyptc.2922 Raneb (#2)(39), discovery of Ascension and St. Helenac.2883 Weneg (#4)(17), idemc.2866 Sened (#5)(41)c.2825 Neferkaseker (#7)(25)c.2800 Khasekhem(wy) (#9)(30)Egyptian Fleet: c.104 seaworthy shipsTemples: c.12Schools: c.180; lower schools: c.144, higher schools: c.36c.2770 (End of reign)c.2769 End of the 2nd Dynasty, population: 190,000 (c.2778*)


Fig.8.4 Front side A of the Phaistos Disc(Crete, c.1458 BC) (Courtesy L. Godart, Ref.1)

Fig.8.5 Back side B of the Phaistos Disc(Crete, c.1458 BC) (Courtesy L. Godart, Ref.1)

8.5 1ST DYNASTYThe 1st Dynasty of the Archaic Period, which lasted officially 150 years, from c.3048 to 2898, is represented by the front side of the Phaistos Disc (Refs.1-15). Both passages 1 on front and back side represent the 1st Dynasty.

KingsOn the front side, the 8 passages A28-22, and A24-31, and A28-31 plus A1-4, and A6-13, represent the probably 8 Kings of the 1st Dynasty (compare the previous series). All series finish with a King and/or at the end of a paragraph. Some of the Kings are shown in the passages. The second series finishes at the end of the side! It finishes with 8 symbols, confirming the 8 Kings. On the back side the 8 Rulers are shown, including the Royal Son. Using the paragraph-line of B11, the two edges contain together 4+4= 8 para-graphs, confirming them. On these edges the disc shows the total number of 5+3= 8 Kings of the 1st Dynasty. So, the aledged 9th King by the name of "Sneferka", occasion-ally mentioned, does not exist (Refs.53-59).

DurationOn the back side, the 6 passages B25-30, and B7-12, but also B19-24, encode the duration of the period, 6 generations, or 6x30.5= 183 years, according to the disc from 3105 till 2922 (compare the previous series). All series finish at the end of paragraphs, the first series even at the end of the disc! The first passage B19 (E1) of the last series symbolizes the 1st Dynasty. The 6 paragraphs of the inner part confirm the 6 generations. The "waterway" in passage B1 occurs 6 times on the disc, again confirming the 6 generations of the 1st Dynasty.

On the front side, the 6 passages A23-28, A6-11, and A18-23, confirm the duration, 6 generations (compare the previous series). Passage A28 is at the end of a paragraph, and passage A23, with the symbols for the "power of God", represents the holy Tropic of Cancer and the Southern Egyptian Empire, at 23°N. It is the center of the Sunreligion (Refs.31-33).

Passages A27 and A24 on this side determine the duration of the 1st Dynasty, between 27 and 24 double generations ago. Passage A27 finishes at the end of a paragraph with the important combination of "shield-King", occurring thirteen times on the disc, also in last passage B30 on the back side. In the passages A25-27, the "chopper", "glove", and "prisoner" occur only once on one of the sides, confirming the 1st Dynasty. The "waterway", "fish" and "draught-screen" occur 6 times on the disc, confirming the 6 generations. A25 and A27 have 3+5= 8 symbols, confirming the 8 Kings. The "corpse" and "shield" occur 8 times in the inner part of the front side, confirming the 8 Kings, again.

Passages B27 and B24 on the back side confirm the duration of the 1st Dynasty, between 27 and 24 double generations ago. Passage B27 is at the end of a paragraph, again. In the passages B25-27, the "triangular grater" and the "temple" occur only once on one of the sides, confirming the 1st Dynasty. The "square", "hammer", "temple", and "fish" occur 6 times on the back side or both sides, confirming the 6 generations. B25 and B26 have 4+4= 8 symbols, confirming the 8 Kings. The passages involved form the 8th paragraph, confirming the 8 Kings of this Dynasty. The "shield" and "corpse" in the paragraph occur 8 times in the inner part of the front side, confirming them, again.

Two time periodsParagraphs 8 and 9 of side B each contain 3 passages, encoding two equal time periods of 3 generations within the 1st Dynasty. The 3 paragraphs of the edge confirm it. The "flower" in passage A1 occurs 3 times on the front side, confirming the periods of 3 generations in the 1st Dynasty. The "cover" in passage B1 occurs 3 times on the edge of the front side, confirming it. In passages A25-27, the "cover" and "draught-screen" occur 3 times on one side or both sides, confirming the periods of 3 generations. In the passages B25-27, the "temple", "corpse", "boat" and "religion" occur 3 times on the edge or the inner part, confirming it. The inner part of side B has 3 turns, confirming the 2 periods of 3 generations.

Comet CatastrophePassage A26 on the front side contains the group of signs “cover, waterway, corpse”, which suggests a catastrophe. It shows, that “continuous floodings” by the “head and tail of a comet” resulted in numerous “casualties” (Refs.41-52). It appears, that the

catastrophe occurred 26 double generations ago, which is between 1458+26x61= 3044 and 3044-61= 2983 (1st Dynasty of Egypt).

Passage B26 on the back side has a “mummy”, pointing to Egyptian victims. It confirms the catastrophe happened 26 double generations ago, which is between 3044 and 2983 during the 1st Dynasty. Passage B1 confirms “continuous floodings” by the “head and tail of a comet”, again, during the 1st Dynasty.

Passage A26 on the front side suggests 2,600 casualties in Egypt, because a factor 10 less or more is unprobable. The King in the next or 2nd passage A27 confirms the 2nd num-ber (6), and the upside-down “Cat-god” in A29 confirms the number should be written down in 29-25= 4 figures. The “head and tail of a comet” in this passage confirms the “continuous floodings” during this catastrophe.

Passage B26 on the back side, having the “mummy”, confirms the number of 2,600 Egyptian victims. The “corpse” in the next or 2nd passage B27 confirms the 2nd number (6), and the group of signs “cover, waterway, corpse” in B29 confirms the number has to be written down in 29-25= 4 figures. The passage confirms the numerous “victims” by the “continuous floodings” because of the “head and tail of a comet”, again. The number of casualties is about 2.6% of the population of Egypt at the time of the calamity.

However, it is not the number of victims which makes this calamity important, but the comet catastrophe itself. Passage B10 of the generation series B7-12 on the back side contains a “head of a comet”, suggesting the disaster occurred in the second generation, which is between 3044-31= 3013 and 2983 (4th generation of the 1st Dynasty). Passage A21 of the generation series A18-23 on the front side contains a “head of a comet”, too, confirming it. The years of this second generation are indicated by the passages of the back side.

Passage B7 contains the “head and tail of a comet”, suggesting the disaster occurred in the 7th year, which is in the year of 3013-7= 3006. This combination of symbols was also used in the passages A26, A29, and B29. Passages A26 and B26 each contain a “shield” with 7 burls, twice confirming the 7th year. Passage A7 on the front side has a shield with 7 burls, too, twice confirming it. Bruce Masse (Ref.44) reports a catastrophe c.113 years after the start of the 1st Dynasty, which would be in the year of 3105-113= c.2992.

The 30 or so passages on each side represent the 30 days of a month. Passage B11 also has the signs of the “head and tail of a comet”. It equals A29 on the front side, used previously. B11 suggests 11 days of “continuous floodings”. The next or 2nd passage B12 has a “Cat-god”, confirming the 2nd number (1), and its position at the end of a paragraph confirms the number has to be written down in 12-10= 2 figures. Previously, passage B10 with the “head of a comet” indicated the correct generation of the catastrophe. The “glove” in B10, which touches the sign of the “comet”, refers to the “glove” in B12. It confirms the 11 days of floodings.

Passage B1, symbolizing the 1st Dynasty, confirms the 10 days of “continuous flood-ings”. The next or 2nd passage B2 has a Cat-god, which shows the number has to be written down in 2 figures. Passage A27 on the front side was important for the number of victims. It has a “shield” with 7 burls, confirming the 7th year of the generation. The combination “shield, King” is connected, similar to passages A6 and A13, which were

important for the catastrophe of 1628, which had the same duration, c.10 days. The King touches next passage A28, with the combination “bee, cat”, which also occurs in B2 on the back side, confirming this duration.- The comet catastrophe happened during the reign of 5th King Den-Udimu (c.3012-2992). It is also indicated by “floodings” during his reign on the Palermo Stone. Note, that “Udimu” means “the water-pourer” (Refs.16-26).

PopulationThe population at the end of the 1st Dynasty was 140 thousand. Passage A6 on the front side, which played a role in establishing this number, has a “messenger”, encoding a population of 60,000 at the start of this Dynasty. The King and the symbol of God in A10 shows the number has to be written down in 10-5= 5 figures. This Egyptian population of 60 thousand men is equal to the Cretan population at the end of the Old Palace Culture, just before the civil war, in the year of 1702 (Ch.6, Refs.1-15).

Years of reign The 1st Dynasty lasted 6 generations, or 183 years. However, all known years of reign total to c.263 years. This means, that the Kings reigned over a united Egypt for only c.100 years. During c.80 years Egypt was devided in a northern and a southern Empire. It appears that attempts for real unification succeeded later. The order of the rulers is rather well-known. The most probable scenario is the following (Table 8.5).

Lower and Upper EgyptAll years of reign are indicated by joined series of symbols! This is indicated by ('). On the back side, the 1st King Aha or Menes of Lower Egypt is represented by the Queen in passage B15. The 57 preceding symbols, ending in B2', are his official period of 57 years of reign, from c.3100 till 3043. He is also shown on the front side, in last passage A31. The 58 preceding symbols, ending in A17', confirm his 58 (officially 57) years of reign. Passage A31 also symbolizes Lower Egypt, at 31N. Passage A30 has a "temple", because King Menes had his capital in Memphis, near Sakkara, at 30N.

On the back side, the 2nd King Narmer of Upper Egypt is shown in last passage B30. The 60 preceding symbols, ending in B16', suggest a period of 60 years of reign. However, note the special shape of passage B1, symbolizing the 1st Dynasty. The 2 additional symbols confirm the official period of 60+2= 62 years of reign, from c.3097 till 3035. Passage B26 has a "temple". because King Narmer had his capital in This, near Abydos, at 26N. He is also shown on the front side, in passage A16. The 62 preceding symbols, ending in A2', are his 62 years of reign. Passage A1 symbolizes the 1st Dynasty. Note, that the 119 symbols of the back side of the Phaistos Disc equal the official 62+57= 119 years of reign of the first 2 Kings of Egypt. The 17 shields each contain 7 dots for a total of 17x7= 119 dots, confirming the number of years.

The 3rd King Djer of Lower Egypt, is shown in passage A9 on the front side. The 31 preceding symbols, ending in A3, are his 31 years of reign, from 3043 till 3012. The number of years seem to symbolize Lower Egypt, at 31N. His successor the 4th King Djet of Upper Egypt is shown in important passage A15. The 23 preceding symbols finish in the center of A10' before the symbol of God. These encode his 23 years of reign, from 3035 till 3012, but apparently also the center of the Sunreligion in Upper Egypt, at the holy Tropic of Cancer, at 23N. Note that the last symbols are in passages A10-12, of the important combination with A16-18, symbolizing the discoveries in the east during

his reign.

UnificationAfter the reigns of Kings Djer and Djet, it is probable that a single King ruled a more or less united Egypt. This King Den-Udimu, who for the first time accepted the title King of Upper and Lower Egypt, is shown in passage A20. The 19 preceding symbols, ending in A16', are his 19 (officially 20) years of reign, from 3012 till 2992. His successor King Anedjib is shown in last passage A31. The 26 preceding symbols, ending in A25', are his 26 years of reign, from 2992 till 2966. His successor King Semerkhet is shown in passage A24. The 17 preceding symbols, ending in A21', are his 17 (officially 18) years of reign, from 2966 till 2948. His successor, the last King Qa’a, is shown in the last passage A31, again. The 26 preceding symbols, again ending in A25', are his 26 years of reign, from 2948 till 2922. This is about the end of the 1st Dynasty in 2922.

ConfirmationYears of reign are confirmed by passage numbers, as usual. On the front side, the first King Aha or Menes is shown in passage 27, because of his 30+27= 57 years of reign. His successor King Narmer is shown in passage 1, because of his 30+31+1= 62 years of reign. He is shown as an ordinary man, because he was not of Royal birth. He is also shown in passage 31, confirming his 31+31= 62 years of reign. His successor King Djer is also shown in passage 31, because of his 31 years of reign, and because of the northern Nile Delta, at 31N. His successor King Djet is represented by the symbol of God in passage 23, because of his 23 years of reign, and because of the Holy Tropic of Cancer, at 23N. His successor King Den-Udimu is shown in passage A20 and B20, because of his official period of 20 years of reign. His successor King Anedjib is shown in the 8th passage on the edge of the front side, because of his 18+8= 26 years of reign. His succes-sor King Semerkhet is shown in the last passage 18 of the inner part, because of his official period of 18 years of reign. His successor King Qa’a is shown in the 8th passage on the edge, again, because of his 18+8= 26 years of reign (Refs.53-59).

The Power of GodPassage A1 with the flower symbolizes the 1st Dynasty. The front side also contains five passages (7,10,13,16,23) with the symbols of the power of God. These contain 5 symbols of God and 3 Kings, together symbolizing the 5+3= 8 Rulers of the 1st Dynasty.

King Aha (Menes) is represented by God in passage 13. Including passage 1, the other passages total with their numbers his 57 years of reign (7+10+16+23+1= 57). King Narmer is represented by God in passage 7. The other passages total with their numbers his 62 years of reign (10+13+16+23= 62). His successor King Djer is represented by God in passage 10. Including passage 1, passages 7 and 23 total with their numbers his 31 years of reign. His successor King Djet is represented by God in passage 16. Passage 23 shows his 23 years of reign.

His successor King Den-Udimu is shown in passage 10. Passages 7 and 13 total with their numbers his 20 years of reign. His successor King Anedjib is shown in passage 13. Passages 10 and 16 total with their numbers his 26 years of reign. His successor King Semerkhet is shown in passage 16. Including passage 1, the passages 7 and 10 total with their numbers his 18 years of reign. His successor, the last King Qa’a, is represented by God in passage 23. Passages 10 and 16 total with their numbers his 26 years of reign.

Final remarksOn the back side the first King Aha or Menes was shown as a “Queen” in passage B15, and the second King Narmer was shown in last passage B30. Including the Royal Son, this side contains 7+1= 8 Rulers, confirming the 8 Kings of the 1st Dynasty. On the front side, the situation was reversed, which is a kind of special. The 1st King Aha was shown in passage A31, and the 2nd King Narmer was shown in passage A15. Both halfs of this side each contain 8 Rulers, twice confirming the 8 Kings of the 1st Dynasty.

Both Kings Aha and Narmer are shown as a single King in passage A27 on the front side. They started to reign almost simultaniously, 27 double generations ago, in the year of 1458+27x61= c.3105. In Lower and Upper Egypt, respectively, they both reigned during a whole period of a double generation, or c.61 years, till the year of 3105-61= c.3044. These number of years are shown by the 31+30= 61 passages of the Phaistos Disc.

Passage B27 on the back side symbolizes the same double generation. The first two Kings of Egypt reigned during this time period. The translation of the passage reads: “the deadly language of the Religion” (Ch.5). So, their power was based on the Egyptian Sunreligion. The “scraper” (#42) in passage B22 contains 27 dots, confirming this double generation. The triangular grater (#43) in passage B25 also has 27 dots, confirming it, again.- Note, that King Narmer was also called the “Cat-Fish”. This is in-teresting, because the Phaistos Disc provides the Religion of Crete, which was based on two gods: the Cat-god and the Fish-god (Ch.5).

The Phaistos Disc contains 2 palaces in passages A9 and B17. These 2 palaces are in honor of King Aha (Menes) and King Narmer, the first 2 Kings of the 1st Dynasty. The disc also contains 6 temples. These 6 temples are in honor of the 6 other Kings of this Dynasty. So, the disc contains 2+6= 8 holy buildings, in honor of the 8 Rulers of the 1st Dynasty. Each palace consists of 2 big constructions, in honor of the first 2 Kings of the 1st Dynasty. Each temple contains 8 big rooms, in honor of the 8 Kings of this Dynasty.

The Disc contains 2 King's graves in passages A3 and A15. These 2 King's graves are in honor of King Aha (Menes) and King Narmer, the first 2 Kings of the 1st Dynasty. Each King's grave contains 4+4= 8 burial chambers, in honor of the 8 Kings of the 1st Dynasty.

The symbol of the flower in passage A1 represents the 1st turn of the front side. So, it symbolizes and honors the 1st Dynasty of Egypt. It contains 8 petals, in honor of the 8 Kings of this Dynasty. Passage B1 represents the start of the 1st turn of the back side. So, the 2 symbols symbolize and honor the first 2 Kings Aha (Menes) and Narmer of the 1st Dynasty.

In the famous Turin Kingslist (c.1300 BC), the Kings are grouped together logically based on the city where they took up residence. These groups do not (entirely) correspond to the dynasties into which the Kings were placed by Manetho. As a consequence, it has been concluded that the notion of dynasties was not present or fully developed before the 19th or 20th Dynasty. Note, that the Phaistos Disc, made during the 18th Dynasty, shows the contrary. It simply is not true.

The Phaistos Disc provides a rather accurate description of Egyptian History from King Thutmozes III of the 18th Dynasty (1458) until the 1st King Aha (Menes) of the 1st

Dynasty of the Archaic Period of Egypt (3105). Note, that all dates from the Phaistos Disc are absolute dates, because these are counted backwards from 1458 BC.

The Egyptian FleetIn 2660, at the end of the 3rd Dynasty, Egypt had a population of 230 thousand men, and a fleet of c.149 seaworthy ships. At the end of the 1st Dynasty, the population was only 140 thousand, the same as on the island of Crete at the end of the New Palace Culture (Ch.3). So, we may expect that around the year of 2922, the Egyptian fleet contained an estimated number of (14/23)x149= c.91 ships. This estimation might be correct, because developments were slow in this early time period (Refs.27-33).

The edge of the back side represents Egypt, especially the second part of it. Passage B27 has a “boat”. It may provide information about the Egyptian fleet about 27 double generations ago, which was during the 1st Dynasty. However, sometimes the passages are counted along the edge. So, E9 has a “boat”, and a Nile symbol. It may form a series of 2 passages, encoding 90 seaworthy ships. Next passage E10 has a King, showing that the number has to be written down in 10-8= 2 figures.- Passage B1 has a River Nile and a Delta symbol, representing the 1st Dynasty. B1 points to B10. Previous passage B9, in the middle of the generation series B7-12 (1st Dynasty), has a “boat”. So, B9 also forms a series of 2 passages, confirming 90 ships. Last passage B10 has a Delta and a Nile symbol, showing the number has to be written down in 10-8= 2 figures.

Passage B2 typically encodes 20 ships. B9 may correspond to 9 ships. E1 on the edge encodes 10 ships. E4 may encode 40 ships, because the end of the next passage points to the “messenger” of B14, which showed the population of Egypt. Finally, E9 encodes 9 ships at the end of the paragraph. So, the back side confirms a total number of 20+9+10+40+9= 88 ships.- Passage A18 on the front side encodes 18 ships. The passage is at the start of the generation series A18-23, which finishes on the edge. A12 encodes 12 ships. The passage is at the end of the Kings series A5-12. Together with the edge of the back side, these passages confirm a total number of 18+12+10+40+9= 89 seaworthy ships. So, the disc clearly shows, that there were c.90 seaworthy ships in Egypt at the end of the 1st Dynasty.

TemplesThe edges of the disc represent Egypt. Passage A30 on the front side may encode 3 temples at the end of the paragraph. B26 on the back side may correspond to 2 temples (one passage). Finally, B21 may encode another 2 temples. So, it appears Egypt had a total of 3+2+2= 7 temples.- B6 in the inner part encodes 6 temples. B17 corresponds to another temple. So, a total of 6+1= 7 temples is confirmed.- Passage A9 on the front side shows one temple. B18 on the back side encodes another 2 temples. Together with the edge on this side, a total number of 1+2+2+2= 7 temples are confirmed. So, the disc shows, that Egypt possessed 7 temples at the end of the 1st Dynasty.

SchoolsIn 2770, at the end of the 2nd Dynasty, Egypt had c.180 schools. Because of the lower population, the country will now have an estimated number of (14/19)x180= c.133 schools. The “temples and palaces” on the disc may also represent schools.- At the end of the 1st Dynasty, Egypt had a population of 140 thousand men. It probably means, that the number of schools was the same as in Crete at the end of the New Palace Culture (see Ch.4). So, the were a total of c.128 schools; c.102 of these were “lower schools”, and

c.26 of these were “higher schools” (Refs.16-26).

TABLE 8.5


ARCHAIC PERIOD: 1ST DYNASTYc.3105 Start 1st Dynasty (c.3048*) Population: 60,000, 8 Kings, 2x3= 6 generations LOWER Egypt (3 generations)c.3100 Aha (Menes) (#1)(57)c.3043 Djer (#3)(31), discovery of Sumatra, Kalimantan, the Philippines, and Taiwanc.3012 (End of reign) UPPER Egypt (3 generations)c.3097 Narmer (#2)(62)c.3035 Djet (#4)(23) (discoveries around the South Chinese Sea)c.3012 (End of reign) Egypt UNITED (3 generations)c.3012 Den-Udimu (#5)(20)c.3006 Comet Catastrophe (floodings during 11 days, 4th generation): c.2,600 casualties in Egypt (2.6%)c.2992 Anedjib (#6)(26), discovery of East Indonesia, New Guinea, Bismarck Archipelago, and Solomon Islandsc.2966 Semerkhet (#7)(18) (discoveries near East Indonesia)c.2948 Qa’a (#8)(26)Egyptian Fleet: c.90 seaworthy shipsTemples: c.7Schools: c.128; lower schools: c.102, higher schools: c.26c.2922 (End of reign) c.2922 End of the 1st Dynasty, population: 140,000 (c.2898*)

* according to archaeological research(..) years of reign; the names of the Pharaohs are not mentioned on the disc; discoveries: Ch.9 (Refs.31-40).

8.6 PRE-DYNASTIC PERIODThe 18 Dynasties of Egypt are represented by the 18 passages of both inner parts of the disc. So, the edges represent the long time period before the Egyptian civilization, covering the Pre-Dynastic Period and the prehistory. The back side deals with more recent time periods. So, the edge of it probably relates to the Pre-Dynastic Period (Refs.-16-26).

DurationOn the back side, the 6 passages B19-24, B13-18, B1-6, but also B25-30 encode the duration of the period (compare the previous series), 6 generations, or 6x30.5= 183 years, so from 3288 till 3105. All series finish at the end of paragraphs. The first and the last

series are on the edge, representing the Pre-Dynastic Period. The first passage B25 of the last series symbolizes the southern capital of Hieraconpolis, at 25N. This series finishes at the end of the side! The 6 paragraphs in the inner part confirm the 6 generations. This part has 3 turns, encoding the duration of the Pre-Dynastic Period, 3 double generations or 3x2= 6 generations. Archaeological research confirms the start of the Pre-Dynastic Period, at c.3300. On the front side, the 6 passages A29-21, A29-31 plus A1-3, and A24-28 (using 27a/b), confirm the duration of 6 generations (compare the previous series). The last series finishes at the end of a paragraph.

Passages A30 and A27 on this side determine the duration of the Pre-Dynastic Period, between 30 and 27 double generations ago (compare the previous series). A30 is at the end of a paragraph. In the passages A28-30 involved, the natural symbols of "bee", "cat" and "waterway" confirm the Pre-Dynastic Period. The "waterway", the "draught-screen", and the "temple" occur 6 times on the disc, confirming the 6 generations.

Passages B30 and B27 on the back side confirm the duration of the Pre-Dynastic Period, between 30 and 27 double generations ago. This series finishes at the end of the side! The natural symbols of "papyrus", "branch", "waterway", and "corpse" confirm the Pre-Dynastic Period. The "hammer", "branch", "waterway", and "draught-screen" occur 6 times on the back side or both sides, confirming the 6 generations.

Passage B28 contains the "papyrus", because Lower Egypt was called the "Land of the Papyrus". Next passage B29 contains the "branch", because Upper Egypt was called the "Land of the Wood" (or the Reed). So, in the Pre-Dynastic Period Egypt was devided in Lower and Upper Egypt. Last passage B30 contains the symbols of "religion" and "King", because these formed the basis for the Egyptian civilization.

“Kings”Each generation produces a King, and Egypt was devided during this period. On the front side, passages A23-20 (using 27a/b), and A20-31, and A1-12, and A5-16 represent the probably 12 “Kings” of Upper and Lower Egypt of the Pre-Dynastic Period (compare the previous series). All these series finish with a King, most of them also at the end of a paragraph. The second series finishes at the end of the side! Last passage A31 symbolizes the northern capital of Boeto, at 31N. The last passages of two series each contain 12 symbols, confirming the 12 Kings. Some of the Kings are shown in the passages. On the edge, and on the back side, the 6+6= 12 Rulers are shown. The 12 passages of the edge of side B confirm the 12 Kings.

The back side and the edge of it contain together 30+12= 42 passages, encoding the 42 nomes or provinces of ancient Egypt. From the oldest times the two parts of the country had been divided into 42 nomes, and these local areas with their own capitals and gods, were in function as long as the Egyptian history lasted, and the local tribe-leaders became governors of the state (Refs.53-59).

Comet CatastrophePassage B29 on the back side has “a head and a tail of a comet”, pointing to “continuous floodings” during a catastrophe (Refs.41-52). It also has a “corpse”, indicating numerous victims. Apparently, this catastrophe occurred 29 double generations ago, which is between 1458+29x61= 3227 and 3227-61= 3166 (Pre-Dynastic Period). Passage A29 on the front side has a “head and a tail of a comet”, too, confirming the “continuous

floodings” in this time period.

Passage B29 has a “corpse”, suggesting a number of 2,900 casualties in Egypt. The next or 2nd passage B30 has a King, and a comet, confirming the 2nd number (9), and B20 has a King, showing the number has to be written down in 20-18+2= 4 figures. Passage B11 points with its paragraph-line to the end of B20, so this passage is also at the end of a kind of paragraph. In addition, B11 is equal to passage A29 on the front side, confirming this comet catastrophe.

However, it is not the number of victims which makes this calamity important, but the comet catastrophe itself. Passage B21 of the first generation series B19-24 has a “comet”, suggesting the disaster happened in the first generation, which is from 3227 till 3227-31= 3196 (3rd generation of the Pre-Dynastic Period.). Passage A26 of the generation series A24-28 (using 27a/b) has a “head and tail of a comet”, confirming this generation.

Passage A29 with the “head and tail of a comet” is at the start of the generation series A29-31 plus A1-3. Passage A31 represents the 3rd generation, and A3 has two “corpses”. It strongly confirms a number of 3,000 casualties. It forms a series of 4 passages, finishing with A6, equal to A31, showing the number has to be written down in 6-2= 4 figures. A3 has the signs of the “papyrus” and the “branch” (or wood), confirming these victims were counted in Egypt. A number of 3,000 casualties is about 7 % of the Egyp-tian population at that time.

The year of the catastrophe is situated in a first generation, so somewhere indicated on side A. The paragraph-line of passage A29 runs to the very edge, suggesting a passage on the edge. Passage A26 has a “head and tail of a comet”, and also a “corpse”, suggesting the 26th year of the 1st generation, or the year of 3227-26= 3201. The combination of symbols is equal to the one in passage B29, which indicated the catastrophe in the first place. Passage B26 on the back side confirms this year, because it has a “mummy”, indicating Egyptian casualties. The date of a global calamity in c.3195 is confirmed by Baillie (Ref.45). The 30 or so passages on each side represent the 30 days of a month. So, one of these will indicate the duration of the calamity. The “shields” with the 7 burls of passages A26, A31, B26, and B30 appear to point to passage B7. The “branches” in the original passage B29, A3, and in B21, which indicated the correct generation, refer to B8. So, passage B7 indicates a duration of 70 days. The translation of both passages read: “Continuous floodings continued (because of the head and tail of the comet)”. ”The wood (fire) leaded to this continuation”.- Passage A7 on the front side, with the “shield”, confirms the duration of the catastrophe, 70 days. Next passage B8 has a “Queen”, which confirms the number should be written down in 8-6= 2 figures.

The edges of the disc each contain 12 passages, encoding the 12 months of a year. The original passage B29 and next passage B30 show the duration of the catastrophe: c.2 months. B30 is the last passage on this side, having a “comet”, a “shield”, and a “King”. Passages A29 and A30 on the front side confirm the duration of c.2 months. A30, at the end of the paragraph, has a “shield” and a “temple”, referring to passage B26 with the same symbols, which indicated the year of the catastrophe.

PopulationPassage A6 on the front side provided a population of 60 thousand men at the end of the Pre-Dynastic Period. This era is described on the edge of the back side. Passage B19 at the start of it has a “messenger”, encoding a population of 19,000 men at the start of this Period. The King in the next or 2nd passage B20 confirms the 2nd number (9), and the messenger in passage B23 confirms the number has to be written down in 23-18= 5 figures. Next passage A24 also has a “messenger”, suggesting a population of 24,000 men. However, the next or 2nd passage B25 does not have a King, so the 2nd number (4) is not confirmed. But passage B28 has a King, confirming the number has to be written down in 28-23= 5 figures. So, at the start of the Pre-Dynastic Period the population of Egypt was 19 to 20 thousand men (Tables 8.6 and 8.8). This number is about equal to the population of Crete at the start of the Old Palace Culture, c.2007 (Ch.6, Refs.1-15).

The Egyptian FleetAt the end of the Pre-Dynastic Period Egypt had a population of 60 thousand men. So, the size of the population was the same as on the island of Crete at the end of the Old Palace Culture, c.1702. Around that year, Crete possessed a fleet of c.39 seaworthy ships (see Ch.6). So, it is expected that the fleet of Egypt will now be about the same (Refs.27-33).

In 2920, at the end of the 1st Dynasty, Egypt had a population of 140 thousand men, and a fleet of c.90 seaworthy ships. At the end of the Pre-Dynastic Period, the population was only 60 thousand men. So, we may expect that around the year of 3100, the Egyptian fleet contained an estimated number of (6/14)x90= 39 ships. So, the number of c.39 seaworthy ships is confirmed (see Ch.6)!

SchoolsIn 2920, at the end of the 1st Dynasty, Egypt had c.128 schools. Because of the lower population, the country will now have an estimated number of (6/14)x128= c.55 schools. At the end of the Old Palace Culture on Crete, there were c.39 schools (see Ch.6). The same will probably hold for Egypt. This is slightly less than expected.- The “temples and palaces” on the disc may also represent schools. The edge of the back side represents Egypt. Sometimes, the passages are counted along the edge. “Temples” appear in passages E3 and E8. So, a number of c.38 schools at the end of the Pre-Dynastic Period is confirmed. So, in Egypt there were c.30 “lower schools”, and c.9 “higher schools”, just like on Crete (see Ch.6)!

TABLE 8.6


PRE-DYNASTIC PERIODc.3288 Start Pre-Dynastic Period (c.3300*) (edge side B) Population: 19,000-20,000, 6 generations, 12 “kings” Upper Egypt, 6 generations, 6 “kings” southern capital of Hieraconpolis, at 25N Lower Egypt, 6 generations, 6 “kings”

northern capital of Boeto, at 31N 42 nomes or provincesc.3272 1st generation, discovery of South Greenland c.3211 3rd generation, attempts to cross Davis Strait are given up.c.3201 Comet Catastrophe (floodings during 70 days, 3rd generation): c.3,000 casualties in Egypt (7.5%)c.3105 Population: 60,000Egyptian Fleet: c.39 seaworthy shipsSchools: c.39; lower schools: c.30, higher schools: c.9c.3105 End Pre-Dynastic Period (c.3048*)

* according to archaeological research- Discoveries: Ch.9 (Refs.31-40)

8.7 PREHISTORYCopper and Bronze AgeThe prehistory of Egypt is described on the edges of the disc (Figs.8.4 and 8.5). The paragraph-line of B25 points to the very edge. It appears, the "triangular grater" represents the groundplan of the important town of Hieraconpolis at the latitude of 25N, in the year of 1458+(30+7)x61= 3715. Hieraconpolis in Upper Egypt was the largest Egyptian settlement. The paragraph contains 3 passages, encoding a length of 3 centi-moira= 3.33 km (1 moira= 1°= 111km). So, it was a busy town spread out along the Nile over a distance of about three kilometres. The symbol of the "fish" in the previous passage B24 means fishery was important. The "messenger" in B24 suggests a local population of c.2,400. The "grater" in the next or 2nd passage confirms the 2nd number (4), and the last passage B27 of the paragraph, having a "boat", confirms the number has to be written down in 27-23= 4 figures.

Passage B26 represents the Nagada Culture around the "knee" of the River Nile, at the latitude of 26N, in the year of 1458+(30+8)x61= 3776. The “shield” (groundplan) and wooden “temple" illustrate a small settlement in this area, and the "shield" also shows bronze processing industry was important. The "fish" means the fishery from the Nile feeded the people, and the "mummy" illustrates the many graves near Abydos. Passage A26 at the front side confirms the Nagada Culture at 26N, in the year of 3776. The "shield" confirms the bronze processing in the settlements, the "waterway" symbolizes the River Nile, and the "corpse" confirms the many graves in the area.

Passage B27 at the end of the paragraph represents the mountains of the East Desert at the latitude of 27N, in the year of 1458+(30+9)x61= 3837. A large number of stone carvings have been found around these hills, where boats (often big ones) play a leading roll. The "boat" in the passage is an example. The passage explains the meaning of the petroglyphs. These are "death-boats of the religion". The religious text of the disc illu-strates its meaning (Ch.5). Passage A27 at the front side confirms the area in the East Desert at 27N, in the year of 3837. The passage shows these boats "protect the Tribe Leader".

Passage B29 represents the Fayum at 29N, in the year of 1458+(30+11)x61= 3959. The "branch" shows it is fertil land, the "waterway" is the River Nile, and the "corpse"

indicates the many graves in the area. Passage A29 at the front side confirms the Fayum at 29N, in the year of 3959. The "waterway" confirms the importance of the River Nile. The “cover” is the Nile Delta.

Passage B30 at the end of the side represents the southern Nile Delta at 30N, in the year 1458+(30+12)x61= 4020. The "shield" in the passage shows the discovery of the metal of copper in this area around this early date. The shape of the sign of "religion" shows it is the start of the Nile Delta. Passage A30 at the end of the paragraph at the front side confirms the southern Nile Delta at 30N, in the year of 4020. The "shield" confirms the introduction of copper in the Nile Delta around this date. The “shield” (groundplan) and the wooden "temple" show there were early settlements in the region.

Passages B19 and B1 on the back side show the importance of sailing boats (B19) in the River Nile (B1) and along the coast (B19, the edge) in the northern Delta, at 30+1= 31N, as early as 1458+(30+12+1)x61= 4081. The 4th turn of side B confirms the latitude, 4° south of Crete, at 35-4= 31°N.

A31 is the last passage on the front side. The “square” has the shape of the Nile Delta, at 31°N. The "messenger" in A31 shows it was a populated area, encoding an estimated number of c.3,000 men. The next or 2nd passage A19 does not contain a “King” or Tribe Leader, which could confirm the 2nd number (1). The messenger in A21 confirms the number has to be written down in 21-18+1= 4 figures (Tables 8.7 and 8.8). The "shield" (also groundplan) confirms copper trade started in small settlements at this time period. It is the start of the Copper Age, at 1458+(31+12)x61= 4081 (skipping A19) (Refs.8,13,-14,19,27).

NeolithicumPassage B26 on the back side represents the Nagada Culture around the "knee" of the Nile, at 26N, in the year of 1458+(30+12+8)x61= 4508. The “shield” (groundplan) and the "temple" illustrate very early settlements in this area. Passage A24 at the end of the paragraph on the front side shows habitation near Hieraconpolis, at c.24N, in the same year of 1458+(31+13+6)x61= 4508. The "King" and the "Queen" illustrate early population in the area. Both edges contain together 13+12= 25 passages, corresponding to the exact latitude of Hieraconpolis, at 25N.

Passage B30 at the very end of the back side represents the southern Nile Delta at 30N, in the year 1458+(30+12+12)x61= 4752. Passage A30 at the end of a paragraph on the front side confirms the Nile Delta at 30N, in the year 1458+(31+12+11)x61= 4752 (skipping A19 twice). The “shield” (groundplan) and "temple" in the passage illustrate small settlements in this area at this very early date. This happened because the climate became increasingly dryer. People moved from the desert to the Nile Delta.

Passage A28 at the end of the paragraph confirms the very early date of 1458+ (31+13+10)x61= 4752. The symbols of the passage, the "bee" and the "wild cats", point to the real prehistory, a primitive society. Passage A19 shows people used the bow and arrow for the hunt. All other passages on the edges point to a certain level of civilization, showing industrial products and instruments. A23 appears to be the only exception, but also here one points to the "power of God", that became so important at a later stage in the development of Egypt (Refs.13,19,31,32). (Refs.68-73)

TABLE 8.7


PREHISTORYc.5700 Discovery of the Canary Islandsc.4752 Southern Nile Delta, 30N, Neolithicum, very early settlements, use of bow and arrow, honeyc.4600 Discovery of the Cape Verde Islandsc.4508 Nagada Culture, 26N, Hieraconpolis, 25N, very early settlementsc.4230 Discovery of Madeirac.4081 Northern Nile Delta, 31N, sailing boats population of c.3000, start Copper Agec.4020 Southern Nile Delta, 30N, early settlementsc.3959 The Fayum, 29N, agriculturec.3837 Mountains of East Desert, 27N, petroglyphs of boatsc.3776 Nagada Culture, 26N, bronze processing industryc.3715 Hieraconpolis, 25N, local population of c.2,400, largest Egyptian settlementc.3620 Discovery of the Azoresc.3380 Discovery of Faeroes and Icelandc.3320 Discovery of Greenlandc.3288 population: 20,000c.3288 End Prehistory (c.3300*)

* according to archaeological research- Discoveries: Ch.9 (Refs.31-33)

TABLE 8.8

POPULATION NUMBERS IN EARLY EGYPTIAN HISTORY ACCORDING TO THE PHAISTOS DISC, 1458 BC

PREHISTORYc.4081 3,000 Nile DeltaPRE-DYNASTIC PERIODc.3288 19,500 Pre-Dynastic Period, 6 generationsc.3201 Comet Catastrophe (floodings during 70 days, 3rd generation): 3,000 casualties in Egypt (7 %)ARCHAIC PERIOD c.3105 60,000 1st Dynasty, 6 generationsc.3006 Comet Catastrophe (floodings during 11 days, 4th generation): 2,600 casualties in Egypt (2.6%)c.2922 140,000 2nd Dynasty, 5 generationsOLD KINGDOM

c.2769 190,000 3rd Dynasty, 3 generationsc.2769 Pre-Palatial Period on Cretec.2745 ‘Volcano Catastrophe’ (Famine Stela) 210,000 population in Egypt 9,000 casualties (4.3%)c.2678 230,000 4th Dynasty, 5 generationsc.2525 300,000 5th Dynasty, 5 generationsc.2373 370,000 6th Dynasty, 6 generations (Late Egyptian History)c.2344 Comet Catastrophe (floodings during 110 days, 1st generation): 180,000 casualties in Egypt (49%) 190,000 population which survivedc.2190 230,000 End of dynasty, end of Old Kingdom

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CH.8: EARLY HISTORY OF EGYPT

Education

Transcript of CH.8: EARLY HISTORY OF EGYPT