General Psychology

Course Structure

Meghan Fraley, PhD

Skyline College, Summer 2015

Consciousness

Introspection and the Functions of Consciousness

• The only direct way to study consciousness is to have each person

look within themselves, or introspect. Introspection is a powerful

research tool—but limited. People often lack words to report their

experiences, and when they have the words, different individuals

may use the same words to refer to different inner experiences.

Translating Thoughts into Words

• Introspection

• Introspection Limitations

• Introspection: the process of “looking within”

• How to study consciousness?

• Introspection Research

– Questions & examination of subjective experience

Limitations of Introspection

• Higher value on diplomacy than honesty

• People don’t always have the vocabulary to

describe

The Cognitive Unconscious

• Unconscious events: not detectable through

introspection

• Cognitive Unconscious: Support machinery

that makes experience possible: Processor

that allows us to collect information,

perceive and respond

Brain Damage and Unconscious Functioning

• Anterograde amnesia

– Damage to hippocampus

– Implicit memory

Blindsight

• Ability of person with lesionin visual cortext

to reach toward object even though they

report seeing nothing

• (video)

Unconscious Attributions

• Nisbett and Schacter experiment

Mistaken Introspections

• Miscommunications: Difficulties in

translating introspections into words

• Incomplete: much mental activity occurs

outside conscious awareness

• Wrong- systematically misrepresent our

thoughts

The Function of Consciousness

• Automatic

• Executive Control

Reticular activating system (RAS)

Good Consciousness =

Alertness + Awareness

Diminished alertness =

Widespread abnormalities of cerebral hemispheres

or reduced activity of reticular activating system

(RAS)

Definition of Terms

• Confusion :

– impaired attention and concentration, manifest disorientation in

time, place and person, impersistent thinking, speech and

performance, reduced comprehension and capacity to reason

– Fluctuate in severity, typically worse at night ‘sundowning’

– Perceptual disturbances and misinterpret voices, common objects

and actions of other persons

• Confusion is also found in dementia (progressive failure of

language, memory, and other intellectual functions)

Definition of Terms

Delirium : confusion and associated agitation,

hallucination, convulsion and tremor

Amnesia : a loss of past memories and to an

ability to form new ones, despite alert and

normal attentiveness

Level of Consciousness(1)

• Alert : normal awake and responsive state

• Drowsiness : state of apparent sleep, briefly

arousal with oral command• Lethargic : resembles sleepiness, but not

becoming fully alert, slow verbal response and inattentive. Unable to adequately perform simple concentration task (such as counting 20 to 1)

Level of Consciousness (2)• Somnolent : easily aroused by voice or touch; awakens and

follows commands; required stimulation to maintain arousal

• Obtunded/Stuporous : arousable only with repeated and painful

stimulation; verbal output is unintelligible or nil; some

purposeful movement to noxious stimulation

• Comatose : no arousal despite vigorous stimulation, no

purposeful movement- only posturing, brainstem reflexes often

absent

Consciousness

• Altered States of Consciousness- Shift in the

quality or pattern of mental activity as compared

to waking consciousness

– Thoughts are fuzzy, less alert, thoughts take bizarre

turns

– Drive to work, but don’t remember how you got there

– Driving and on cell phone as dangerous as drinking

and driving

Consciousness: Altered States• Sleep

– Biology• Sleep is a biological rhythm-natural cycle the body

MUST go through

• Circadian Rhythms- The 24 hour sleep-wake cycle

– Hypothalamus• Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)- internal clock that

tells when to sleep and wake– Sensitive to light

– Tells pineal gland to release melatonin to make feel sleepy or stop melatonin to wake up

– Serotonin and body temperature are correlated with sleep

– SCN may be responsible for resetting the biological clock to 24 hours everyday

THE NEURAL BASIS FOR CONSCIOUSNESS

Many Brain Areas Needed for Consciousness

• Alertness & Sensitivity: Thalamus or RAS

• Content of consciousness: Cortex, i.e. visual

cortex

Hypothalamus• The price of not sleeping

– Microsleeps- brief seconds of sleep• May be the cause of many car accidents

• Makes doing minor tasks very hard

– Sleep deprivation- Significant loss of sleep that causes lack of concentration and irritability problems• Actually lose more information staying up and

studying

• Symptoms- droopy eyes, inattention & irritability

• Even only 6 hours of sleep is equivalent to no sleep for 2 days!

• Those sleep deprived totally for 3 days were not aware of their impairment

Hypothalamus

• Adaptive theory of sleep

– Sleep patterns are developed to avoid predators

• Restorative theory of sleep

– Sleep is necessary to restore chemicals and repair

cells in the body

• How much sleep is needed?

– Varies according to age and person

Neural Correlates

• Binocular rivalry: visual system unable to

handle two different stimuli at once

• Physical sensation doesn’t change, but

experience of it does

Face versus House Binocular Rivalry Experiment (Video)

Free Will Experiment (Video)

• Dot on computer screen

The Global Workspace Hypothesis

• Attention

• Workspace Neurons: Connect areas of brain

together

• Hypothesis: Integrated neural activity

provides biological basis of consciousness

Varieties of Consciousness

• Sleep

• Hypnosis

• Religious States

• Drug-Induced

SLEEP AND WAKE CYCLES

Stages of Sleep

• Rapid Eye Movement (REM)- Eyes move rapidly,

typically dream stage

– Body move little

• Non-REM Sleep (NREM)- Deeper more restful sleep

– Body is free to move

• Beta Waves- Awake=very fast and small

• Alpha Waves- Sleepy=very slow and large

• Theta Waves- More sleepy=slower and larger

Stages of Sleep• Non-REM stage one: Light Sleep

– If awakened will not think they were asleep

– Hypnagogic images- flashes of light/images that seem realistic, may be cause for “ghost/alien” sightings

– Hypnic Jerk- Body jerks awake• Ancestors slept in trees

• Non-REM stage two: Sleep Spindles– Body temp drops, heart & breathing slows

– Theta waves predominant

• Non-REM stage three and four: Delta Waves– Delta waves predominant

– Deepest stage of sleep

– Bodies lowest level of functioning, hard to awaken

– When body grows

– Boys experience more sleep disorders than girls due to testosterone which causes boys to sleep deeper

REM Sleep• After being in stage 4 for some time the sleeper will progress

up to stage 3, then 2 and finally the body temp will rise,

breathing slows and deepens and move to REM sleep

• 90% of dreams take place in REM sleep

• Dreams do occur in NREM sleep, but they are regular

thoughts and not as vivid

• REM paralysis- The body cannot move during this type of

sleep

• Physical stress= more NREM sleep longer

• Emotional stress= more REM sleep longer

REM Sleep

• REM Rebound- If do not get enough REM sleep, will make up for it the next night

• Adult REM Sleep- Spend 20% of sleep in this stage, EEG readings not the same as infants, and cannot move body

• Infant REM Sleep- Spend 50% of sleep in this stage and can still move the body

• Infants do not dream in this stage b/c busy making neural connections

• Infants sleep for brain development

Sleep Disorders

• REM Behavior Disorder- Mechanism that

prevents person from moving doesn’t work and

may act out nightmares

– Generally found in men over 60

• Stage 4 sleep disorders

– Sleepwalking (somnambulism)- hereditary and found

more in male children. May just sit up in bed or even

eat food from the fridge. Lack of sleep may induce

this behavior and may wake them up

Sleep Disorders

• Night Terrors- Person screams out or even runs without

waking up during deep sleep

– Rare, and found in children

– Generally do not remember the night terror episode

– Night terrors occur in NREM sleep and nightmares in REM sleep

• Insomnia-Inability to get to sleep, stay asleep, or get quality

sleep

– Psychological Causes

• Worry, trying too hard to sleep, anxiety

– Physical Causes

• Too much caffeine, indigestion, aches and pains

Sleep Disorders

• Ways to sleep

– Limit caffeine, take pain meds, don’t eat what

causes indigestion, deal with anxieties, go to be

only when sleepy, only sleep in bed, regular

bedtime, don’t take sleeping pills, don’t drink

alcohol

Sleep Disorders• Sleep Apnea- Stop breathing for 30 sec or

more

– Associated with snoring, causes heart problems

– Obesity is a cause

– Treatments

• May lose weight, use nasal opening devices, CPAP-

Continuous positive airway pressure

– Found in infants-immature brain stem (SIDS)

Sleep Disorders

• Narcolepsy- Person falls immediately into

REM sleep without warning in the daytime

– Cataplexy- loss of muscle tone from REM

paralysis

• Dangerous if standing up and fall

• Excessive daytime sleepiness

Sleep: Why?

• The Need

• The Function of Sleep

• Dreams

Dreams

• Freud’s Interpretation of Dreams

– Conflicts, events and desires are represented

symbolically in dreams

– Manifest Content- What the dream actually

entails

– Latent Content- True meaning in dreams

expressed in symbols

Dreams

• Activation-Synthesis Hypothesis- A different kind of

thinking that comes from past experiences and

memories

• Signals sent from Pons to the Cortex to explain activity

of brain

• Frontal lobes are shut down during dreams causing

bizarre and unrealistic dreams

• Dreams can have meaning based on person’s reality

and emotions

Dreams• Activation- information-mode model (AIM)-

brain uses info to create dream material so real life can impact what we dream about

• What do people dream about?– Days occurrences

– Men dream about men and women dream about both

– Men are aggressive in dreams and women are victims in dreams

– Culture impacts dreams

Why do we dream?

• Freud: Manifes & Latent Content, Evaluation

of Theory

• Activiation-synthesis hypothesis

Hypnosis

• Alleged effects

• Real effects

• Not everyone can be hypnotized

Altered States: Hypnosis• Hypnosis- state of consciousness in which a

person is especially susceptible to suggestion

– 4 steps always present when hypnotizing

• Person told to focus on what is being said

• Person told to relax and feel tired

• Person told to let go and accept suggestions easily

• Person told to use vivid imagination

– Only 80% can be hypnotized; day dreamers,

fantasize, vivid imaginations are easily hypnotized

Hypnosis

• Hypnotic susceptibility- Degree to which

someone is a good candidate for hypnosis

• Person being hypnotized is really in control

– Must be willing to be hypnotized

• Basic suggestion effect- Subject blames the

hypnotist for controlling actions

Hypnosis• Theories

– Hypnosis as Dissociation

• Hypnosis worked only on immediate part of mind, hidden

part was aware (driving and not remembering how you got

there)

– Hypnosis as Social Role-Playing

• (Social Cognitive Theory)

– People are not in an altered state, but playing the role of what is

expected from a hypnotized person

– People may not even realize they are not hypnotized

Theories of Hypnosis

• Social influences

• Dissociation

• Social factors & Dissociation together?

Religious States

• Meditation

Meditation Research

Drug-Induced Changes

Psychoactive Drugs

• Psychoactive Drugs- alter thinking,

perception, and memory

– Were first used to help people

• Surgeries, deal with pain, insomnia, ADD

– When abused or misused they are very dangerous

– May cause psychological/physical dependence

Psychoactive Drugs

• Physical Dependence- Body becomes unable to function

normally w/out the drug

– This is addiction

• Drug Tolerance- Larger doses are needed to get the same

effect

• Withdrawal- Symptoms are present when not taking the drug

– Headaches, nausea, irritability, pain, shaking, high blood pressure

Psychoactive Drugs

• Psychological Dependence- Think the drug is

needed to continue feeling of emotional or

psychological goodness

– Person thinks he/she needs it

– This addiction can last forever

Depressants

Alcohol• A depressant made from fermented or distilled

vegetables

– Risks to heart, brain & liver along with loss of job, work

time & economic stability

– Alcohol abuse

• Binge drinking- drinking 4-5 drinks w/in short amount of time

• Alcoholism signs- drunkenness, drinking in A.M., guilty feelings,

drinking to recover, drinking alone, blackouts, lying about

drinking, passing out

• Korsakoff’s Syndrome- Dementia from vitamin B1 deficiency from

lack of eating food

Alcohol• Pregnant women should not drink-Fetal alcohol

syndrome & mental retardation

• Alcohol increases risk of bone density loss and heart

disease

• Alcohol confused as a stimulant because of “happy

feelings”

– This relieves inhibitions- keep a person following social rules

– Alcohol induces the release of GABA neurotransmitters which

slow down brain function

– Women’s bodies process alcohol differently than men

Narcotics

• Suppress the sensations of pain, slow down nervous

system

• All narcotics are derived from opium

• Opium- substance from opium poppy

• Paregoric- form of opium used for teething infants

• Morphine- narcotic used to treat severe pain

– Still used by doctors in small, controlled doses

– “God’s own medicine”

Narcotics• Heroin- Extremely addictive narcotic

– Inhibits the production/release of endorphins

which block pain

– When in withdrawal there is no protection from

the pain so they want to use again

– Methadone is narcotic used to wean person off of

heroin because it is not as addictive

STIMULANTS

Stimulants “Uppers”• Drugs that increase the functioning of the nervous

system (Heart and brain speed up)

• Amphetamines- Stimulants that are made in labs

• EX. Benzedrine, Methedrine & Dexedrine

• Methamphetamine “Crystal Meth” used for recreation

• Truck drivers may use stimulants to drive longer

• Overweight people use to lose weight

• Does not give “extra” energy, but uses all the energy the

person has= they will “crash”

Stimulants “Uppers”• Amphetamines

– Symptoms

• Nausea, vomiting, high blood pressure & strokes

– Amphetamine Psychosis- Person becomes

delusional and paranoid from taking large doses

of amphetamines

– Violence is common

Stimulants “Uppers”

• Cocaine- Natural drug from cocoa leaves

– Produces feelings of euphoria, power, energy, and

pleasure

– Deadens pain and suppresses appetite

– Was used by doctors and dentists

– Was present in Coca-Cola

– May die from convulsions the first use

– Mice would give selves cocaine instead of eating and

drinking to the point of death

Stimulants “Uppers”

• Cocaine withdrawal

– Mood swing into depression, tiredness, nervousness,

inability to feel pleasure & paranoia

– Signs of physical dependence

• Compulsive use- can’t say no

• Loss of control- If available must use it, to point of

exhaustion

• Disregard for the consequences of use- nothing else

matters

Stimulants “Uppers”

• Nicotine- Active ingredient in tobacco

– Gives the smoker a “rush” when inhaled

• Increases: heart beat, blood pressure. Releases

adrenalin, reduce stress

• Was first used as insecticide

• More addictive than heroine or alcohol

• Delayed smoking- delay the first cigarette more and

more each day, eventually do not smoke

Stimulants “Uppers”

• Caffeine- Stimulant found in coffee, tea, and other plant based substances– Helps maintain alertness and increase effectiveness of pain relievers

• Replaced the use of cocaine in medicines

– Drinking coffee will cure drunkenness is myth• Wide awake drunk

• Barbiturates- depressant drugs that induce sleep (sedative)– Known as major tranquilizers

– Overdose can lead to death when breathing and heart stop

– Highly addictive and easy to gain tolerance

– Drug interaction- when several drugs are combined and generally causes death• Alcohol and barbiturates can be deadly

Stimulants “Uppers”

• Benzodiazepines (Minor tranquilizers)- Drugs

that lower anxiety and reduce stress

– Valium, Xanax, Halicon, Ativan and Librium

– Addictive and deadly when combined with

alcohol

– Rohypnol- “date rape drug”= person becomes

unconscious

Marijuana

Hallucinogens

Hallucinogens• Hallucinogens- cause false sensory messages,

altering the perception of reality

– Synesthesia- sensory distortions; colors have sounds,

sounds have smells, ect

– Two types of hallucinogens

• Manufactured

– Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)- Ergot fungus found on grains

» May have a “bad trip”

» May make poor decisions or not notice danger

Hallucinogens

• Manufactured

– Phenyl cyclohexyl piperidine (PCP)-animal

tranquilizer with effects of stimulant, depressant,

narcotic or hallucinogenic

– MDMA (Ecstasy)- stimulant and hallucinogenic

effects

• Dehydrates body and raises temp.

• Drink lots of water, but not too much- may disrupt salt

content in body and regular body functions

Hallucinogens

• Non-manufactured

– Though found in nature, still very dangerous

– Mescaline- made from peyote cactus buttons

• Used by Native Americans for out of body experience

– Psilocybin- Found in mushrooms

• Used by Native Americans

• Not physically addictive, but may be psychologically

Hallucinogens• Marijuana

– Mild hallucinogen derived from hemp plant (cannibus sativa)

– Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)- Active ingredient

– May experience mild euphoria, relaxation, altered sense of time, visual distortions

– Higher doses may cause hallucinations, delusions and paranoia

– Not physically addictive buy are withdrawal symptoms of irritability, memory difficulties, sleep problems and increased aggression

Hallucinogens

• Psychological addiction is evident

• More carcinogens than cigarettes

• Can cause breathing difficulty, lung cancer,

asthma

ADDICTION

Nicotine

Differences in Addiction

• Genetics

• Personality

• Environment

• Life status

• Cultural factors

• Beliefs

– (overestimate others use, more likely to become users

themselves)