Ch. 2 Review of Thermodynamics, Fluid Mechanics, and Heat...

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Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Thermal Engineering Lab., Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Sogang University Ch. 2 Review of Thermodynamics, Fluid Mechanics, and Heat Transfer

Transcript of Ch. 2 Review of Thermodynamics, Fluid Mechanics, and Heat...

Page 1: Ch. 2 Review of Thermodynamics, Fluid Mechanics, and Heat Transferhome.sogang.ac.kr/sites/thermal/menu4/Lists/b10/... ·  · 2017-03-07Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Thermal

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Thermal Engineering Lab., Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Sogang University

Ch. 2 Review of Thermodynamics, Fluid Mechanics, and Heat Transfer

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2.1 Introduction

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2.2 Thermodynamic properties

- 열역학적 상태량

(thermodynamic property): 관찰, 측정, 계산이 가능한 물질의 특성으로 물질의 상태(state)에 의해서만 결정되며, 도달한 경로에는 상관이 없음.

- intensive property: T, p, x

- extensive property: V, U, H, S,

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2.3 System of units

- English system: pound-second-foot - SI: kilogram-second-meter - 중력가속도 (standard acceleration of gravity):

)/()(17.32

1:

)/()(1:

2

2

sftalbmmlbfEnglish

smakgmNSI

kmaF

22 /17.32/807.9 sftsmg

- 힘

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- weight (=force of gravity upon the body)

)/(17.32)(17.32

1:

)/(807.9)(807.9

1*

)/(807.9)(1:

2

2

2

sftlbmmlbfEnglish

smkgmkgf

smkgmNSI

kmgF

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2.4 Specific volume, density, specific weight, and specific gravity

- 비체적 (specific volume, v)

lbmftEnglish

kgmSI

/:

/:

3

3

- specific property: 단위 질량당의 물성치 - density ( )

v

1

3

3

/:

/:

ftlbmEnglish

mkgSI

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2.5 Pressure

- - - - 절대압력(absolute pressure): 완전 진공상태 기준 - 상대압력(gauge pressure): 대기압 기준

A

Fp

psfftlbfinlbfpsiEnglish

mNPaSI

144/144/:

/:

22

2

Pacmkg f

42 108067.9/ 1

zgp

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2.6 Temperature

- 섭씨와 화씨 (Celsius scale and Fahrenheit scale) - 절대온도(absolute temperature)

325

9

)32(9

5

CF

FC

67.459

15.273

FR

CK

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2.7 Heat and power units

- 열(heat, Q)과 일(work, W) - - Btu(British thermal unit): 1 pound의 물을 화씨 1도 올리는데 필요한 열량.

BtuEnglish

mNJSI

:

:

Jkcal 3101868.4 1

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- 현열(sensible heat) - 잠열(latent heat: heat of fusion, heat of vaporization) - 열전달률(heat transfer rate)과 일률(power)

)( 12 ttmcQ

min/000,33:

/:

lbffthpEnglish

sJWSI

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2.8 First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics

dE

dtQ m h

VgZ m h

VgZ W

c v

c v i i

i

i e e

e

e c v

. .

. . . .

2 2

2 2

dS

dt

Q

Tm s m s Sc v c v

i i e e irr. . . .

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2.9 Internal energy, enthalpy, and entropy

- 내부에너지(U): 분자의 운동에너지 - 비내부에너지 (specific internal energy): - 비엔탈피 (specific enthalpy): - 비열(specific heat):

정적비열: 정압비열:

m

Uu

Pvuh

vvv

vT

u

T

U

mT

Q

mc

11

ppp

pT

h

T

H

mT

Q

mc

11

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-온도에 따른 이상기체의 비열

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단위 환산 (conversion of units)

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2.10 The perfect gas

- p-v-T 관계가 이상기체 상태방정식( )을 따르는 기체. - 많은 기체의 경우 압력이 낮아지면 이상기체의 특성을 나타냄. - 완전기체(perfect gas): 비열이 일정한 이상기체 - 상태방정식(Equation of State, EOS): p-v-T의 관계식. - 이상기체 상태방정식(Ideal gas EOS):

RTpv

RTpv

KkmolkJR /314.8 KkgkJM

RR /

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- 이상기체의 내부에너지 및 엔탈피: 온도만의 함수 - 비열이 일정한 경우 - 정압비열과 정적비열의 관계 (isentropic exponent)

2

1 12

2

1 12

dTchh

dTcuu

po

vo

)(

)(

1212

1212

TTchh

TTcuu

po

vo

Rcc vopo

kc

c

vo

po

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2.11 Mixture of perfect gases

- 두종류의 이상기체 x 와 y의 경우 - 분압(partial pressure)

yx

yx

ppp

mmm

TV

,

m

RmRmR

yyxx

n

MnMn

n

mm

n

mM

yyxxyx

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-공기조화에서 습공기는 이상기체인 건조공기와 이상기체인 수증기의 혼합물로 생각함. - 공기의 분자량 및 기체상수 - 공기의 비엔탈피(specific enthalpy):

97.2884.282879.03221.0

n

MnMnM

yyxx

air

Celsius)in (t

[kJ/kg] 004.1 ttch paa

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2.12 Dry Air

-실제가스의 p-v-T 관계를 간단한 compressibility factor(Z)를 이용하여 묘사. -generalized compressibility chart: reduced property를 사용 하여 압축성인자 Z를 구함. - 저압, 고온: Z 1(이상기체)

ideal

real

v

v

RT

pvZ

c

r

c

r

c

rrrv

vv

T

TT

p

pppTzz ,, ),,(

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2.13 Properties of water and steam

- Clapeyron equation: 증기압 곡선을 미분(기울기)형태로 표시함. -포화증기압곡선 (vapor-pressure curve)

fg

fg

fg

fg

sat

sat

Tv

h

v

s

dT

dP

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- 건도(quality); x - 기-액 혼합물의 물성치 specific volume

m

mx

g

fgffgfgf

ggfgggff

xvvvvxvxvvx

m

vmvmm

m

vmvm

m

Vv

)()1(

( )

fgf

fgf

fgf

xsss

xuuu

xhhh

:entropy specific

:energy internal specific

:enthalpy specific

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2.14 Low-pressure water vapor

- 물의 분자량 및 기체상수

- 수증기의 비엔탈피(specific enthalpy):

015.18wM

KkgkJM

RR

w

w /4615.0015.18

314.8

Celsius)in (t

[kJ/kg] 86.12501)0( , ttcChh wvp

o

gwv

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2.15 Thermodynamic properties of refrigerants

- 1법칙 에서 가역과정을 가정하면 - Tds-equation

wqdu

pdvwTdsq ,

Tds du pdv

Tds dh vdp

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2.16 The steady-flow energy equation

- 제1법칙: 에너지 보존 (energy conservation) - 정상상태, 입출구 1개씩인 경우 (steady state, single inlet and single exit)

dE

dtQ m h

VgZ m h

VgZ W

c v

c v i i

i

i e e

e

e c v

. .

. . . .

2 2

2 2

e

eei

ii gZ

VhgZ

Vhwq

220

22

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2

2

221

2

111212

220 gZ

VhgZ

Vhwq

3

2

332

2

222323

220 gZ

VhgZ

Vhwq

4

2

443

2

333434

220 gZ

VhgZ

Vhwq

4

2

444

2

444141

220 gZ

VhgZ

Vhwq

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2.17 The steady-flow entropy equation

-Kelvin-Planck statement: 사이클로 작동하며 하나의 열저장조 (thermal reservoir)와 열교환을 하여 물체를 들어올리는 것(일) 이외의 효과는 발생하지 않는 장치를 구성하는 것은 불가능하다. 열은 100% 일로 변환 할 수 없다.

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-Clausius statement: 사이클로 작동하며 낮은 온도의 물체로부터 높은 온도의 물체로 흐르게 하는 것 이외의 효과는 발생하지 않는 장치를 구성하는 것은 불가능하다. 열은 높은 온도에서 낮은 온도로 흐른다.

-Kelvin-Planck statement와 Clausius statement는 표현 방법이다르나 실제로 동일한 내용을 기술하고 있음.

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-열역학 제2법칙의 정량적인 formulation을 위해 엔트로피( entropy, S)의 개념 도입. - 닫힌계에서 entropy 변화: 열전달과 비가역성에 의해 변화. - Entropy의 정의: - Clausius의 부등식:

0 , gengen SST

QdS

rev

T

QdS

0T

Q

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- 비압축성에 가까운 액체 및 고체의 entropy: 비열이 일정한 경우 - 이상기체(ideal gas) 의 entropy: 비열이 일정한 경우

T

CdTds

2

1 12

T

CdTss

ln1

212

T

TCss

p

dpR

T

dTCds

po ln

1

22

1 12

p

pR

T

dTCss

po

lnln1

2

1

212

p

pR

T

TCss po

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T-s 선도 (T-s Diagram)

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- p-h 선도

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2.18 Heat conduction

열전달의 종류

-전도(conduction) -대류(convection) -복사(radiation)

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전도 열전달

- 평판의 경우 전도 열전달식 - 환형 실린더의 경우 전도 열전달식

x

TTkA

dx

dTkAQx

21

i

o

oi

r

r

TTkLQ

ln

)(2

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2.19 Force convection for internal flows

- Reynols number에 따라 유동의 형태 구분, 층류(laminar flow): 난류(turbulent flow): - 대류열전달식: - 열전달계수(heat transfer coefficient, h)는 Nu-Re,Pr 관계식으로부터 구함. 많은 난류 유동에 대해

Vdd Re

200,2Re0 d

000,10Re d

)( 21 TThAQ

4.03.08.0

023.0

PrRe

k

cVd

k

hd

CNu

p

nm

d

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2.20 Forced convection for external flows

- 평판(Ozisik, ) - 실린더 주변 강제 대류(Whitacker, )

5102Re L

25.0

8.043.0 )9200(RePr36.0

w

Lm

Lk

LhNu

510Re40 d

25.0

4.03/25.0 Pr)Re06.0Re4.0(

w

ddm

dk

dhNu

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2.21 Natural convection for external flows

-수직 평판의 경우 열전달은 Reynolds number보다 Rayleigh number ( )에 지배적으로 영향을 받음. * : volume expansivity, :thermal diffusivity 층류(laminar flow): 난류(turbulent flow): - 수직 평판 자연대류 열전달식(Ozisik, )

THgH

3

Ra

pT

v

1

pρc

810Ra0 H

910Ra H

5102Re L

15/1

153/1

1512/5

5/3

1/4

H 1.0Pr

559.01Ra67.0

H

mH Ra

k

HhNu

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2.22 Natural convection for cavity flows

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2.23 Pool boiling

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2.24 Forced-convection boiling

-Gungor and Winterton(1987), Kandilikar(1999), Shah(1982) 등 다양한 식이 제안되어 있으나 모든 경우에 대해 검증된 식은 없음.

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2.25 Condensation on external surfaces

- 직경 d인 수평 튜브가 수직방향으로 N 개가 겹쳐 있는 경우:

25.023

1

25.0

1 ,79.0

l

llfg gkF

TNd

hFh

Values for F Refrigerant

Temperature(oC)

F1

R-22

24 80.3

38 75.5

68 69.2

Ammonia

24 214.5

38 214

68 214

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2.26 Condensation in internal flows

-Shah(1979), Cavallini and Zecchin(1974), Fujii(1995) 등 다양한 식이 제안되어 있으나 모든 경우에 대해 검증된 식은 없음.

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2.27 Thermal radiation

-흑체(black body): 모든 파장과 모든 방향의 incident radiation을 흡수. - Stefan-Boltzmann law: - Planck’s distribution: - 흑체간의 복사 열전달

1

4TEb

1/

5

1

2

TCbe

CE

2

2

2

1

211

1

4

2

4

1121

111

)(

A

A

F

TTAQ

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- 복사 열전달계수

)( 21 TTAhQ rrad

2

2

2

1

211

1

21

4

2

4

1

111

)/()(

A

A

F

TTTThr

2

2

2

1

211

1

3

111

)(4

A

A

F

Th

avg

r

- 대부분의 HVAC application의 경우

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2.28 Combined modes of heat transfer

( ) ( )

( )

( )

( )

c r c w a r w s

w a

w sc r

w a

q q q h t t h t t

h t t

t th h h

t t

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2.29 Overall transfer of heat

- 관내외의 대류 및 전도에 의한 저항을 모두 고려한 열전달계수 - : 오염계수(fouling factor)

- : log mean temperature difference - 평행류(parallel flow) 또는 대향류(counter-current flow)의 경우

moo TAUQ o

o

i

oo

i

i

o

ii

o

o hf

k

dd

d

fd

d

hd

d

U

1

2

ln1

oi ff and

mT

B

A

BAm

T

T

TTT

ln

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- 1법칙:

- 2법칙:

적분하면 - 위의 두 식에서 q를 소거하면

wgZV

hgZV

hq ee

eii

i )2

()2

(22

gensTqvdpdhTds

e

igen

e

iie sTqvdphh

e

igenLLei

ee

i

i sTwwZZgVV

vdpw

2

2

,)()22

(

2.30 Fluid flow in ducts and pipes

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- 가역과정, 비압축성, w=0을 가정하면: Bernoulli equation

e

e

ei

i

i

ei

ei

ei

gZV

pgZV

p

ZZgVV

ppo

22

)(2

)()(

22

22

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- 비압축성 유체의 경우

LwZZgVVpp

w

)(2

)(21

2

2

2

121

LwZZgVV

ppw

)(2

)()( 21

2

2

2

121

g

wZZ

g

VV

g

pp

g

w L

)(2

)(21

2

2

2

121

: Energy

: Pressure

: Head

- 마찰손실

duct or pipe: minor losses:

2

2V

d

Lfpw LossL

2

2VKpw LossL