Ch. 2 Landscapes and People

1. Time and Space: The Northern Mountains, The Plains, The Peninsula

2. People: Population, Categories of Society, Hunter-gatherers, pastoralists-peasants, Townsfolk

3. Creation of Castes: Varna, Jati

1. Time and Space• The concept of time includes: 1. Cyclical and linear time• Cyclical time is component of cosmology: Mahayuga (great age):

4,320,000 years. • Each mahayuga consists of 4 cycles: Krita, Dvapara, Treta, Kali. • Imagined as a bull: loosing one leg every age. During Kali which is

the present age, the bull is said to be dwelling only on one leg.• Each age brings declining life, time and standard. • Linear time is beginning and end of human history. It can take the

shape of geneology of a clan or dynasty: The human life span of a biography or the innumerable chronicles written to assert the authority of kings and dynasties.

• Linear time is the context for heroes and kings, and for the chronicles of institutions and states.

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India- the country

• The historical identity of the subcontinent from Sanskrit and Iranian sources.

• Hapthindu used in Avesta- The Zoroashtrian text• Saptasindhu• Hindush in Acheamenid inscriptions• Aryavarta- essentially the ganga plain• Hindustan-its modern name• Bharata varsha- in puranas• Arabic sources- al-hind

Cosmology

• Earth as flat and circular with mount meru in the centre- surrounding mount Meru are the four continents (dvipas).

• Southern continent is the Jambudvipa within this is located the country Bharatavarsha.

• Included region from Hindukush to the Peninsula

The Northern Mountains

• Hindu Kush, Sulaiman and Kirthar mountains on the north

• Hindukush- elevated mountains-interface between Oxus and Indus valleys.

• Passes in the north west: Bolan, Gomal and Khyber- Khyber used by the British to control Afghanisthan and limit Russia

• Passes as points of contact between West Asia and India

• The Himalayas: North and east: less communication than west- dangerous passes

• Karakorum highway- via Gilgit, Chitral and Hunza- West Asia- Tibet

• North-West: there was a continual influx of peoples, patterns of living and languages

• North-East more isolated

The Plains

• The rivers of the north get water from Himalayas

• Five rivers- Ravi, Sutlej, Beas, Chenab and Jhelum (Indus group).

• Ganga, Yamuna, Saraswati:

• Saraswati- identified with Gaggar-Hakra- disappeared river

• Brahmaputra river in the east.

The Peninsula

• South of the Vindhya mountains and Narmada river.

• Mountain ranges- east and west- Western ghats and Eastern ghats

• Malabar hills part of the Western ghats- a number of caves- some used by Buddhists as cave temples

• Ajanta- Ellora• Kanheri, Karle

• A number of rivers• Central India- dense forests- region of

tribal concenration• Munda, Oraon, Bhil, Gond, Santhal and

Mina.• Coastal areas: East and West- West more

trade and ports than east• East more fertile as rivers drain into the

Indian ocean.

Population• Full name: Republic of India • Population: 1.1 billion (UN, 2005) • Capital: New Delhi • Area: 3.1 million sq km (1.2 million sq miles), excluding Indian-

administered Kashmir (100,569 sq km/38,830 sq miles) • Major languages: Hindi, English and at least 16 other official

languages • Major religions: Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism, Buddhism,

Jainism • Life expectancy: 62 years (men), 65 years (women) (UN) • Monetary unit: 1 Indian Rupee = 100 paise • Main exports: Agricultural products, textile goods, gems and jewellery,

software services and technology, engineering goods, chemicals, leather products

• GNI per capita: US $720 (World Bank, 2006) • Internet domain: .in • International dialling code: +91

Categories of Societies

• Historically India had been the habitat of many societies: Hunter gatherers, Pastoralists, peasants and townsfolk.

• Seen to be outsiders of the society: On the margins of society in the forests- major battles described in the traditional texts with different groups of these societies

• Grama-village; aranya-forest;• Ksetra- field; vana-forest• Numerous forest societies still exist• Clan

pastoralists

• Some pastoralists were nomadic• Kinship clans with Patriarchy• Rigveda- Aryan nomads- Pastoralists• A number of pastoralists from Central Asia• Parthians, Shakas, Kushans, Huns and Turks.• Cattle-keepers• Religion-shamans• Marriage system- based on kinship bonds

Peasants

• Sedentary, permanent

• Identified by Varnas (class) and not generally clan related

• Linked to the emerging state- provided economic basis to the state

Townspeople

• Linked to rural areas-

• Craft and artisans

• Religion

• Market

• Heterogeneous unlike the village

Creation of castes

• Varna: color. Brahmana, Ksatriya, Vaisya, Sudra• Megasthenes- 7 classes- confused picture• Jati- birth- equivalent to the caste• Jati- exogamy- varna endogamy- marriages• Groups of people coming together as Hindus-

given castes due to their profession.• No individual conversions

Dharmasastras- purity of castes