CFE Higher Geography. Unit Learning Intention Understand the impact and management of rural land...
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Rural Land Degradation “A process in which the value of the biophysical environment is affected by a combination of human- induced processes” “The temporary or permanent lowering of the productive capacity of land (UNEP, 1992b). It thus covers the various forms of soil degradation, adverse human impacts on water resources, deforestation, and lowering of the productive capacity of rangelands acting upon the land.” FAO “Land degradation is caused by multiple forces, including extreme weather conditions particularly drought, and human activities that pollute or degrade the quality of soils and land utility negatively affecting food production, livelihoods, and the production and provision of other ecosystem goods and services.” WHO
Transcript of CFE Higher Geography. Unit Learning Intention Understand the impact and management of rural land...
CFE Higher Geography
Rural
Unit Learning IntentionUnderstand the impact and management of rural land degradation related to a rainforest or semi-arid area within the developing world.
Rural Land Degradation “A process in which the value of the biophysical environment is affected by a combination of human-induced processes”
“The temporary or permanent lowering of the productive capacity of land (UNEP, 1992b). It thus covers the various forms of soil degradation, adverse human impacts on water resources, deforestation, and lowering of the productive capacity of rangelands acting upon the land.” FAO
“Land degradation is caused by multiple forces, including extreme weather conditions particularly drought, and human activities that pollute or degrade the quality of soils and land utility negatively affecting food production, livelihoods, and the production and provision of other ecosystem goods and services.” WHO
• Using the three definitions of rural land degradation to help, create your own definition of rural land degradation.
WE WILL• Describe and explain the main
farming features and methods of Shifting Cultivation
• Explain the population density associated with Shifting Cultivation.
• http://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/higher/geography/human/rural/revision/3/
Population Density and Distribution
• In North Dakota, USA, where the population is 22, 000 people to 6000 km2.
• In comparison, the Amazon Basin only has a few hundred people to the same area.
• Traditionally settlements are dispersed, although some clustering can occur where the people will hunt or farm together.
• Typical settlements consist of leaf-thatched wooden longhouses called Malocas, which are built in a ring pattern allowing protection from animals or to guard against thieves trying to steal their crops. They tend to live in families or tribal groups with 3 to 6 families living under one roof.
Step 1 – With the help of stone axes and matches (low technology), the tribe clear a small area of about 1
hectare of forest.
Sometimes the largest trees are left standing to protect young crops from the suns heat and the heavy rain; so also are those which provide food, such as banana and
kola nut.
Step 2 - After being allowed to dry, the felled trees and undergrowth are burnt (slash & burn cultivation).
Advantages – weeds are removed and ash provides fertiliser.
Disadvantages – useful organic material and bacteria is destroyed.
Step 3 – The main crop manioc, is planted along with yams, pumpkins, beans and tobacco. The diet is supplemented by hunting (mainly for monkey), fishing and collecting fruit.
Manioc
Yams
The productivity of these ‘gardens’ can be very high
Step 4 - Once the forest has been cleared, the nutrient cycle is broken. The heavy afternoon, convectional rainstorms hit the
unprotected earth causing erosion and leaching.
With the source of humus removed, and the absence of fertiliser and animal manure, the ferralitic soils rapidly lose
their fertility.
Step 5 – Move on. Within 4 or 5 years, the decline in crop yields and the re-infestation of the area by weeds force the tribe to shift to another part of the forest.
Although shifting cultivation appears to be a wasteful use of land, it has no long-term adverse effect upon the environment. In most places humus can build up sufficiently to allow the land to be re-used within 25 years if necessary.
Methods• A small area of land is cleared and the vegetation burned,
providing a source of nutrients from the ash.
• For a few years the soil remains sufficiently fertile for the tribe to grow crops.
• When the soil's fertility is exhausted, the tribe moves on and clears another small area of forest.
• The original area is regenerated, as it receives nutrients and seeds from surrounding vegetation.
• As no lasting damage occurs, this method of agriculture is sustainable.
• It is sometimes called 'slash and burn' agriculture.
Soil/Fertiliser
Capital Machinery
LandscapePopulation Labour
Crops
Use the textbook page 251-257, Bitesize notes and internet to expand the spider diagram.
Clearings are made in the rainforest by cutting down and
burning trees.
Ash is used as natural fertiliser.
Some trees are left for protection
from erosion or food (fruits and
nuts).
‘Shifting’ part refers to the practice of moving to another clearing as
the soil becomes exhausted quickly by
heavy rains and lack of fertilisers.
‘cultivation’ part refers to the practice of growing
crops in the clearing such as manioc/yams/cassava.
System is labour intensive with small labour force due
to subsistence nature of system which is unable to
support a large population.
Very low input of capital related to
subsistence nature of system and very
low output as only a tiny proportion of land area required is cultivated at any
one time
Land area required is large as cultivators move from area to area within
forest.
Soil/Fertiliser
Capital Machinery
Landscape
Population Labour
Crops
only a tiny proportion of land area required is cultivated at any one time
Very little or no machinery used
low population density due to large area of land needed
settlements could be fixed (and rotational clearings made around them) or the housing may also be abandoned and left to biodegrade before the tribe returns to the area
supports up to 300million
people worldwide
Lesson Review• Describe the method used by those
using shifting cultivation to clear areas of forest.
• What are the benefits and problems of such a method.
• Describe the environmental impact of deforestation.
WE WILL• Consider the reasons for land
degradation in the Amazon rainforest.
Causes of Land Degradation
• Deforestation• Overgrazing/Cattle ranching• Overcultivation• Mining • HEP
• Satellite data indicates a 190% surge in land clearance in August and September compared with the same period last year as loggers and farmers exploit loopholes in regulations that are designed to protect the world’s largest forest.
• Figures released by Imazon, a Brazilian nonprofit research organisation, show that 402 square kilometres – more than six times the area of the island of Manhattan – was cleared in September.
• Guardian - Deforestation
Cattle Ranching
• http://www.greenpeace.org.uk/blog/forests/how-cattle-ranching-chewing-amazon-rainforest-20090129
Cattle ranching is now the biggest cause of deforestation in the Amazon, and nearly 80 per cent
of deforested areas in Brazil are now used for pasture.
Since 2003, Brazil has also topped the world's beef export charts and the government plans to double its
share of the market by 2018.
Mining• http://
www.survivalinternational.org/tribes/yanomami In the Carajas Mineral Province,
Brazil, maybe the world’s largest copper reserve (iron ore,
manganese and gold are already found there), wood from
surrounding forest is cut for charcoal to fuel pig iron plants,
resulting in annual deforestation of 6,100 km2
90% of fish caught by rural villagers south of gold mining areas of the Tapajós River in Brazil were found to be contaminated with
methyl mercury
Over 1,000 gold-miners are now
working illegally on Yanomami landIn Brazil’s state of Roraima, conflicts
have flared up between the indigenous Yanomamo Indians and
gold prospectors, and the government had to step in with
military intervention to evict miners from Indian lands
HEP
http://amazonwatch.org/work/belo-monte-dam
Plans to build the third-largest dam in the world and one of the Amazon's most controversial development projects – the Belo Monte dam on the Xingu River in the state of Pará.
In order to feed the powerhouse of the Belo Monte dam complex, up to 80% of the Xingu River will be diverted from its original course, causing a permanent drought on the river's "Big Bend," and directly affecting the Paquiçamba and Arara territories of the Juruna and Arara indigenous peoples.
To make this possible, two huge canals 500 meters wide by 75 km long will be excavated, unearthing more land than was removed to build the Panama Canal.
Belo Monte's two reservoirs and canals will flood a total of 668 km2 of which 400 km2 is standing forest. The flooding will also force more than 20,000 people from their homes in the municipalities of Altamira and Vitoria do Xingu.
Timber
http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/news/Blogs/makingwaves/illegal-logging-exposed-in-the-amazon/blog/39820 /
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-16048503
The Brazilian Government designated this area to poor, landless families in the late 90’s. However, the land has suffered invasions from loggers looking to exploit the forest. Although local social movements have worked through the Rural Workers Union to publically denounce the invasions several times, the destruction continues.
The Government’s reaction to the blatant disregard for the designated areas is shocking. Instead of taking action to enforce the protection of these lands and the people living on them, the Government’s proposal is to instead reduce the settlement from its original 52000 hectares to 11000 hectares. Local government has proposed to clear the way for the loggers instead of enforcing forest protection and removing the loggers
Brazil plans to sell logging rights to more than 27 million acres of jungle, the country’s top forest official said last week. Critics call it a dangerous gamble but Brazil’s government says managed logging is an essential alternative to the illegal clear-cutting that has besieged the world’s largest rainforest
The overall area used is approximately 1,000 hectares
(ha) per person.
Yanomami - total population stands at around 32,000.
At over 9.6 million hectares, the Yanomami territory in Brazil is twice the size of
Switzerland. In Venezuela, the Yanomami live in the 8.2 million hectare Alto Orinoco –
Casiquiare Biosphere Reserve. Together, these areas form the largest forested indigenous
territory in the world.
voracity of the Yanomami's hunting practices has in the past been highly exaggerated, taking into
account that upwards of eighty to ninety percent of the food eaten by the Yanomami tribes is from their
gardens
Yanomami Tribe
ActivityYour group will research one cause of land degradation in the Amazon.
• You should include a description and explanation of the activity.
• Facts and figures.
• Then enter your information on the following slide to share with the rest of the class.
Case StudyAmazon
Changes and ImpactMining
• In the Carajas Mineral Province, Brazil, maybe the world’s largest copper reserve (iron ore, manganese and gold are already found there), wood from surrounding forest is cut for charcoal to fuel pig iron plants, resulting in annual deforestation of 6,100 km2
• 90% of fish caught by rural villagers south of gold mining areas of the Tapajós River in Brazil were found to be contaminated with methyl mercury
• In Brazil’s state of Roraima, conflicts have flared up between the indigenous Yanomamo Indians and gold prospectors, and the government had to step in with military intervention to evict miners from Indian lands
Cattle Ranching• Cattle ranching is now the biggest cause of deforestation in the Amazon, and nearly 80 per cent of
deforested areas in Brazil are now used for pasture.
• Since 2003, Brazil has also topped the world's beef export charts and the government plans to double its share of the market by 2018.
HEP• plans to build the third-largest dam in the world and one of the Amazon's most controversial
development projects – the Belo Monte dam on the Xingu River in the state of Pará. • up to 80% of the Xingu River will be diverted from its original course, causing a permanent drought
on the river's "Big Bend," and directly affecting the Paquiçamba and Arara territories of the Juruna and Arara indigenous peoples.
• To make this possible, two huge canals 500 meters wide by 75 km long will be excavated, unearthing more land than was removed to build the Panama Canal. Belo Monte's two reservoirs and canals will flood a total of 668 km2 of which 400 km2 is standing forest. The flooding will also force more than 20,000 people from their homes in the municipalities of Altamira and Vitoria do Xingu.
Logging/Timber
• Brazil plans to sell logging rights to more than 27 million acres of jungle, the country’s top forest official said last week. Critics call it a dangerous gamble but Brazil’s government says managed logging is an essential alternative to the illegal clear-cutting that has besieged the world’s largest rainforest
Reservations/Conservation/settlements
• The Brazilian government created a 5 million hectare mosaic of different kinds of reserves in the Terra do Meio region of Pará state. This connects two existing blocks of indigenous
lands into a continuous corridor of protected tropical forest areas of 24 million hectares, the largest in the Amazon and the world.
Yanomami TribeTotal population stands at around
32,000.
At over 9.6 million hectares, the Yanomami territory in Brazil is twice the size of Switzerland.
of the Yanomami's hunting practices has in the past been highly exaggerated, taking into
account that upwards of eighty to ninety percent of the food eaten by the Yanomami tribes is from their
gardens
Today about 95% of the Yanomami live deep within the Amazon forest as
compared to the 5% who live along the major rivers.
Features and MethodsLandscape
Populationsupports up to 300million people worldwide
Crops manioc, yams, cassava, pumpkins, beans
and tobacco
Soil/Fertiliserthe soil of the Amazon rainforest is very poor
in nutrientsholds only 20% of the nutrients in the forest;
the other 80% are in the trees and plants themselves
Population Densityfew hundred people per 6000sq km.
often less than 1 person per sq.km.
Central Africa
Indonesia and PNG.
Amazon Basin
Additional Information
Human Activity
Description and Explanation Fact/Figure
Deforestation/Logging
Huge areas of land have been cut down for resources , in wood and timber. It will effect many different aspects of the rainforest, for example the indigenous tribes who call the Amazon their home.
Brazil plans to cut down 27 million acres of jungleAn area 6x the size of Manhattan was cleared in September (402 square kilometers)
Overgrazing/Cattle ranching
Huge areas of land have been cleared to make room for cattle, this industry has grown so much Brazil is now the largest cattle herding place in the world.
The size of Portugal has been cleared for cattle ranching in the rainforest.
Overcultivation Overcultivation (overfarming) can cause a lack of nutrients in the soil as it is overused, requiring extensive use of fertilisers. These are potentially environmentally harmful, and can result in agro-chemical pollution. Overfarming also destroys natural habitats and landscapes.
Mining Mining can have an effect on the area’s water drainage, pollute water with run off from the mine and threaten local communities, including indigenous people, by affecting the quality of the food supply.
Increased sediment loads and reduced water flows can adversely affect local fish populations.
HEP Belo Monte Dam on the Xingu River. Affects the Pcquicamba and Arara territories of the Juruna and Arara indigenous people. It will see thousands of people displaced.
It will take up 500 sq km of land. 80% of the river will be diverted from its original course causing drought. It will cost £6.8bn to produce and will produce around 11GW of electricity.
Window Pane - Revision• On an A4 piece of paper split the page down the
middle and in to 5 rows.
• You will draw a picture for each land use and impact.
Reason for Degradation Impact of Degradation
CO2
• Now person A must re-draw all the reasons for rainforest destruction.
• Then person B must draw the problems associated with those problems.
• Now you must both turn the pictures into bullet points.
Rainforest cut down to clear space for cattle ranching
No tree roots to bind soil which leads to soil leaching
Changes• Loss of traditional tribal land due to cattle
ranching, mineral extraction, logging, HEP development
• Change in land use with set
reservations/settlements, National Parks and conservation areas
• Climate change with increasing unpredictability
of drought/flood cycles.
• http://yanomamicatrimani.org/index.php/yanomami
• http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-19556792
• http://www.survivalinternational.org/tribes
Exam Style Question• Referring to either a named
rainforest or a named semi-arid area, explain the human activity contributes to rural land degradation.
6
Lesson Review• Explain how mining causes land
degradation in the Amazon rainforest.
• Give one fact about the rate of destruction of the Amazon rainforest.
WE WILL• Consider the social, economic and
environmental impact of human activities in the Amazon rainforest.
Impact/Damage• Physical/Environmental• Social• Economic
• Sort the cards you have been given in to the following categories.
Social Environmental Economic
Social Environmental/Physical EconomicDestruction of the way of life of the indigenous people eg clashes between the Yanomami and incomers
Adverse effect on the nutrient cycle in the rainforest
Destruction of the formerly sustainable development eg rubber tappers and Brazil Nut collectors
Clashes between competing groups eg the violent death of Chico Mendez allegedly at the behest of ranchers
Leaching of minerals, removal of top soil and increased laterisation
Creation of reservations for indigenous people
Increased surface run-off, flooding and silting up of rivers
Increase in ‘western’ diseases and alcoholism
Loss of biodiversity with danger of extinction in some cases
Rural depopulation with shanty town growth in larger urban areas
Loss of potential life-saving drugs
Pollution from other land users ie mercury used in gold extraction can impact on the health of the locals
Increased risk of climate change
Impact• Population movement into inaccessible areas which are often less fertile
• Rural depopulation with shanty town growth in larger urban areas
• Contact with Western culture can bring diseases, alcohol/drug misuse
• Population densities increase in remaining areas, putting more strain on limited land and a shorter fallow period.
• Decreasing soil fertility and output per hectare
• Soil erosion can take place with the soil choking the rivers reducing fish/wildlife in the area/impact on diet.
• Pollution from other land users ie mercury used in gold extraction can impact on the health of the locals
• Impact of global warming on biodiversity and medicinal cures.
Social and Economic• Destruction of the way of life of the indigenous people
eg clashes between the Yanomami and incomers
• Destruction of the formerly sustainable development eg rubber tappers and Brazil Nut collectors
• Clashes between competing groups eg the violent death of Chico Mendez allegedly at the behest of ranchers
• Creation of reservations for indigenous people
• Increase in ‘western’ diseases and alcoholism
Physical/Environmental• Adverse effect on the nutrient cycle in the rainforest
• Leaching of minerals, removal of top soil and increased laterisation
• Increased surface run-off, flooding and silting up of rivers
• Loss of biodiversity with danger of extinction in some cases
• Loss of potential life-saving drugs
• Increased risk of climate change
Climate Change
• http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/oct/31/amazon-rainforest-deforestation-weather-droughts-report
Discuss the impact of these changes on the people and their environment.
Mining has an major impact on rainforest areas such as the Amazon rainforest. Pollution from large machinery and chemicals is a problem for additional food sources. 90% of fish caught by rural villagers south of gold mining areas of the Tapajós River in Brazil were found to be contaminated with methyl mercury.The building of hydroelectric dams floods large areas of land and forces tribes such as the Yanomami to move from the area. It also damages animal habitats and causes problems for settlements downstream using the water from the river. The flooding for the Belo Monte dam on the Xingu River will also force more than 20,000 people from their homes in the municipalities of Altamira and Vitoria do Xingu.Cattle ranching is now the biggest cause of deforestation in the Amazon, and nearly 80 per cent of deforested areas in Brazil are now used for pasture. Cattle ranching puts pressure on tribes to move from the are and causes soil erosion.The creation of reservations and conservation areas is proving to have a positive impact on protecting areas where shifting cultivation takes place. The Brazilian Government have created a continuous corridor of protected tropical forest areas of 24 million hectares, the largest in the Amazon and the world….
Exam Style Question• Referring to either a named
rainforest or a named semi-arid area, explain social, economic and environmental impacts of rural land degradation.
6
WE WILL• Discuss the different strategies to
control and reduce rural land degradation.
Strategies to Control/reduce degradation
• Agro-forestry
• Crop rotation
• Purchase by conservation groups
• Return to traditional farming
Agroforestry
Agroforestry schemes• Agroforestry is the growing of both trees and agricultural / horticultural
crops on the same piece of land.
• They are designed to provide tree and other crop products and at the same time protect and conserve the soil. It allows the production of diverse crops benefiting both land and peoples.
• Brazil nuts, Capuacu fruit and Babassu (a type of palm tree that is found on secondary forest sites in central and northern Brazil) The fruit from Babassu has a variety of uses for the production of cosmetics, margarine, lubricants and sometimes as a component of diesel-engine fuels.
• Agroforestry is known as one as the most "environmentally-friendly" ways to develop rural areas in the Amazon as it helps reduce deforestation by eradicating the popular slash-and-bum practice.
• Associação dos Pequenos Agrossilvicultores do Projeto (RECA). They assist communities to improve technical ability in agroforestry, reinforce families and enlarge economic opportunity in order to end rural emigration and deforestation. Also, this organization also works with research institutions and governments to offer alternative employment opportunities and to create new markets for organic products.
Agroforestry - Issues• However, it has been found that it may also contribute to
deforestation of the Amazon as farmers extend the clearing of the areas for their plantations because of different factors such as declining of soil fertility, weeds and pests.
• The transportation of these products to global markets requires the construction of new infrastructure in the rainforest. The long distances the agroforestry products have to travel from producers to processing plants and then to the consumers, affects and increases the deforestation of the Amazon, as longer roads need to be built and more trees will need to be cut down in the rainforest.
Purchase by conservation groups
• Conservation groups, both national and international, aim to conserve soils by reforestation and the protection of existing forests
• Amazon Region Protected areas (ARPAs) – created in 2002 by the Brazilian government in partnership with WWF, Brazilian Biodiversity Fund, German Development Bank, Global Environment Facility and World Bank – is a 10 year project aimed at increasing protection of the Amazon.
• By 2008, 32 million hectares of new parks and reserves were created in the Brazilian Amazon under ARPA, among them the 3.88 million-hectare Tumucumaque Mountains National Park, one of the world’s largest national parks.
Selective Tree FellingThis means rather than the whole area being cleared only single mature trees are felled, leaving young trees to grow.
Some schemes work in an area for one year then replace trees that have been felled and leave them to grow for up to 30 years (afforestation).
Selective Tree Felling -Issues
• However, selective tree felling has proved unpopular with commercial logging companies who argue that it costs significantly more than traditional logging. This is because the process can be complicated and may not be as beneficial as first thought because sometimes other trees may need to be felled in order to extract the desired tree.
• Selective logging has been difficult to monitor because, whereas bare patches of deforested land can be easily spotted by satellite, the hallmarks of cutting down some trees but leaving others are harder to spot.
Soil Conservation Strategies
• Different strategies.
• How effective? Small scale
Crop Rotation• The practice of growing different crops in succession
on the same land chiefly to preserve the productive capacity of the soil
• http://www.rainforestconservation.org/rainforest-primer/6-conservation-of-tropical-rainforests/a-means-of-conserving-tropical-rainforests/6-improvement-of-agricultural-methods-and-productivity/
• http://www.economist.com/node/21541033
Sustainable Tourism• BBC Costa Rica sustainability
Exam Style Question• Referring to either a named
rainforest or a named semi-arid area, explain the techniques used to combat rural land degradation.
4
WE WILL• Compare the causes, impacts and
solutions to land degradation in the Amazon rainforest with the situation in Australia.
• As much land has been cleared in the last 50 years in Australia as was cleared in the previous 150 years
• The Australian Conservation Foundation's Michael Krockenberger has said that "native vegetation clearance represents one of the largest contributors to greenhouse emissions in Australia". In 1990, carbon dioxide emissions from forest clearing for agriculture totalled 156 million tonnes, which is some 27.3 percent of Australia's nett emissions in carbon dioxide equivalent.
• About 20% of Australia's known species of flowering plants and conifers are endangered, vulnerable, or threatened with extinction, especially in the south-west of the country and Tasmania.
• Use the article to label the map of Australia to show the levels of and reasons for areas of degradation across Australia.
http://jpe.oxfordjournals.org/content/5/1/109.full
http://www.arf.net.au/content.php?pageid=1265241063
• http://wwf.panda.org/who_we_are/wwf_offices/australia/environmental_problems_in_australia/
• http://rainforests.mongabay.com/deforestation/2000/Australia.htm
RevisionIn pairs make up 3 revision questions for this unit using the following as starters to your question.You should create a basic marking instruction.
• Discuss • To what extent … • How far … • Assess … • Critically examine … • Comment on
Find Someone Who• Split your page into 4 columns.
• By the end of this activity you should have 9 different names written down and answers.
Question Name Answer
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
4. Can describe what rural land degradation is.
1. Can explain two environmental
impacts of rural land degradation.
2. Can explain the two techniques used to combat rural land
degradation
3.Can describe the main features of
Shifting Cultivation
5. Can explain one social impact of
rural land degradation.
6. Can give a case study fact about
mining in the Amazon
7. Can explain one economic impact of
rural land degradation.
8. Can give a case study fact
about cattle ranching in the
Amazon
9. Can describe the impact of increased
mining in the Amazon Rainforest
Past Paper Questions• Remember the past paper questions
will be slightly different from your exam paper as you are completing the new Higher.
2014• For either Africa north of the equator, or
the Amazon Basin:
• (i) explain how human activities, including inappropriate farming techniques, have led to rural land degradation; and
• (ii) describe the consequences of rural land degradation on the people and their environment.
2013• Referring to named locations in
either Africa north of the Equator or the Amazon Basin, describe the impact of land degradation on the people, economy and the environment.
10
ANSWERImpact on people and the economy may include:
• Destruction of the way of life of the indigenous people eg clashes between the Yanomami and incomers
• Destruction of the formerly sustainable development eg rubber tappers and Brazil Nut collectors
• Clashes between competing groups eg the violent death of Chico Mendez allegedly at the behest of ranchers
• Creation of reservations for indigenous people
• Increase in ‘western’ diseases and alcoholism
Environmental effects may include:
• Adverse effect on the nutrient cycle in the rainforest
• Leaching of minerals, removal of top soil and increased laterisation
• Increased surface run-off, flooding and silting up of rivers
• Loss of biodiversity with danger of extinction in some cases
• Loss of potential life-saving drugs
• Increased risk of climate change
2013• For named areas in North America
and Africa north of the Equator or the Amazon Basin:
• (i) describe and explain soil conservation strategies that have reduced land degradation;
• (ii) comment on the effectiveness of these strategies.
20
ANSWER• For Agroforestry schemes – Agroforestry is the growing of both
trees and agricultural / horticultural crops on the same piece of land. They are designed to provide tree and other crop products and at the same time protect and conserve the soil. It allows the production of diverse crops benefiting both land and peoples.
• For Purchase by conservation groups – conservation groups, both national and international, aim to conserve soils by reforestation and the protection of existing forests eg the Amazon Region Protected areas (ARPAs) – created in 2002 by the Brazilian government in partnership with WWF, Brazilian Biodiversity Fund, German Development Bank, Global Environment Facility and World Bank – is a 10 year project aimed at increasing protection of the Amazon. By 2008, 32 million hectares of new parks and reserves were created in the Brazilian Amazon under ARPA, among them the 3.88 million-hectare Tumucumaque Mountains National Park, one of the world’s largest national parks.
2012• Select two causes of land degradation from
North America and two from either the Amazon Basin or Africa north of the Equator.
• Referring to named areas, explain how these human activities have contributed to land degradation.
ANSWERFor Mining – there are large deposits of gold, bauxite, iron ore, tin ore and diamonds in the Amazon Basin. In order to extract these minerals, large areas of the forest have been cleared. For instance, about one-sixth of Brazil’s tropical rainforest (900,000 km2) has been cleared to mine the high quality iron ore found there. These mining activities have caused irreparable damage to large areas of land with gold mining methods poisoning soil and rivers. Tin miners rely heavily on hydraulic mining techniques, blasting away at river banks with high-powered water cannons and clearing forests to expose potential tin deposits, leaving land totally degraded.
For HEP – The great rivers of the Amazon basin have a huge potential energy in the form of hydro-electric power. The Brazilian government had built 31 dams in the Amazon region by 2010. The amount of irreversible environmental damage they cause is huge. After the dam is built, the land slowly floods, driving the native Indians away from the river and eventually drowning their village and destroying the entire forest in the valley, endangering animal and plant species, sometimes making them extinct.
Select two soil conservation strategies from North America and two from either the Amazon Basin or Africa north of the Equator.Referring to named areas:• (i) describe your chosen methods and explain how
they help to conserve soil in rural areas;• (ii) comment on the effectiveness of each of your
chosen methods.
ANSWER• For Agroforestry schemes – Agroforestry is the growing of both trees
and agricultural/horticultural crops on the same piece of land. They are designed to provide tree and other crop products and at the same time protect and conserve the soil. It allows the production of diverse crops benefiting both land and peoples.
• For Purchase by conservation groups – conservation groups, both national and international, aim to conserve soils by reforestation and the protection of existing forests eg the Amazon Region Protected areas (ARPAs) – created in 2002 by the Brazilian government in partnership with WWF, Brazilian Biodiversity Fund, German Development Bank, Global Environment Facility and World Bank – is a 10-year project aimed at increasing protection of the Amazon. By 2008, 32 million hectares of new parks and reserves were created in the Brazilian Amazon under ARPA, among them the 3.88 million-hectare Tumucumaque Mountains National Park, one of the world’s largest national parks.
2011• For either Africa north of the
equator, or the Amazon Basin, explain how human activities including deforestation, overgrazing, overcultivation and any other inappropriate farming techniques have led to land degradation.
ANSWER• Deforestation – for eg ranching/mineral
extraction/logging/road building/poor peasant farmers.• Loss of protective cover of trees due to deforestation. This
allows heavy tropical rainfall to erode the soil.• Exposure to increased sunlight due to deforestation leads
to the soil baking and becoming useless.• The loss of the root system which previously bound the
soil together.• Deforestation also leads to increased leaching of the soil
rendering it useless in addition to erosion.• The impact of ranching: forest cleared, used for a few
years until grass fails – move and clear a new stretch of forest and continue the process.
2010• Describe and explain how human
activities have caused land degradation in North America and either Africa north of the Equator or the Amazon Basin.
16
• Referring to named locations in either Africa north of the Equator or the Amazon Basin, describe the impact of land degradation on the people and economy.
10
ANSWER• Destruction of the way of life of the indigenous people eg
clashes between the Yanomami and incomers.• Destruction of the formerly sustainable development eg
rubber tappers and Brazil Nut collectors.• Clashes between various competing groups eg the violent
death of Chico Mendez allegedly at the behest of ranchers.• Reduction of fallow period leading to reduced yields with
obvious consequences for the dependent population.• Creation of reservations for indigenous people.• Increase in ‘western’ diseases.• Increase in alcoholism amongst indigenous population.• People have been displaced and forced into crowded cities
ending up living in favelas.
Explain the methods of combatting land degradation in rainforest areas of a developed and a developing country.
To do this you will have to:• Explain the process of land degradation in rainforest areas
of two countries you have studied.
• Explain the issues involved in managing the degradation.
• Include detailed description of both the issue of land degradation and the methods you have chosen to explain.
• Refer to examples from both a developed and a developing country.
In the rainforests of both Australia and Brazil, the process of land degradation refers to the cutting down of trees which is called deforestation. Deforestation is different to forest management because new trees are not planted to replace the ones that are cut down. Even if enough trees were planted, hardwood grows slowly and the rate of logging is too fast.
Deforestation can cause permanent damage because as well as the loss of eg hardwood timber, rare plants, animals, birds and insects there is also a reduction in oxygen given off by trees. This means there will be fewer trees to stop the ‘Greenhouse Effect’. (AS 2.2) Both in Brazil and Australia they have tried to control deforestation using selective tree felling. This means rather than the whole area being cleared only single mature trees are felled, leaving young trees to grow. Some schemes work in an area for one year then replace trees that have been felled and leave them to grow for up to 30 years (afforestation).
However, selective tree felling has proved unpopular with commercial logging companies who argue that it costs significantly more than traditional logging. This is because the process can be complicated and may not be as beneficial as first thought because sometimes other trees may need to be felled in order to extract the desired tree. (AS 2.3)
