Certificate IV in TESOL – Additional Units Print Version · Certificate IV in TESOL –...

Certificate IV in TESOL – Additional Units Print Version

Table of Contents:

TUTIC4U1 – Use Advanced Grammar Skills in Language TeachingUT....................................................2

TUTIC4U2 – Use Language and Culture Theories in Lesson PlanningUT .............................................29

TUTIC4U3 – Incorporate Methodology Theory into Lesson PlanningUT ...............................................35

TUTIC4U4 – Use Knowledge of Second Language Acquisition (SLA) Theory in Lesson PlanningUT 41

TUTIC4U5 – Observe and Analyse Whole LessonsUT ............................................................................61

TUTIC4U6 – Teach ESL IndependentlyUT ................................................................................................64

SUBMISSION OF WORK

� You must download a Word document template for EACH of these six units.

� Each Word document can be found on the FIRST ONLINE PAGE of each unit.

� Save the downloaded Word document to your computer or disk. All tasks need to be submitted within these templates.

� Save the document using a clear and descriptive title, such as your name and the name of the unit.

� You will email each Word document to the unit coordinator once you complete all tasks.

Teach International Pty Ltd www.teachinternational.com Copyright © 2010

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TIC4U1 – Use Advanced Grammar Skills in Language Teaching

Requisites for this unit: � Grammar text:

Grammar reference book At this point in your training, you need a grammar reference book. If you do not yet have a grammar book, you should buy one now! Visit a bookstore where there are ESOL resources for sale and ask for teachers’ grammar reference books (University bookstores are a good place to start). There are suggested Grammar reference books on page 124 of your TESOL manual. Have a look for one that you feel helps you. Try: – Practical English Usage (3rd Edition) by Michael Swan, OUP. – Grammar for English Language Teachers: With exercises and a key by Martin Parrot. CUP. ISBN: 9780521477970 – A Practical English Grammar (4th Edition) by A.J. Thomson & A.V. Martinet, OUP. ISBN: 9780194313421 If you also need a simpler grammar book, useful for setting student homework and for your own understanding of levels, try: – Essential Grammar in Use Edition With Answers : A Self-Study Reference and Practice Book for Elementary Students of English (Paperback) by Raymond Murphy, CUP. – English Grammar In Use with Answers and CD ROM : A Self-study Reference and Practice Book for Intermediate Students of English by Raymond Murphy, Cambridge. ISBN: 9780521532891 If you want something in between the above options, have a look at: – Oxford Practice Grammar Basic, OUP. – Oxford Practice Grammar Intermediate, OUP. – Oxford Practice Grammar Advanced, OUP.

� Recommended: The Print Version of Teach International’s Grammar Course Online � Useful: It will be very helpful to have access to the Internet for research purposes.

Table of Contents: Part 1 – Words: Adverbs Part 2 – Verbs: Multi-word Verbs Part 3 – Sentence Constituents: Passive Constructions Part 4 – Complex Sentences: Relative Clauses

Introduction Yes, yes… I know what you’re thinking: “Grammar, again?! Noooooo!” This unit of the Certificate IV in TESOL will cover some elements of grammar in depth. The main purpose of this unit is for you, the ESL teacher, to be able to find appropriate and clear explanations for particular grammar problems using the recommended text. It is NOT our intention for you to learn everything there is to know about grammar through study of this unit! The most important thing is to provide you with the tools so that you are able to do this for yourself, using the resources available. This unit is also hands-on. This means we will show you how, and then it will be your turn. You will need to submit short assignments using the prescribed text, or other appropriate sources. We are assuming that you are comfortable with the content in the Teach International Grammar Online Course, so if you are not… start reviewing! In this unit we will be covering different aspects of grammar, namely: words, verbs, sentence constituents and complex sentences. Remember there are seldom definite answers about grammar. One grammarian may have a different opinion from another grammarian. In fact, one ESL teacher may think differently on a grammar topic to another one, and so on. The most important thing, as teachers, is to think about our students!


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Bear in mind also that this unit focuses on advanced grammar. You may already be familiar with some of the concepts here; in fact, low level students will likely know some of them too. However, here we go into specific issues ESL students may have. You will learn how to:

� Study and understand grammatical points / structures on your own, by referring to grammar resources � Provide clear explanations

� Prepare and/or adapt simple exercises for students focusing on a particular difficulty

Let’s get started!


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Part 1 – Words: Adverbs

Words But we are talking about grammar, why are we including ‘words’? Often grammar and words are thought of as separate, when indeed they are not. Whenever we learn a new word, we also learn something about its grammar, or its construction. We need to know the word’s class, for example, is it a noun, adjective, adverb, etc.? Knowing this will determine what other words we can combine it with, and also, in what order we put words together. For example: He drove slowly down the dirt road. NOT: He drove slow down the dirt road. Why? Because we use adverbs (first example) to describe verbs or actions, not adjectives (second example) An example of uses of adverbs and adjectives in every day conversation. Level: Intermediate – Upper Intermediate Topic: Talking about other people Communicative Aim: Students will be able to talk about other people with emphasis. Grammar/Linguistic Aim: adverb or adjectives A: Wasn't that a great show? B: Yes. I liked that song the lead singer sang at the end. A: Yes, it was great. Didn't she sing it beautifully? [Adjective | Adverb] B: Sorry, I didn't catch that? A: I said, didn't she sing it so beautifully? [Adverb] B: Oh, yes. A: Sometimes you just don't listen! B: Hang on. You've got a very quiet voice. [Adjective] A: Yes, yes, well. B: Hey there's Sue. Look at that dress. A: Yeah, she dresses terribly, doesn't she? [Adverb] B: Her clothes are really flashy. A: Well, maybe. It's a matter of taste, isn't it?

He drove slowly down the dirt road. NOT: He drove slowly down the road dirt. Why? Because generally adjectives come before the noun they describe. An example of the Position of adjectives seen in every day conversation. Level: Intermediate – Upper Intermediate Topic: Talking about others Communicative Aim: Students will be able to discuss others developing relationships. Grammar/Linguistic Aim: Position of adjectives A: Hey have you heard? B: What? A: Henry and Claire are an item. B: What? A: Yep, they went out to dinner the other night – at a quiet restaurant. B: So? A: It’s a quiet, romantic restaurant! B: Okay, I see. A: I think Henry is feeling romantic these days. B: How do you mean? A: He usually talks about soccer a lot. Now the subject always comes back to Claire.


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The following table shows words that belong to different grammatical classes:

[Adapted from “Grammar for English Language Teachers” by Martin Parrott, 2002, p. 5]

In this section we will focus on: Adverbs. We will use some of the others for your tasks. * An example of the Position of adverbs seen in every day conversation. Level: Intermediate – Upper Intermediate Topic: Getting places and getting things done Communicative Aim: Students will be able to discuss habits and deadlines. Grammar/Linguistic Aim: Position of adverbs A: How do you get to work? B: I usually come in by train. A: Why don’t you always? B: The station is a bit far from my house, so otherwise I’ll get the bus. A: Depends on the weather then? B: Yes, and how I feel on the day. A: I have occasionally used the bus. B: By the way, that report you are working on? A: Yes? B: It should have been completely done by Tuesday. A: Yes, I know. B: Have you finished it yet? A: Today.

Adverbs What are they? Adverbs are difficult to define. It is usually quite easy to define what a noun or an adjective is, but when it comes to adverbs, it is generally clearer and more accurate to define categories of adverbs. “An adverb is a word that gives information about how, when, where, or in what circumstances something happens” (Collins Cobuild English Usage, 1992). Martin Parrott (2002) thinks of adverbs as a ‘dustbin’ term, meaning that if words do not fit into the category of noun, adjective, verb or preposition, then they can be categorised together as adverbs. Here is a table to show you the main categories of adverbs:

Categories

Examples

Adverbs of frequency sometimes; never

Adverbs of manner quickly; madly

Adverbs of time and place * there; now

Adverbs of degree very; incredibly; quite

Adverbs of relative time yet; shortly; recently

Adverbs of quantity a bit; a lot

Adverbs of focusing only; as well; even

Adverbs of attitude markers seemingly; luckily

[Adapted from “Grammar for English Language Teachers”]

Class: Examples:

Nouns: Adjectives: Adverbs *: Quantifiers: Comparative forms: Superlative forms: Prepositions: Verbs:

Pen[s], child[ren], nature, rice, love Difficult, pretty, probable, narrow-minded Slowly, often, very, regularly Some, a few, a little, every. Cheaper, fewer, more intelligent Cheapest, fewest, most intelligent On, under, behind, for, from Eat, sleeping, be, have, should, gone


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* An example of Adverbs of time and place seen in every day conversation. Level: Intermediate – Upper Intermediate Topic: Planning a meeting Communicative Aim: Students will be able to nail down arrangements. Grammar/Linguistic Aim: Adverbs of time and place A: We're meeting up with Bob for lunch today, right? [time] B: Oh, yes, I'd nearly forgotten. A: Where. B: Not sure. A: We are meeting him in front of the Town Hall, by the entrance. [place | place] B: Okay. A: There is a restaurant nearby called Fantastico. [place] B: Let's go there then. [time] A: Fine with me. B: I'll give Bob a call and let him know. A: Okay, good. B: Catch up later. A: Yes, bye. An example of Adverbs of time (yet, still and already) seen in every day conversation. Also this would be the Target Language stage of a lesson plan. Level: Intermediate – Upper Intermediate Topic: Bills Communicative Aim: Students will be able to discuss paying bills Grammar/Linguistic Aim: adverbs of time (yet, still and already) NOTE: yet, still and already need to be taught separately from other adverbs of time as they have their own peculiarities. A: Sarah isn't home yet. B: Yes, I know. She's still at work. A: She's left a note. B: Yes, I already know that. I mean to say – she's becoming a bit of a workaholic, these days. A: She's trying to clear her visa card – that's why she's doing the overtime. B: Oh, I see. A: I hate credit cards. B: Me too. I've been trying to pay mine off for a year and I still haven't got it under $2,000. A: By the way. B: What? A: I've already sorted out that power bill. B: Good on you. Thanks. A: We'll have the phone bill too. B: Yes, but it hasn't come yet, so no worries.


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How do we form adverbs? Many adverbs are formed by adding –ly to an adjective. For example:

Adjective Adverb

crazy crazily slow slowly possible possibly careful carefully

This is not ALWAYS the case, though. Some adverbs NOT ending in –ly are: often, fast, well, etc. On the other hand, there are other words which end in –ly which are NOT adverbs. The most common example is friendly. Have a look at the following example: Correct: She is friendly. (friendly here is an adjective, modifying the pronoun ‘She’) Incorrect: She waved at him really friendly. (This use of friendly is incorrect; we would normally just say ‘in a friendly way’ or ‘in a friendly manner’) Not only that, but friendly does not have an adverb equivalent! This is one of the major difficulties ESL students encounter with adverbs: when an adjective they know well cannot be ‘turned’ into an adverb. Other examples of this are: difficult, lively, manly, leisurely, etc.

See the following examples:

Incorrect: He sings very lively. Incorrect: They welcomed us very friendly. Teach students how to correctly use these words. Correct: He sings in a lively manner/way/fashion. Correct: They welcomed us in a very friendly way/manner/fashion. The following is a simple exercise you could give upper intermediate students to help them with this particular difficulty. Remember you still want to make sure these higher level activities should be interactive and student-centred, so getting them to work in pairs or groups is really important.

Exercise Give students the following sentences. Demonstrate that you want them to:

- Decide whether the use of adverbs is correct or incorrect. Find any mistakes regarding adjectives with no adverb form.

- Determine which words are adverbs (of any category). - Provide an alternative way to use any adjectives with no adverb form correctly.

1. That movie was totally awesome! 2. They moved through the jungle expertly yet leisurely. 3. The party was really happening and the host greeted us extremely friendly. 4. Many people thought his speech was politically damaging. 5. The house was very small so they could hardly fit all their furniture in. 6. The show featured Tarzan running very manly. 7. They had met previously, but very briefly. 8. She stumbled difficult along the narrow tunnel.


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Key: 1. Correct. Adverbs: totally 2. Incorrect. ‘Leisurely’ is an adjective with no adverb form. ‘Expertly’ is an adverb. Could be said: They moved through the jungle expertly yet at a leisurely pace. 3. Incorrect: ‘friendly’ is an adjective with no adverb form. ‘really’ and ‘extremely’ are adverbs. Could be changed to: The party was really happening and the host greeted us in an extremely friendly fashion. 4. Correct. Adverbs: politically 5. Correct. Adverbs: very; hardly. 6. Incorrect. ‘Manly’ is an adjective with no adverb form. ‘Very’ is an adverb. Could be changed to: The show featured Tarzan running in a very manly way. 7. Correct. Adverbs: ‘previously’, ‘very’ and ‘briefly’ 8. Incorrect: ‘Difficult’ is an adjective with no adverb form. Could be changed to: She stumbled with difficulty along the narrow tunnel. (Note: you could say ‘in a difficult manner’ but that would sound a bit awkward, whereas ‘with difficulty’ is much more common)

This exercise is focusing only on recognition of adverbs and specifically on those adjectives often used as adverbs incorrectly because they have no direct adverb form. As a follow up, you could ask students to come up with new sentences using those adjectives as adverbs so they can incorporate the common phrases used, such as in a leisurely way / manner / fashion / pace etc.

Your turn

Assessment Task 1 Now it is your turn. This is the first of four assessment tasks for this unit. This task will show you that you can intuitively manipulate real use of English, while maintaining a focus on a particular grammar point. Also, it is to show you how to keep track of the communication involved. Task 1.1-5: Partly reword the dialogues that are provided in this unit by changing some (15% or more) of the words. Do not change the Target Language, which is in bold. After you do that check that the revised dialogue uses the same Communicative aims and if it doesn't, change the wording of the communicative aim. If the communicative aim stays the same then leave it as it is. This is not a hard task, but it is here to get you practising developing spoken texts for teaching while controlling the grammar communicative aims. Complete this task in the appropriate box in your downloaded Word document. An example of uses of adverbs or adjectives in every day conversation. Also this would be the Target Language stage of a lesson plan. Level: Intermediate – Upper Intermediate Topic: Talking about other people Communicative Aim: Students will be able to talk about other people with emphasis. Grammar/Linguistic Aim: adverb or adjectives A: Wasn't that a great show? B: Yes. I liked that song the lead singer sang at the end. A: Yes, it was great. Didn't she sing it beautifully? [Adjective | Adverb] B: Sorry, I didn't catch that? A: I said, didn't she sing it so beautifully? [Adverb] B: Oh, yes.


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A: Sometimes you just don't listen! B: Hang on. You've got a very quiet voice. [Adjective] A: Yes, yes, well. B: Hey there's Sue. Look at that dress. A: Yeah, she dresses terribly, doesn't she? [Adverb] B: Her clothes are really flashy. [Note 3 – flashy is an adjective and 'really' is an adjective intensifying 'flashy'] A: Well, maybe. It's a matter of taste, isn't it? NOTE 1: An adjective (beautiful) describes a noun (song) It's a beautiful song. The man had a quiet voice. Claire wears expensive clothes. The runners made a slow start. NOTE 2: An adverb (beautifully) describes a verb (sang) She sang beautifully. The man spoke quietly. Claire dresses expensively. They started the race slowly. NOTE 3: We can use adverbs in other ways. A adverb like 'really' or 'very' can be combined with an adjective (hot) or another adverb (carefully). In this sense the adverb is acting to intensify (Andrew checked his work 'very' carefully). Ref: Oxford Practice Grammar Intermediate, by John Eastwood. OUP

An example of the Position of adjectives seen in every day conversation. Also this would be the Target Language stage of a lesson plan. Level: Intermediate – Upper Intermediate Topic: Talking about others Communicative Aim: Students will be able to discuss others developing relationships. Grammar/Linguistic Aim: Position of adjectives A: Hey have you heard? B: What? A: Henry and Claire are an item. B: What? A: Yep, they went out to dinner the other night – at a quiet restaurant. [Note 1] B: So? A: It’s a quiet, romantic restaurant! [Note 2] B: Okay, I see. A: I think Henry is feeling romantic these days. [Note 1] B: How do you mean? A: He usually talks about soccer a lot. Now the subject always comes back to Claire. NOTE 1: There are three places where we can use an adjective: before a noun (a quiet restaurant), after a linking verb (feeling romantic), and after the 'be' verb e.g., I am hot. NOTE 2: We can use two or more adjectives together (It’s a quiet, romantic restaurant). In this case they must be separated by a comma. We can put a word like very or quite before an adjective. (It was a very dark night). (Henry was feeling quite romantic) Ref: Oxford Practice Grammar Intermediate, by John Eastwood. OUP An example of the Position of adverbs seen in every day conversation. Also this would be the Target Language stage of a lesson plan. Level: Intermediate – Upper Intermediate Topic: Getting places and getting things done Communicative Aim: Students will be able to discuss habits and deadlines. Grammar/Linguistic Aim: Position of adverbs A: How do you get to work?


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B: I usually come in by train. [Note 1] A: Why don’t you always? B: The station is a bit far from my house, so otherwise I’ll get the bus. A: Depends on the weather then? B: Yes, and how I feel on the day. A: I have occasionally used the bus. [Note 1] B: By the way, that report you are working on? A: Yes? B: It should have been completely done by Tuesday. [Note 2] A: Yes, I know. B: Have you finished it yet? A: Today. NOTE 1: Where adverbs are in the middle of a sentence, they usually go before the main verb (unless it is be) and after the first auxiliary verb. NOTE 2: However if the adverb says how something is done, and appears in the middle of the sentence, it usually goes after all the auxiliary verbs. Ref: Oxford Practice Grammar Intermediate, by John Eastwood. OUP An example of Adverbs of time and place seen in every day conversation. Also this would be the Target Language stage of a lesson plan. Level: Intermediate – Upper Intermediate. Topic: Planning a meeting. Communicative Aim: Students will be able to nail down arrangements. Grammar/Linguistic Aim: Adverbs of time and place A: We're meeting up with Bob for lunch today, right? [time] B: Oh, yes, I'd nearly forgotten. A: Where. B: Not sure. A: We are meeting him in front of the Town Hall, by the entrance. [place | place] B: Okay. A: There is a restaurant nearby called Fantastico. [place] B: Let's go there then. [time] A: Fine with me. B: I'll give Bob a call and let him know. A: Okay, good. B: Catch up later. A: Yes, bye. Adverbs and adverbial phrases of place and time usually go at the end position of a sentence. We're meeting by the entrance. Is there a phone by nearby? People didn't have cars then. Trevor wasn't very well last week. Did you have a nice time in New York? I'll see you before very long. Ref: Oxford Practice Grammar Intermediate, by John Eastwood. OUP NOTE: Yet, still and already as adverbs of time are a bit different and needs to be covered separately to avoid confusion.

An example of Adverbs of time (yet, still and already) seen in every day conversation. Also this would be the Target Language stage of a lesson plan. Level: Intermediate – Upper Intermediate. Topic: Bills. Communicative Aim: Students will be able to discuss paying bills. Grammar/Linguistic Aim: Adverbs of time (yet, still and already) NOTE: yet, still and already need to be taught separately from other adverbs of time as they have their own


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peculiarities. A: Sarah isn't home yet. B: Yes, I know. She's still at work. [Note 2] A: She's left a note. B: Yes, I already know that. I mean to say – she's becoming a bit of a workaholic, these days.[Note 2] A: She's trying to clear her visa card – that's why she's doing the overtime. B: Oh, I see. A: I hate credit cards. B: Me too. I've been trying to pay mine off for a year and I still haven't got it under $2,000.[Note 3] A: By the way. B: What? A: I've already sorted out that power bill.[Note 4] B: Good on you. Thanks. A: We'll have the phone bill too. B: Yes, but it hasn't come yet, so no worries.[Note 5] Note 1: Yet means that we are expecting something. Still means 'going on longer than expected'. Already means 'sooner than expected'. Note 2: In a POSITIVE statement still and already usually go in the 'middle' position. Sarah isn't home yet. She's still at work. We wrote a month ago, and were still waiting for a reply. I've only been at work an hour, and I'm already exhausted There's no need to tell me. I already know. NOTE 3: We can also use still in a NEGATIVE statement. It goes before haven't, can't, etc. It's nearly lunch-time, and you still haven't opened your mail. My friend is sixteen and she still can't swim. NOTE 4: In a QUESTION still and already usually go after the subject. Are you still waiting after this all this time? Has Tom already been on holiday. Note 5: Yet usually goes at the 'end' of a NEGATIVE statement or a QUESTION. Vicky has got a present, but she hasn't opened it yet. Wait a minute. I'm not ready yet. Have they sent you your computer yet? ~ No, not yet. I should get it next week. Ref: Oxford Practice Grammar Intermediate, by John Eastwood. OUP


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Part 2 – Verbs: Multi-word Verbs

Verbs: What are they and what do they do? We use verbs for many different purposes. We may have learnt in school that verbs are ‘action’ words or ‘doing’ words (eg. cook, run), and that is correct, but only partially. We use verbs to express other functions as well, like relationships (eg. belong, rely), existence (eg. be, become) and mental processes and conditions (eg. infer, sympathise, trust). There are different types of verbs, and they can be divided into many categories, but we will not get into that here (and of course, different grammarians have different opinions about this too!). What we will do is focus on one type of verb, and then it will be your turn!

Multi-word Verbs What are they? You may remember from the Grammar course online something called Phrasal Verbs. This is another term for ‘Multi-word’ verbs. Multi-word verbs are formed by combining a verb (such as break, drop, walk, etc.) with a particle; not a dust particle! Rather, “particles are words we use as adverbs and/or prepositions in other contexts” (Parrott, 2002) (such as in, out, up, etc.). Some examples are: drop in: He dropped in unannounced. break up: She will break up with him tomorrow. come around: They don’t understand now, but they will come around eventually. And many, many more. One of the major difficulties for students is the fact that multi-word verbs have a meaning all of their own, that is, a different meaning from the verb and particles which form them. Think about these examples: Verb: drop Particle: in / out / by / back / off / The verb ‘drop’ when combined with each of the particles above makes a multi-word verb with a whole new meaning. Sometimes the meaning of the multi-word is similar to that of the verb (eg. come in, move in, etc.) so students are able to infer the meaning, but many times, the meaning is completely different. You can see how difficult this can be for ESL students. Also, sometimes one multi-word verb can have more than one meaning: ‘You walked in as I was breaking up with my boyfriend!’ ‘I can’t hear you, you are breaking up; I will call you back.’ Finally, some multi-word verbs have single verb equivalents (not all of them) which can help students understand their meaning. For example: drop in = visit come up with = create / develop find out = discover stand for = represent One of the most common difficulties for ESL students is not being able to recognise multi-word verbs. This is especially problematic when the meaning cannot be distinguished from the individual components of the multi-word verb. It is common for students to think that each word has its own independent meaning. See the following example:


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He looked down the hallway for another door. (Students may interpret ‘look down’ as a direction in which he was looking). An example of Multi-word Verbs/Phrasal Verbs (on/off/out with verbs of movement) seen in every day conversation. Also this would be the Target Language stage of a lesson plan. Level: Intermediate – Upper Intermediate Topic: Airports Communicative Aim: Students will be able to talk about forthcoming flights. Grammar/Linguistic Aim: Multi-word Verbs/Phrasal Verbs (on/off/out/through with verbs of movement) A: Look out! B: Oh, yeah. It's hard getting used to driving on the left. A: Watch out! B: Yes, I saw her. A: We're running out of time, you know. The flight takes off in one hour. B: Yeah, but it's domestic and I printed out the boarding passes for us. A: Really. B: Yes, we can just go through then, since we've only got carry-on luggage. A: It's a great system that - being able to print your own boarding pass. B: Absolutely. An example of Multi-word Verbs/Phrasal Verbs (followed by prepositions) seen in every day conversation. Also this would be the Target Language stage of a lesson plan. Level: Intermediate – Upper Intermediate Topic: Relationships Communicative Aim: students will be able to talk with friends about changes in a relationship. Grammar/Linguistic Aim: Multi-word Verbs/Phrasal Verbs (followed by prepositions) A: I've told you before, he isn't good for you. B: I know, I know. I need to get away from him. A: Actually, last week we broke up again, but... B: Don't tell me? A: Well, you know. He phoned me up on the weekend and.. B: Yes, yes, I know the rest. Sometimes, I can't keep up with you. A: On Sunday we went out to a party, and... B: Yes, I can guess. A: So we're back together again and guess what? B: What?

Multi-word verbs are everywhere and we use them all the time! Just read an article in the newspaper or a magazine, or a paragraph in a book you may be reading… count how many multi-word verbs you find… you will be surprised!

Your turn

Assessment Task 2 Now it is your turn. This is the first of four assessment tasks for this unit. This task will show you that you can intuitively manipulate real use of English, while maintaining a focus on a particular grammar point. Also, it is to show you how to keep track of the communication involved. Task 2.1-3: Partly reword the dialogues that are provided in this unit by changing some (15% or more) of the words. Do not change the Target Language, which is in bold. After you do that check that the revised dialogue uses the same Communicative aims and if it doesn't, change the wording of the communicative aim. Complete this task in the appropriate box in your downloaded Word document.


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An example of Multi-word Verbs/Phrasal Verbs (on/off/out with verbs of movement) seen in every day conversation. Also this would be the Target Language stage of a lesson plan. Level: Intermediate – Upper Intermediate Topic: Airports Communicative Aim: Students will be able to talk about forthcoming flights. Grammar/Linguistic Aim: Multi-word Verbs/Phrasal Verbs (on/off/out/through with verbs of movement) A: Look out! B: Oh, yeah. It's hard getting used to driving on the left. A: Watch out! B: Yes, I saw her. A: We're running out of time, you know. The flight takes off in one hour. B: Yeah, but it's domestic and I printed out the boarding passes for us. A: Really. B: Yes, we can just go through then, since we've only got carry-on luggage. A: It's a great system that - being able to print your own boarding pass. B: Absolutely. Note: Carry-on is an adjective NOTE 1: We often use on/off/out/through etc. with verbs of movement. For example: get on, take on, move on, drive off, jump off, take off, move off, speed off, run off move out, run out, take out, speak out move through, run through But often the second word (on/off/out/through etc) gives a special meaning to the verb, for example: break down = the engine stopped working look out (= be careful) take off (= went into the air) run out (= something is finished) Ref: English Grammar in Use: Intermediate, by Raymond Murphy. CUP

An example of Multi-word Verbs/Phrasal Verbs (followed by prepositions) seen in every day conversation. Also this would be the Target Language stage of a lesson plan. Level: Intermediate – Upper Intermediate Topic: Relationships Communicative Aim: students will be able to talk with friends about changes in a relationship. Grammar/Linguistic Aim: Multi-word Verbs/Phrasal Verbs (followed by prepositions) A: I've told you before, he isn't good for you. B: I know, I know. I need to get away from him. A: Actually, last week we broke up again, but... B: Don't tell me? A: Well, you know. He phoned me up on the weekend and.. B: Yes, yes, I know the rest. Sometimes, I can't keep up with you. A: On Sunday we went out to a party, and... B: Yes, I can guess. A: So we're back together again and guess what? B: What? Note 1: Sometimes a phrasal verbs is followed by a preposition. For example:

phrasal verb Preposition run away from Why did you run away from me? keep up with You're walking too fast. I can't keep up with you. look up at We looked up at the plane as it flew above us. look forward to Are you looking forward to your holiday?

Ref: English Grammar in Use: Intermediate, by Raymond Murphy. CUP


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Part 3 – Sentence Constituents: Passive Constructions Whereas in Parts 1 and 2 we looked at grammar at the level of words and short phrases, in this Part 3 we are looking at longer chunks of language or sentence constituents. As with all other aspects of grammar, there are differing classifications of sentence constituents, but that is not something we would cover in detail with our students! We don’t need to add to their confusion, rather, teach them how to “use these features in response to specific problems that arise” (Parrott, 2002) Without getting into too much detail, when we look at sentence constituents we are more concerned with the function that different words or groups of words can have in sentences. When looking at ‘Basic Patterns’, we are focusing on the elements of a basic sentence. For example: Subject (noun phrase) Verb phrase Object (noun phrase) Adverbial

Someone called the police yesterday.

This is the construction of a basic sentence in English. Of course, there are many variants and there are different ‘word orders’ which speakers would choose for particular reasons (You could also say: Yesterday, someone called the police) In this Part 3, we will look specifically at a case in which we change the basic word order – Passive Constructions.

Passive Constructions You may remember from your Grammar Course Online the unit on passive and active voice (if you don’t, it might be a good idea to re-read it, so you have an understanding of what it is and how to form it). The meaning of the Passive is subtle As a rule, you could say people mostly speak in the active tense, but switch to passive every now and again for emphasis on what is done. It is very difficult to teach the Passive in a communicative way because it is used infrequently. This is because it is about emphasis - emphasis on what is being done is desired and that emphasis often has a subtle meaning. In American English they generally frown on using the passive since culturally Americans see taking the credit being a very favourable thing. So it would seem to be hiding behind responsibility for an American to say, ”the meeting will be held at 11 o'clock”, whereas they would think it better to say something like “I/we are holding a meeting at 11am”. This is true also of American academic work, with the exception of scientific writing. There are exceptions of course, so an American would say, “I was born in 1970”, which is passive. In this case it would be strange to say, “My mother gave birth to me in 1970”. However the English value subtlety and therefore use the passive more. Here are some examples: Active Passive

Your attitude shocked me. I was shocked by your attitude. In the passive sentence there is a subtle shift in emphasis on the 'being shocked', which lays less blame on the person, giving them a better chance to explain themselves. Active Passive

I/we have not yet analysed the results. The results have not yet been analysed. In the passive sentence there is a subtle shift in emphasis on the 'analysis', which implies that it is a process to do it which takes time, reducing the Appropriacy of the listener asking for it to be done sooner. Active Passive

My grandmother is painting the portrait. The portrait is being painted by my grandmother.


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In this passive sentence the agent 'grandmother is added on the end after 'by' - which is a passive construction. In this case the passive construction starts the sentence with something known i.e. that the portrait is being painted and then adds on the new information that it is being painted by the grandmother. In this case it actually creates an emphasis on the new information tagged on the end. The point is, there is a degree of communicative subtlety about these uses, which most often would require a near native speaker level of English to accomplish. So then when the passive is taught in text books, it mostly involves exercises to turn the active into passive, or discussion on the subtle meaning of particular passive uses.

What are standard passive constructions? In active constructions, the subject of a sentence is called the ‘agent’ or ‘doer’ of the action. That is, the subject of the sentence is the one doing the action. Examples: I run 10 km. every day. The subject (I) performs the action (run) The dog played with its ball. The subject (dog) performs the action (played) In passive constructions, the subject receives the action. Therefore, the subject is not the agent or ‘doer’ of the action, but rather the recipient of the action. We generally choose a passive construction when:

- the agent is unknown My house was broken into. - when the new or important information is what happened to the subject The dog was spayed. - when the new or important information is who or what did it ‘The Godfather’ was directed by Coppola. - when the new or important information is how it was done The trip was well planned.

[Adapted from “Grammar for English Language Teachers” Martin Parrott, 2002]

Apart from the main reasons above, and those described in our Grammar Course Online, Parrott also adds a few general principles about when to use passive constructions, which can help students use them appropriately:

� to describe processes The beds are made in the morning and the dishes are washed after dinner.

� in some formal styles of discourse It is often debated that… A difference can be seen…

� to avoid being implicated or involved The car was damaged, Dad. Your tax return won’t be finished until next week. � “with certain verbs – verbs we use when the person who did the action is generally unimportant.” (Ibid)


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We were flooded with thousands of complaints. She is believed to be somewhere in Europe.

How do we form passive constructions? Let’s refresh: Passive constructions are formed by:

- the correct form of the verb ‘be’ or ‘get’ PLUS - the past participle of the main verb - if we know the agent and we want to include it, we do so at the end using ‘by’

Examples:

My car was stolen last week. The thief was cornered by the police. The librarian has been replaced. Plans were made well in advance. The bank got broken into last week. The passengers got seriously injured in the crash. We could say that the verb ‘be’ or ‘got’ is the auxiliary verb and the past participle is the main verb, that is, the verb that carries the meaning. One of the most typical mistakes made by ESL students with passive constructions is leaving out the auxiliary verb that goes before the past participle. Some common mistakes of this nature are:

- The room cleaned thoroughly by the housekeeper. [The room was cleaned…] - The truck driven by a reckless driver. [The truck was driven…]

- England defeated in soccer by Argentina. [England was defeated…]

Note the last example; this could also be a common headline in a newspaper where they usually leave out the auxiliary verb in order to save space (rather than “A man was killed in violent attack” they might write “A man killed in violent attack”). Make sure you explain to students that this is acceptable for such headlines, but not in other contexts. So we need to give our students an exercise to work on this problem. Think about how you could make this into an interactive, communicative activity.

Exercise

Look at the following INCORRECT sentences. They are all missing the auxiliary verb. Include the auxiliary verb in the correct place and tense. 1. The Statue of Liberty given to the United States by France. (past simple) 2. My books stolen yesterday. (past simple) 3. Coffee bean found in Brazil. (simple present) 4. Donations have already collected this month. (present perfect) 5. They used a tarp because it had raining all week. (past perfect continuous)


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6. My birthday will celebrated with a big party. (future simple) 7. The changes are discussed as we speak. (present continuous) 8. The meeting had arranged without her feedback. (past perfect)

Key: 1. The Statue of Liberty was given to the United States by France. (past simple) 2. My books were stolen yesterday. (past simple) 3. Coffee bean is found in Brazil. (simple present) 4. Donations have already been collected this month. (present perfect) 5. They used a tarp because it had been raining all week. (past perfect continuous) 6. My birthday will be celebrated with a big party. (future simple) 7. The changes are being discussed as we speak. (present continuous) 8. The meeting had been arranged without her feedback. (past perfect)

Your turn

Assessment Task 3 First, have a look at the following table, which might be useful as a wall chart, or handout, when teaching the Passive voice. The purpose of the table below is to show how meaning subtlety shifts when we change the voice from active to passive, and that when we do so, there is no particular pattern to the shift in meaning. Also we use purple font to show those instances where we could not change an active phrase into a parallel passive one. Complete this task in the appropriate box in your downloaded Word document.

Tense/Verb form Active voice Passive voice Simple present

She sees being famous as the only measure of success. (Personal perspective)

Being seen with the right people is good for your reputation. (General attitude)

Present continuous

I am seeing her next. (Client relationship)

She is being seen next. (Client relationship)

Simple past

I saw her in a cafe with him. (Suspicion , surprise or announcement)

He was seen in a cafe with her. (Suspicion or announcement)

Past continuous

She was seeing him last year. (Romantic relationship)

He was being seen by her last year (Client relationship)

Present perfect She has seen him before. (Romantic or acquaintance relevancy)

He has been seen by her behaving suspiciously outside the bank. (suspicion)

Past perfect

She had seen him at the bank on a previous occasion. (A witness)

He had been seen by her at the bank on a previous occasion. (Evidence)


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Future

The doctor will see her when he is available. (Not available/informal)

You will be seen by the doctor when he is available. (What you would expect to be told at a hospital/formal)

Conditional I would see you tomorrow, but I just don't have the time. (Excuse)

I wouldn't be seen in that dress. (strong advice)

Perfect conditional

The specialist would have seen her if it was really serious. (reassuring or rationalising)

She would have been seen by a specialist if it was really serious. (Reassuring that it is not serious)

Present infinitive You have to see it to believe it. (Idiomatic expression - I am telling you, you have to see it)

It has to be seen to be believed. (Idiomatic expression – a truly amazing thing)

Perfect infinitive To have seen the Beatles live would have been fantastic! (Imaginary event)

To have been seen with the Beatles would have meant instant fame. (Imaginary event with consequence)

Present participle/gerund

Seeing the Rolling Stones was a highlight of my life. (An event)

Being seen with right people can do wonders for your status. (A statement)

Perfect participle Having seen the embarrassment my colleague experienced I decided to go clubing well away from the school where I was working. (Something to learn from)

I was slightly embarrassed after having been seen at a club after hours by my students. (A consequence)

Notes Purple font where it was not possible to make a direct switch between an active and passive sentence

Notice the use of prepositions after the passive verb construction.

Now it is your turn. This is the third of four assessment tasks for this unit.

Task 3: Describe more fully (in a sentence or two) the meaning of the Passive Voice sentences below. The first one is done for you.

Tense/Verb form Active voice Passive voice Simple present

She sees being famous as the only measure of success. (Personal perspective)

Being seen with the right people is good for your reputation. (The emphasis is on 'being seen with the right people' and the suggested result is that such a thing is good for your reputation. This sentence proposes a general attitude that one should have. Some people will agree with this attitude and others will not. The word 'reputation' means how others think of you.)

Present continuous

I am seeing her next. (Client relationship)

She is being seen next. (…Client relationship…)

Simple past I saw her in a cafe with him. (Suspicion , surprise or announcement)

He was seen in a cafe with her. (…Suspicion or announcement…)

Past continuous

She was seeing him last year. (Romantic relationship)

He was being seen by her last year (…Client relationship…)

Present perfect She has seen him before. (Romantic or acquaintance relevancy)

He has been seen by her behaving suspiciously outside the bank. (…suspicion…)

Past perfect

She had seen him at the bank on a previous occasion. (A witness)

He had been seen by her at the bank on a previous occasion. (…Evidence…)

Future

The doctor will see her when he is available. (Not available/informal)

You will be seen by the doctor when he is available. (…What you would expect to be told at a hospital/formal…)

Conditional I would see you tomorrow, but I just don't have the time. (Excuse)

I wouldn't be seen in that dress. (…strong advice…)

Perfect conditional

The specialist would have seen her if it was really serious. (reassuring or rationalising)

She would have been seen by a specialist if it was really serious. (…Reassuring that it is not serious…)


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Present infinitive You have to see it to believe it. (Idiomatic expression - I am telling you, you have to see it)

It has to be seen to be believed. (…Idiomatic expression – a truly amazing thing…)

Perfect infinitive To have seen the Beatles live would have been fantastic! (Imaginary event)

To have been seen with the Beatles would have meant instant fame. (…Imaginary event with consequence…)

Present participle/gerund

Seeing the Rolling Stones was a highlight of my life. (An event)

Being seen with right people can do wonders for your status. (…A statement…)

Perfect participle Having seen the embarrassment my colleague experienced I decided to go clubing well away from the school where I was working. (Something to learn from)

I was slightly embarrassed after having been seen at a club after hours by my students. (…A consequence…)


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Part 4 – Complex Sentences: Relative Clauses Well, you made it to the final part of this Advanced Grammar unit. Great work! This part deals with complex sentences, which are often problematic for ESL students both in understanding and in production, and we have chosen one particular type; then, it will be your final turn.

What are complex sentences? Parrott (2002) defines complex sentences as those “which contain one or more subordinate clauses”. The difference between main clauses and subordinate clauses is that the former can operate as complete sentences on their own and generally have a subject and verb, whereas the latter are groups of words or phrases which cannot. See the following sentences:

- Her father died when she was young. - He will have to pay part of the bill whether he wants to or not. - They all went to the ceremony that she had invited them to.

The part in bold is the main clause (see how they could stand on their own and still be full sentences?) and the other part is the subordinate clause, which depends on the main clause being there. There are different types of subordinate clauses and in this part we will focus on ‘Relative Clauses’.

Relative Clauses: what are they and what do they do? Relative clauses give us more information about something we have already mentioned or we already know (generally in the main clause). I work for Teach International, which is a fantastic organisation. (refers to Teach International) I like training people who appreciate what I do. (refers to the people) In many ways, relative clauses have a similar function to that of adjectives: I like training people who appreciate what I do. (training appreciative people) Relative clauses allow us to add information within the same sentence without repeating already known information (and without the need for another sentence). Take a look: Instead of saying: I bought tickets to the opera. The tickets were very expensive. We would generally say: I bought tickets to the opera, which were very expensive. And instead of saying: The little girl was on the carrousel. The little girl was crying. We would say: The little girl who was on the carrousel was crying.


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How can we recognise relative clauses? Often we can recognise them because they start with a ‘relative pronoun’ such as which, that or whom. However, this is not always the case, and sometimes we can only recognise them by their position in the sentence as well as the context. So when do they come in a sentence? � After the main clause if they are describing the whole clause or the last part of it: I bought tickets to the opera, which were very expensive. � Within the main clause if they are describing the subject: The little girl who was on the carrousel was crying. So, let’s look again at one of the examples above: The little girl was on the carrousel. The little girl was crying. These two sentences could also be said: The little girl was on the carrousel. She was crying. We have replaced the second ‘The little girl’ with the pronoun ‘she’. We do this all the time to avoid repeating the same noun over and over again! If we take this further, we get rid of the second sentence, and turn it into a relative clause, as above: The little girl who was on the carrousel was crying. One of the most common mistakes ESL students will make is to use unnecessary pronouns. They might say this instead: The little girl who was on the carrousel she was crying. This is incorrect! The subject pronoun ‘she’ is not necessary (and wrong) simply because the relative pronoun ‘who’ refers to the little girl, so that is enough. It is common for students to use pronouns in the same way they would for two separate sentences. The following are some more examples of errors students might make: I work for a bar which it sells great cocktails! (…which sells great cocktails!) They met the woman who she was going to introduce the speaker. (… who was going to introduce the speaker) Students will not only make this mistake with the subject pronoun, as in the above examples, but also with the object pronoun… see the following examples: He was sitting on the couch which he bought it for her. (… which he bought for her) That is the man who she sued him. (… who/m she sued) Let’s have a look at two exercises which can help students overcome this difficulty:

Exercises:

A. Read the following sentences and indicate which pronouns are unnecessary and incorrect.

1. The woman who came into the room she was short and thin.


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2. The man who you met yesterday he was my brother. 3. The car I wanted to buy it was not for sale. 4. I was in the same group as Susan, who I liked her a lot. 5. She was engaged to a soldier, whom she had met him in London. 6. I never saw him again, which it was a shame. 7. Bob, who you saw at the party, he lives next door. 8. I am working at the local library, which it is across the street. B. Now, read the following pairs of sentences and turn them into one sentence using a relative clause. Remember to leave out the subject or object pronoun!

1. Einstein won the Nobel Prize for physics. He was a brilliant man. 2. The Theory of Relativity made Einstein famous. It concerns time and gravity and how things change when they travel at high speeds. 3. I have just interviewed Martin Norris. Martin Norris is an excellent pianist. 4. An assistant director gets the stories for the editor. An assistant director is often relatively new to journalism. 5. Anna is a very gifted child. Anna is only ten years old. 6. Cate Blanchett has won an Academy Award. Cate Blanchett is Australian.

Key: A. 1. The woman who came into the room [she] was short and thin. 2. The man who you met yesterday [he] was my brother. 3. The car I wanted to buy [it] was not for sale. 4. I was in the same group as Susan, who I liked [her] a lot. 5. She was engaged to a soldier, whom she had met [him] in London. 6. I never saw him again, which [it] was a shame. 7. Bob, who you saw at the party, [he] lives next door. 8. I am working at the local library, which [it] is across the street. B. 1. Einstein, who was a brilliant man, won the Nobel Prize for physics. 2. The Theory of Relativity, which concerns time and gravity and how things change when they travel at high speeds, made Einstein famous. 3. I have just interviewed Martin Norris, who is an excellent pianist. 4. An assistant director, who is often relatively new to journalism, gets the stories for the editor. 5. Anna, who is only ten years old, is a very gifted child.


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6. Cate Blanchett, who is Australian, has won an Academy Award.

Your (final) turn

Assessment Task 4 Now it is your turn. This is the final assessment task for this unit. Task 4: For the unit on relative clauses below, write (in a sentence or two) for each activity, a description of what the activity is doing. The first two are done for you.

GETTING STARTED

1. Look at these words ... This activity pre-teaches the vocabulary which comes up in the following reading text.

READING

2. Before you read, ... This activity predicts what will be in the text. It asks the students to predict the content and some vocabulary that may come up. To increase student-student interaction they are asked to check their answers in pairs.

3. Now read the article ... 4 Answer these questions about the article ... 5 Now think about these questions ... DISCOVERING LANGUAGE

6 Look at these extracts from the article. ... 7 Complete each sentence ... SPEAKING 8. Work in pairs. Language reference (provided as a reference at the end of the course book section)

A unit on relative clauses (Look Ahead: chapter 7).


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Well done! You have finished this unit. When you finish all your tasks and are satisfied with your work, email your Word document to [email protected] UH for assessment and feedback.


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MARKING TIME and FEEDBACK: Naturally we try and mark your work as soon as possible. When we do so, we will confirm by email along with feedback. When that happens you should see that the unit is completed when you check in the online Student Centre. Marking may be done within a week, even within a few days. Or, if we have a backlog or our marker/s are training, it may take two or three weeks. If you want to be absolutely sure we have received your submission, please send a follow up email straight after your submission email. In that case ask us in the email, when we might have your work marked. You can use [email protected] or [email protected].

References and Bibliography � ‘Collins Cobuild English Usage’ – HarperCollins Publishers, 1992. � ‘Essential English Grammar and Usage’ Chambers Harrap Publishers Ltd, 1999. � ‘Language Activator – The World’s First Production Dictionary’ – Longman, 1993. � O’Neill, Robert and Mugglestone, Pat. 1993. ‘American Dimensions. Intermediate, student’s book’ Longman

Group UK Limited. � Parrott, Martin. 2002. ‘Grammar for English Language Teachers’ Sixth Printing. Cambridge University Press. � Richards, Jack C. 1998. ‘New Interchange’ Cambridge University Press. � Robinson, Barbara. 1995. ‘Focus. Interactive Grammar for students of ESL.’ St. Martin’s Press, New York. � Workman, Graham. 1993. ‘Phrasal Verbs and Idioms’ Oxford University Press.


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TIC4U2 – Use Language and Culture Theories in Lesson Planning

Description: This unit describes the knowledge and skills required by teachers in respect to the theoretical relationships between language and culture that may impact on English language learning in the TESOL classroom. In this unit you will learn about:

o Language-culture relationships o Definitions of culture and their relevance to the ESL classroom o Factors promoting Cultural Literacy and Inter-Cultural Competence o Knowledge of aspects of stereotyping o Strategies for incorporating cultural analysis into lesson planning

Submission of work: Remember to download the Word template to work on and save it document with a clear title including your name, for example, “santa.claus.TIC4U2.doc”.

Introduction Why is it important for English Language teachers to learn about Language and Culture? Well, perhaps one answer is that language is what we are teaching and therefore, an understanding of how it develops and how it works will help us to teach it more effectively (a more in-depth study of language acquisition theory is undertaken in TIC4U4 (SLA). Another answer could be that we need to consider that language is inextricably bound up with the culture it has evolved in. Many of us will teach English (a language developed within the historical context of English/Western culture moving through changes over a thousand years) to students living within a culture and using a language which is totally different. Therefore, cross-cultural communication* and cultural sensitivity become extremely important skills for English Language teachers working overseas (or in their own country for that matter). We need to be tolerant of other cultures while also being aware of the tendencies we have ourselves, learned from our own conditioning and how they might impact on people of a different cultural group. We need to be able to accept the validity of other cultures (including religious thought and traditions, social customs, etc) and at the same time, be careful not to stereotype individuals according to a perception that all people within a cultural group will behave the same way. Having cultural sensitivity and understanding across cultures will help us to settle in and appreciate a new environment more rapidly and knowledge of how language works and how it develops will make our job as English teachers more interesting, effective and enjoyable.

*meaning communication between individuals or groups from different cultural backgrounds.

The relationships between language and culture Firstly, let us consider a definition of what culture means: The following definition from Scollon and Scollon (1995: 126-127) gives a broad and somewhat generalised description as an example:

‘When we use the word ‘culture’ in its anthropological sense, we mean to say that culture is any of the customs, worldview, language, kinship system, social organisation, and other taken- for-granted day-to-day practices of a people which set that group apart as a distinctive group. By using the anthropological sense of the word ‘culture,’ we mean to consider any aspect of the ideas, communications, or behaviours of a group of people which gives to them a distinctive identity and which is used to organise their internal sense of cohesion and membership.’

Furthermore, culture:


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� is dynamic � evolves from human sociality � has multiple layers and no fixed boundaries � involves symbolic representation � impacts on institutional organisation and processes � produces artefacts/products � involves ways of dealing with key social variables

Task 1

Find another definition of culture that you like and copy it in your Word document. (Hint: Do a Google search: definitions of ‘culture’ or look it up in your dictionary). Don’t forget to give a reference for your definition.

It can clearly be identified that language is an integral characteristic of any culture. We use it to represent, demonstrate and pass on values and knowledge developed within our particular society. Furthermore, language is the first cultural characteristic we learn from our parents as we begin to identify and name things as a baby. Joe Lo Bianco states: “How we name our world, frames our world.” The natural way we learn language as a child has been considered in depth in several of the recent Second Language Teaching methodologies and principles, especially the idea of immersion in the second language being extremely helpful to learners. Crozet and Liddicoat (1997: 2) point out that culture underlies the ways that language is used and that language learners need to know about the cultural rules that apply to interactions they are likely to have when using the learned language. Learners need to learn how to speak and write in culturally appropriate ways. Therefore, a teacher needs to have a reasonable grasp of the local culture too.

Task 2 Crozet and Liddicoat (1997: 7) discuss the complexities of conversational language (the basis of the Communicative classroom) in that it involves verbal and non-verbal language. Non-verbal language can be highly cultural specific. Do a Google search on ‘Non-verbal language’ and find out what the following terms mean.

Proxemics Kinesics Paralinguistics

Copy your answers in your Word document. Label this task:

Developing inter-cultural competence for the TESOL classroom How can we develop inter-cultural competence? Firstly, we can make ourselves familiar with the dimensions outlined by Hofstede, catalogued in Unit 3 of the EAP elective, and determine how they relate to the local culture we find ourselves in. (Hopefully, this would have been part of our research undertaken before going overseas to a teaching job). Secondly, we can learn through experience. It is a very important part of teaching to be reflective about our teaching. Ideally, teachers should keep a diary of such reflections and learn from experiences, particularly mistakes. Cultural literacy and intercultural competence can develop through:

� Noticing � Observing � Recording � Reflecting � Interpreting � Analysing � Describing � Summarising � Theorising, and…


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Recognising and understanding issues of: � Face � Gestures � Body � Timing � Use of space � Silence, and… Recognising how culture influences:

� Ways of talking � Ways of thinking � Ways of feeling � Ways of behaving � Values/beliefs

An example: I was teaching a group of students from Hong Kong. I had tested their English language competence in order to decide how best to support them. The students were keen to know how they had gone in their test, so I put up on an overhead projector, some paragraphs of their writing, highlighting their mistakes. This was my big mistake! Or at least, identifying one male student whose writing was up on the screen was a big mistake. I noticed a change in behaviour and attitude in this student immediately, and later, on reflection, I realised I had caused this student (a dominant male) considerable embarrassment and “loss of face” in front of his peers. So, by noticing, reflecting and analysing, I determined the student’s ways of behaving and talking were coming from his ways of feeling, determined by his values and beliefs. I reviewed my understanding of the cultural dimensions for Hong Kong Chinese and realised my mistake. I tried to make up for it in subsequent lessons but it affected my rapport with that student for the rest of the term. This reflection has made me a more skilful teacher.

Stereotyping It is important for teachers to be aware of the tendency to stereotype. This means we may attribute a cultural characteristic to individuals even when they do not display that characteristic. Ethnic or racial stereotyping is a form of discrimination and can be entrenched in some people’s perception of other groups. Equally, the society we are teaching in may have stereotypical perceptions about us and our own culture. They may find some of our behaviour peculiar and amusing. We must also be careful not be paternalistic towards the other culture and its people which is a common mistake of many Westerners when travelling in Asia – especially those from former colonial powers. Further points to consider when teaching in a TESOL classroom:

� Students from the same cultural background do not necessarily act in the same way and the significance

of individual differences should not be overlooked (Gallois, 2003: 12) � Students need to be seen as having multiple group memberships, rather than as only being members of

a particular cultural and/or ethnic group (Gallois, 2003: 11) � Students who have been learning a second language for a period of time may already be operating out of

an “intercultural space” (Crozat and Liddicoat, 1997: 17; Kramsch, 1993: 205) � Students may utilise different sub-cultural perspectives (Holliday, 1994: 29) depending on the field, tenor

and mode of a particular discourse situation

Task 3


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Choose one of the above points and comment on it in the Word document. Show by your comment that you have a good understanding of the point and give a practical example of how your chosen point might be demonstrated in an ESL classroom situation.

Strategies for incorporating cultural analysis into lesson planning You may want to include some cultural analysis in lessons for your students if they are of appropriate level and age, in which case, a mini workshop on cross-cultural communication might be an interesting way to go. There are examples of such workshops available on the Internet or you might do it by utilising a questionnaire or simply through discussion. Any information you get from students can be useful to incorporate into your lesson planning. Such information might tell you what is interesting for your students or it might tell you what you should avoid in terms of subject matter and/or activities. Other ways for you to develop your own understanding in order to prepare appropriate and skilful lesson plans are by:

� observation and analysis � Discourse Analysis techniques � Ethnographic techniques � utilising cross-cultural materials

Discourse Analysis Discourses (with a capital ‘D’) are culturally specific ways of being in the world, involving ways of communicating, thinking, feeling and behaving. They show how language and culture work together to create meaning. Discourse analysis is undertaken through a study and analysis of:

� The lexis � Grammar � Metaphors � Narratives

And an examination and interrogation of texts in respect to:

- Producers - Representations - Contexts - Ideologies

This kind of analysis is easier to undertake in our own language but it is part of learning another language too. So if we are learning the local language of a culture we are living in, we will become generally aware of how the communication of meaning is supported by gestures, context, special vocabulary and metaphors, etc. Likewise, our students will inadvertently give us some cues as to important aspects of their culture through our observation and consideration of their discourses (with a small ‘d’, meaning communicative events), inside and outside the classroom. We may also simply analyse translated texts from the culture to learn about cultural values and beliefs. Discourses differ according to the field, tenor and mode (purpose of the message, who is involved and language form used to convey the message). The way a text (or piece of conversation) might be analysed is by asking: What is the topic? How is it being communicated? Who are the participants in the discourse? Who is NOT included? How is it trying to position the receiver? How else might the topic have been presented? What, of relevance, wasn’t said?

Ethnography Ethnography may include:

� Studying the Other


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� Making the “strange” familiar � Documenting, describing, analysing a particular environment � Going “in” from the outside – participating for a substantial period of time � Being experiential and analytical

It involves:

� Being there � Participating � Communicating � Acting

In other words, immersing oneself in the local culture and language is a great way to do ethnographic study. By participating while analysing, we can experiment and directly get a feel for the how why of the culture. We can then incorporate a good level of understanding into our lesson plans. Alternatively, an ethnographic study may be achieved through an interview of a person or persons or by analysing a film, CD or video/DVD.

Conclusion The field of Language and Culture Studies is a fascinating one and very pertinent to the TESOL industry. It is an area covered in considerable detail in postgraduate studies in TESOL or Applied Linguistics and only a basic outline has been possible for this Certificate IV unit. You are encouraged to read further in some of the references following the unit and to air your views on the forum so useful discussions with others doing this unit can develop.

Final Assessment Paper Task 4. Write approximately 250-300 words on non-verbal language and its relevance to the teacher of English to speakers of other languages. Use practical examples/scenarios where possible.

Task 5. Write an essay (1000 words maximum) on one of the following topics:

What are the key components of ‘intercultural competence?’ As an ESL teacher, how will you help your students to develop this kind of competence? OR Perform a ‘Discourse Analysis’ of a piece of text that originates from another culture to your own. OR Compose a questionnaire suitable for an ‘Ethnographic Study’ of a cultural group of young adult students. Show how you could analyse the answers to make your lesson planning more effective.


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Once you complete and revise ALL the tasks in this unit, you will be ready to email your Word document to the unit coordinator: [email protected] UTH


References and Recommended Reading

Anderson, M. (2001) Cross-Cultural Communication in the Global Classroom: Issues and Implications, (Working Paper 38/01)Melbourne: Monash University Faculty of Business and Economics.

Campbell, B., et. al. [Online], (2000) ‘The development of communicative abilities within small group contexts: a cross cultural perspective’, Intercultural Communication. Available: HUhttp://www.immi.se/intercultural/UH [Accessed 1 Oct. 2003].

Carr, J. (1999) ‘From ‘sympathetic’ to ‘dialogic’ imagination: Cultural Study in the foreign language classroom, in Lo Bianco, J., Liddicoat, A.J. and Crozet, C., Striving for the Third Place: Intercultural Competence through Language Education, Melbourne: Language Australia.

Cortazzi, M. (2000) ‘Languages, Cultures and Cultures of learning in the Global Classroom’, in Kam, H.W. and Ward, C., Language in the Global Context: Implications for the Language Classroom, Singapore: SEMEO Regional Language Centre. Cortazzi, M., and Jin, L. (1997) “Communication for learning across cultures” in McNamara, D., and Harris, R. (ed.) Overseas Students in Higher Education: Issues in Teaching and Learning, London: Routledge. pp. 76 – 90. Crozet, C., and Liddicoat, A. (1997) ‘Teaching Culture as an Integrated Part of Language Teaching : An Introduction’, in Australian Review of Applied Linguistics, Series S, No. 14. Gallois, C, (2003) ‘Reconciliation through communication in intercultural encounters: potential or peril?’ Journal of Communication; vol. 53, no. 1, March 1, pp. 5-15. [Online] Available: ABI/INFORM Global database. [Accessed 29 September, 2003]. Lo Bianco, J. (2001) Language Policies: State Texts for Silencing and Giving Voice. Freebody, P., Muspratt, S. & Dwyer, B. (Eds.) (2001) Difference, Silence and Textual Practice. New Jersey: Hampton Press. Kramsch, C. (1993) Context and Culture in Language Teaching, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Roberts, C. (1998) ‘Awareness in Intercultural Communication’, Language Awareness, Vol. 7, No. 2&3. pp. 109-127. Roberts, C. (2003) ‘Ethnography and Cultural Practice: Ways of Learning During Residence Abroad’, in Alred, G., Byram, M. and Fleming, M. (eds.) Intercultural Experience and Education, Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. pp. 114-129. Scollon, R. and Scollon, S.W. (1995) “What is Culture? Intercultural Communication and Stereotyping.” Intercultural Communication, Oxford: Blackwell.


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TIC4U3 – Incorporate Methodology Theory into Lesson Planning

Description: This unit describes the knowledge and skills required by teachers in order to incorporate English Language Teaching Methodology into their lesson planning. Submission of work: Remember to download the Word template to work on and save it document with a clear title including your name, for example, “santa.claus.TIC4U3.doc”.

Overview of language teaching methodology When we refer to English language teaching methodology, we are referring to the range of methods and approaches for teaching which exist in the world. The terms method and approach are often used interchangeably in second language teaching literature. According to Richards et al (in Larsen-Freeman, 2000:xii), a method is a way of teaching a language which is based on systematic principles and procedures. Richards and Rodgers (1986:14-30) state that an approach refers to theories about the language and language learning that serve as a source of practices and principles in language teaching. Methodologies are often developed by academics, and provide teachers with guidelines and strategies for teaching. Over the past century, methods of teaching a second language have varied, often according to an underlying belief or philosophy about what it really means to know a language. As a professional teacher, it is important to consider the range of methodologies which exist, and to create your own, personal teaching pedagogy. Pedagogy is simply your own, personal decision-making in the classroom; the methods you have decided to use in your teaching based upon the various methodologies available, as well as your own personal theories and teaching and learning experiences. In order to develop your own teaching pedagogy, it is important to be aware of the different methodologies and approaches to ESL teaching. It is also important to think about your own beliefs about teaching and what you think is necessary for effective teaching and learning. This will be based upon what you know from any experience you have had in teaching, training, coaching, tutoring or guiding. It will also be based upon any experiences that you have had as a language learner, or even as a student at school, college or university.

This is the first task in this unit. You should complete all tasks on a Word document, and at the end of the unit, we will tell you how to submit your work.

Task 1

1) What professional knowledge and skills do you consider to be essential for an effective ESL/EFL teacher? 2) Now write a short paragraph (no more than 150 words) describing any experience that you have had

with teaching in the past. Include: What was your role? Who were your students? Why were they learning English (or another subject/skill)? How effective do you feel this teaching was?

3) Compare these two job advertisements and consider: What role is the teacher to play in each job? Who

would be the likely students? Why would they be learning English?

CHINA English language teacher required for medical students in Inner Mongolia. Experience in teaching IELTS desirable. Must have a recognised TESOL qualification. One year renewable contract.

Kids Way Kindy English language teachers required for our kindergarten in Vietnam. Pre-school teaching qualification essential. TESL qualification preferred.


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Your answers to these questions will form part of the knowledge that you have to inform your own personal teaching pedagogy. We will now look at a brief historical overview of the major approaches in TESOL over the past 30 years. As you read, think about how the different aspects of these approaches could be appropriate in different teaching circumstances, and how you might incorporate different elements of these methodologies to suit the students and teaching scenario you may find yourself teaching in the future.

Grammar Translation Grammar Translation is one of the most enduring methodologies used in language teaching, having been used in classrooms from the 1500s when scholars were studying Greek and Latin, through to modern times. This method is based on linguistic theory that views language as a grammar system with rules and structures. It requires students to show competence in a language by being able to correctly translate from their native language to English. Often students are given readings and vocabulary lists which are memorised and translated. Grammar Translation style lessons have a very strong grammar focus and lessons are sequenced based upon increasing level of difficulty in grammar structures. This method puts very low importance on aural English and focuses predominantly on written English, and often the instruction is given completely in the native tongue. Note: It may help to refer to the Lesson Observation DVD for this task. These lessons are based on the Communicative Approach; however, the Communicative Approach to language teaching amalgamates the range of methods and approaches covered in this unit, combining them while emphasising ‘English in Use’ in the real world. So when you observe the lessons on the Lesson Observation DVD, each method and/or approach will show through in different times and ways. A benefit of the Grammar Translation Method is that students like to draw analogies with their own language. Grammatical patterns can act as an anchor and as an effective memory jogger. Therefore, in many lessons we have a Target Language stage where grammar and/or linguistic patterns are focussed on.

Task 2 Can you think of two positives and two negatives for the use of this approach with students? For which type of student do you think this method would be most appropriate? (50 words) Continue to work on your Word document, typing or pasting your answers in the appropriate box.

Audio-Lingual The Audio-Lingual methodology is based upon cognitive learning theory (how we actually think in order to acquire languages) and was popular in the 1950s. It was informed by the US Military language training as part of WWII, when it was necessary to learn spoken language quickly and effectively. The basis of this method is the use of language substitution drills that allow students plenty of oral repetition to aid in memorisation and correct pronunciation. Students tend to have a passive role in which they react to the teacher’s instruction, whose goal it is to get students producing correct sounds and word order. The teacher acts as the model for students to imitate and practise from. The language and dialogues used in these drills were often taken from text books written specifically for this style, and were not always used in a meaningful context. Language Labs are often associated with this method as they provide controlled and monitored practice which is fitting with the audio-lingual methodology. Note: A benefit of Audio-lingual Method is the incorporation of drilling into language teaching. Drilling familiarises students with language patterns helping a more automatic delivery, increases students' active participation in a class and can simultaneously address grammatical constructions and issues of pronunciation. If language laboratory facilities are available, self-access work is possible, allowing students to work under their own control.

Task 3

Can you think of two positives and two negatives for the use of this approach with students? For which type of student do you think this method would be most appropriate? (50 words)

Continue to work on your Word document, typing or pasting your answers in the appropriate box.


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The Natural Method The Natural Method is based around the theory that learners of another language cannot consciously learn the language, but actually need to acquire it subconsciously. It is believed that students need to be exposed to language that is just beyond their current level of competency in order to learn. It is also believed that a student’s capacity to learn is also affected by the emotional environment in which learning takes place. In this methodology, grammar form is not the focus of lessons, but instead it is believed that students will get meaning through vocabulary. This approach is designed to give students basic communication skills through communicative activities and topics which are derived from learner needs. It is through participation in this kind of activities that students will then acquire the language. The materials used will also be based upon realia, so as to promote comprehension and communication. A benefit of the Natural Method is that language teaching is tuned slightly above the learners’ level to provide an encouraging, non threatening and challenging learning environment. Often the rule of ‘English only in the classroom’ is enforced. Dictionaries are often discouraged.

Task 4

Can you think of two positives and two negatives for the use of this approach with students? For which type of student do you think this method would be most appropriate? (50 words) Continue to work on your Word document, typing or pasting your answers in the appropriate box.

The Silent Way This approach is based upon the belief that each language has a unique rhythm and spirit which students can learn through core vocabulary alone. Students are encouraged to surrender to the music of the language so that they learn through silent awareness rather than a conscious effort to understand. All activities which are presented are designed to encourage oral responses without any grammatical explanation or modelling by the teacher. Many of the activities also use unique materials such as coloured rods, and colour-coded pronunciation and vocabulary charts. Students are also given responsibility for their own learning and the student must develop independence and autonomy while teachers need to resist the temptation to model or assist. A benefit of the Silent Way is seen in the reduction of teacher talking time. There are various aspects to this. Contexts to prompt language are introduced with real world objects, audio, pictures and video. Where possible, grammar rules are inductively taught i.e., the students are led to discover the rules through the teachers' concept questions. Correction techniques emphasis students' self correction i.e., techniques such as echo correction, hinting for students to self correct through finger and hand gestures.

Task 5


TPR (Total Physical Response) This method takes on a structural, grammar-based view of language where it is believed that students learn their second language in the same way as their first. Therefore, students are encouraged to become proficient in oral communication. This is practised by students in class through performing drills with physical actions that encourage students to use their voice, with action and gesture. The teacher plays a very active role whilst students have little control over the content learnt. While grammar and vocabulary are the focus of the lesson content, function has importance over form. The Total Physical Response (TPR) Approach is commonly used in children’s lessons where physical activities aid the language learning process. Miming is a well known application of this. In adult classes we can


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use props for role play and we can require dramatization. Getting students to use common gestures when speaking is another aspect of TPR.

Task 6


TBL (Task-based Learning) This methodology is based around a holistic and realistic idea of language which encourages students to learn by doing. This approach to language learning aims to engineer activities in the classroom so that students are able to strike a balance between achieving accuracy in language use, as well as encouraging fluency. The tasks also try to allow for a progression in the complexity of language produced by the students. Teachers attempt to divide the students’ attention between all these goals equally, and one goal won’t be the focus for any extended period of time. This approach uses a variety of different tasks as a way to meet the balance between focus on form and focus on communication. The tasks will incorporate learning strategies used in mainstream learning, such as problem-solving, reasoning, inquiring, and conceptualizing so that students are not just learning language but are learning through language. The way that tasks are sequenced in TBL style lessons is through scaffolding, to ensure the three language learning goals are effectively met. There are three distinguishable stages of task implementation: pre, during and post, with each stage having a specific learning goal. There is a very strong learner-centred approach to the teaching with the students’ needs, interests and abilities forming the basis of lessons, through negotiation with the teacher. The Task Based Learning Approach influences the type of activities used and introduces skill development alongside language work. For reading and listening activities, we often get students to read or listen to understand followed by discussion. For writing activities, students are primarily set tasks, so that the language is developed through a sequencing of brainstorming, drafting, self-correcting and revising, until a final copy is produced. Free practice activities often include tasks such as problem solving or reaching agreements. Skill development through Task based learning can be seen clearly in Business English and English for Academic purposes. In these learning contexts students may have to conduct tasks such as delivering a presentation, developing an itinerary, or conducting a sales meeting. These can be broken into sub-tasks with language input provided along the way.

Task 7


The Communicative Approach This approach has been popular since the 1970s and is still widely used by language teachers today. It is based around the theory that language is a system for expressing meaning, for interaction and for communication. Lessons using this approach involve activities which allow practice in real communication and meaningful tasks. Lessons also use language which is meaningful to the students. The teacher takes on the role of facilitator of the communication process, and will use authentic materials that aim to promote communicative language. The Communicative Approach amalgamates the range of methods and approaches covered in this unit, combining them and emphasising ‘English in Use’ in the real world. Teach International asks trainees to devise communicative aims for their lessons as well as grammar/linguistic aims. Having communicative aims requires an overarching real world communicative focus for the language learning.


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Task 8 Can you think of two positives and two negatives for the use of this approach with students? For which type of student do you think this method would be most appropriate? (50 words) Continue to work on your Word document, typing or pasting your answers in the appropriate box.

It is important to realise that there is not one method that is completely ideal. All of these methods are designed upon different language learning theories and therefore use different teaching methods. Some methods are teacher-led while others are more student-led; some have a focus on grammatical form whilst others have a stronger focus on grammatical function. Some methods may be more appropriate to different circumstances. Your job as a teacher involves critiquing all the methods to decide which aspects of the approaches you want to follow with any given group of students. It is in fact your responsibility as the teacher to make the most of the theories and methods which are available and to adapt and experiment with them to create your own pedagogy. This pedagogy may actually change on a daily basis, depending on the objectives you have on any given day with a particular group of students, as well as the institution in which you are working. Your personal pedagogy may include a combination of ideas from the whole range of methods. The approaches now used in the modern language classroom are moving away from the specific methodologies we just looked at, to more of an approach where teachers reflect on, analyse and evaluate their own teaching and develop lessons based upon a combination of ideas from the range of methods. This is known as principled pragmatism. Rather than following one “super method”, teachers are now becoming reflective practitioners who are able to create their own solutions to any pedagogical problems which may take place in the language classroom.

Final Task 9 Read the following IN FULL before you start working:

Imagine that this is your teaching context: Imagine that either (a) or (b) is your teaching context: (a) You are teaching a group of Turkish middle managers at their company once a week. Their company tests and registers pharmaceutical products and provides a portfolio of products at wholesale prices to importers in English Speaking Countries. The managers oversee departments which include staff employed from English Speaking Countries. They correspond by email with potential wholesalers and on occasion are invited into higher level executive meetings with overseas clients. These meetings sometimes extend to business lunches. Their English levels are Intermediate and above. (b) You are teaching a class of approximately 25 adult (19-20 year old) Japanese undergraduate university students who have come to Australia on a short term exchange program of 8 weeks. The students, both male and female, come from a variety of different discipline backgrounds, but each have studied English before as part of their university studies in Japan. They are at a pre-intermediate level. The program has been divided into three key teaching areas: Developing speaking and listening skills; Developing writing and reading skills; and Australian Cultural studies. All students are living with home-stay families for the entire duration of the program.

Task: You are required to apply the theory and your knowledge about Task-based Learning to learning to either situation (a) or (b) from above. To demonstrate your understanding, complete the following questions. 1. Describe (in a small paragraph) a major task the students could do (e.g., presentation, conduct a meeting, essay). 2. Describe (in a small paragraph) sub-tasks which might be useful in teaching the major task you have described (e.g., if a presentation is a major task, the sub-tasks could include: prepare a PowerPoint, prepare cut down notes, prepare a script to talk to the PowerPoint slides).

This whole task should be no longer than 500 words.


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Once you complete and revise all the tasks in this unit, you will be ready to submit your work. Email your Word document to the unit coordinator on [email protected] Include a clear ‘subject line’, such as your name followed by TIC4U3 or Methodology tasks.


Further Reading Breen, M. (1984). Processes in Syllabus Design. In C. Brimfit (Ed.) General English Syllabus Design. Pergamon Press. Brumfit, C. (1984). Communicative Methodology in Language Teaching. Cambridge University Press. Chaudron, C. (1988). Second Language Classrooms: Research on Teaching and Learning. Cambridge University Press. Dubin, F., and E. Olshtain (1986). Course Design: Developing Programs and Materials for Language Learning. Cambridge University Press.

Littlewood, W (1981). Communicative Language Teaching- An Introduction. Cambridge University Press.

Nunan, D (1989) Designing Tasks for the Communicative Classroom. Cambridge University Press. Prabhu, N (1987). Second Language Pedagogy: A Perspective. Oxford University Press. Richards, J., and T. Rodgers (1986). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge University Press. Scrivener, J. (1998). Learning Teaching. Macmillan Heinemann. Wilkins, D. (1976). Notional Syllabuses. Oxford University Press.


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TIC4U4 – Use Knowledge of Second Language Acquisition (SLA) Theory in Lesson Planning

Description: This unit describes the knowledge and skills required by teachers in order to base their lesson planning on sound SLA theory. Submission of work: Remember to download the Word template to work on and save it document with a clear title including your name, for example, “santa.claus.TIC4U4.doc”.

Introduction The study of how a second language is acquired is a fascinating field and one that has been gaining strong credibility in terms of evidence gathered through scientific research in recent times. Most credible courses in TESOL require study of the theories concerning how people learn their native language, a second language and the factors that may be significant influences in aiding or hindering language learning. Such theories, even those that may seem far-fetched or that may have been disproved, nevertheless provide a background of knowledge for teachers to bring to bear on their classroom experience and on how best to develop lesson plans for their students. The points raised in SLA will be demonstrated throughout the unit by the stories of two students and the assessment at the end of this unit will ask you to come up with some ideas, on the basis of you owning two language schools – one in Turkey and one in Brisbane. In these tasks, you will be in the position to devise programmes of study, activities and services to provide a holistic learning environment to maximise students’ learning/acquisition. The two students we will be considering are Deniz and Secil: In the Case of Deniz, he studies at University in Turkey and two nights a week at YOUR local English language school. In our story he also goes on a three week Study Tour to the UK, which YOUR school organises. There he meets up with a soccer friend that he had been in contact with on-line due to their mutual interest in the Manchester United soccer club. In the case of Secil, she has finished university in Turkey and is spending a year studying at YOUR language school in Brisbane. Initially, she stays with a homestay family. ‘Homestay’ is where language students board with a family whose language in the home is English. After a month, she moves into a flat with some other international students and after six months she gets a part-time job at a local café where she is able to meet and converse with native English speakers. Perhaps she will stay on in Australia for another year for University post graduate studies.

The major SLA theories The major theories fall into categories of nativist, environmentalist and interactionist (which combines the first two). Nativist theories explain acquisition/learning based on learner internal factors – the existence of an innate biological device or mechanism in the brain, specifically used for the acquisition of language. An example of a nativist theory is Krashen’s Monitor Theory which will be discussed in detail – we learn language unconsciously and by studying. Strongly influencing the nativists is the theory of Universal Grammar proposed by Chomsky (Ellis, 1994: 429-466). This theory proposes that there are innate principles and properties that pertain to the grammars of all human languages (Fromkin, Rodman and Hyams, 2007: 564). Or simply stated – some rules apply across all languages. Environmentalist theories are based on learner external factors, represented in this unit by Schumman’s Acculturation theory, described in detail below – some environments are better for language learning. Another environmentalist theory is that of Systematic Functional Linguistics, a genre-based approach from Halliday which proposes that language acquisition can only be studied meaningfully in its social and cultural context – language should be learned for real life situations.


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Interactionist theories attempt to explain acquisition using both nativist and environmental factors of influence. For further reading and a wider range of information on SLA Theory, a commonly-used text is: Ellis, R. (1994) The Study of Second Language Acquisition, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ellis (1994: 193) poses three questions in relation to the influences that affect a second language learner:

1) How do learners learn a second language? 2) Why do learners vary in how fast they learn a second language? 3) Why do most learners fail to achieve full target-language competence?

The following theories are examples of these and attempt to answer the questions (above) posed by Ellis:


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An environmentalist theory, Schumann’s Acculturation Theory (Some environments are better for language learning)

There are a vast number of influences on a second language learner that either facilitate or hinder the learner’s acquisition of proficiency in the target language. Some of these influences fall within the category of the socio-cultural environment and the learner’s attitudes in respect of it. This area has been termed “Acculturation”, which refers to “the social and psychological integration of the learner with the target language group” (Schumann, 1986: 379). The theory postulated by Schumann refers to second language learners studying within the second language environment, e.g. international students studying English in an English-speaking country. However, many of the factors outlined are likely to have an impact on students studying in their own country as well and are well worth consideration by all teachers of English. The social and psychological factors which are purported to affect the language proficiency acquisition of students are, according to Ellis (1994: 232) and Schumann (1986: 380): Case study

Deniz is studying English in Turkey. His first opportunity to study in a country where English is the common language is by going on a three week Study Tour to the UK.

Secil has come from Turkey to study English for a year in Brisbane, Australia.

1. Under the category of Social Distance,

Social Dominance (The effect of cultural and political power on language learning)

This refers to the perception of the students as to the degree of superiority or inferiority of the second language (L2) culture/society in comparison with their own, in respect of political power, cultural sophistication, technical sophistication and economic power. The degree to which a student desires to learn English and communicate with native speakers will be influenced by this. Limitations on communication opportunities due to these perceptions will obviously influence the acquisition rate of a student. It can immediately be seen, though, that this factor is interdependently related with the other factors to be discussed, like those of personality, motivation, culture shock, integration pattern, and so on. “Power relations play a crucial role in social interactions between language learners and target language speakers” (Pierce, 1995: 12). This factor affects the general attitude towards the target language culture as well as individual personal interactions between a student and a native speaker (in our case, possibly the English teacher). Case study Deniz’ family have contributed funds so he can study at a language school two evenings a week, in addition to his university study. The additional English study should enhance his chances for future employment. He is planning on taking the IELTS exam when his English level is better. In turn, this will help him gain employment after university – perhaps with an international company. The conditions are much better with International companies and some times the work involves travelling overseas.

Secil lived in a homestay for one month when she started at the language school in Brisbane. The homestay family were Australian. However, the family didn’t go out of their way to talk to her. She felt they were taking in International students just for the money and were not interested in any kind of intercultural exchange experience.


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Integration Pattern (The degree of integration with the culture of the English speaking world)

In an L2 environment (if teaching students in Australia, New Zealand or Canada) students may integrate depending on the extent they identify with and assimilate into the L2 culture. Some will try to submerge themselves in the culture while others will maintain a stronger identity with their own, usually supported by frequent interaction with members of their own cultural group and in their own language. “Groupness, it would seem, is a tenacious quality and is capable of surviving changes in any objective marker, including language (Edwards, 1988: 209). Of course, students learning English in their own country will normally remain integrated in their own culture and spend the majority of their time with L1 speakers except when they are in their English class, therefore making slower progress. Case study Deniz, like many young adults in Turkey would love to travel to the West, but there isn’t enough money for that – not for a holiday anyway. His integration into the English speaking environment happens predominately in class and through his on-line football contacts.

Secil left her homestay after a month and went flatting with some other international students. She chose a flat where the students were from different countries so they would speak English in the flat. That was one reason she came to study in Australia. If she went to the UK where there are more Turkish students, she knew she would end up flatting with other Turkish students. When the flatmates went out together there were no opportunities to meet Australians.

Enclosure (The degree the English learning environment is disconnected from native English speaking culture)

This refers to the degree that the student group shares the same social facilities as L1 students on the campus. Again, it is a factor that is interdependent on other individual factors affecting students. Depending on the type of school you work in there may be many or very few native English speaking students. The L2 students may have equal access to the university’s facilities like the library and canteen, but opportunities to interrelate with native speakers in those environments may be limited. Any real integration needs to take place outside the campus. Case study Deniz is studying business at university. There are just a few native English speakers at the university, but not in his class and he does not mix with them. The university, this year, is running a subsidised Study Tour programme to the UK and he is keen to go on it. The tour involves three weeks of English in the morning and afternoon activities in Manchester. What he really likes about it is that Manchester is the home of the Manchester United football club. Deniz chats online on the Internet at the Manchester United website. He is following a Turkish player on the team. Maybe if he goes on the Study Tour programme he will be able to see Manchester United play on their home ground.

Secil cannot see how she is going to meet any Australians. She will look for part-time work in a café. She has had a part time job in a café in Turkey before. As well as earning money, it may provide that opportunity she is looking for to converse with native English speakers.


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Cohesiveness (Monolingual classes and student groups versus mixed international student groups) International student groups are often characterised by intra-group contacts, as they relate to each other a great deal while at the school and many live in share accommodation with their friends or with relatives. Other students from countries with less representation at the school regularly participate in inter-group contacts with members of other cultural groups and these students also seem, as a consequence of their conditioning, to be more confident at broaching contact with native speakers. Language schools in English-speaking countries therefore try to attract a broad range of potential clientele from Eastern Europe and South America in order to overcome the dominance of one or two particular cultural/language groups. Case study On the Internet Manchester United Football Club site Deniz’ joins in in discussion and chat with English supporters as well as some other supporters from around the world.

Secil is Turkish. Her other flatmates are South Korean, Russian and Brazilian.

Size (Size of the learners own language social group) This factor refers to whether the L1 (learners first language) group is numerically large or small in relation to the L2 (second language, in this case English) environment. Some ethnic groups have a reasonably large population within a particular city and therefore students may feel supported in that broader social context. However on campus, they may identify with their own specific ethnic group which would be in the minority, or they may identify with the international student group which has quite a significant population percentage within the school or university as a whole. The influence of this factor, then, is very difficult to determine and will operate on an individual basis. Case study Deniz lives in Istanbul. In his university almost all the students are Turkish. However, the business communication course at university is delivered in English and other assignments must be submitted in English. Therefore, in Turkey Deniz own language group is very large. However, on the Internet it is the opposite. He converses on a forum and chat site for the Manchester United Football Club. There are many native English speakers there and a smaller percentage of people from other countries, but even then they do use English as the means of communication.

Secil is quite a sociable person and well liked by the other students that she mixes with at her language school in Brisbane. After six (6) months in her flat she’s hardly talked to any Australian native English speakers. She does however speak English with her flatmates and with other students at the school. She has been handing her CV out at cafes and maybe if she gets work in a café the opportunity to mix with some native English speakers will come up.


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Cultural Congruence (Perceived closeness to Western culture)

Students from countries like Brazil and Mauritius probably perceive their cultures as being more or less equivalent to the Western cultures and these students traditionally integrate better, develop better proficiency faster (based on the experience of the writer from working with and observing several Brazilian students and one student from Mauritius during 2002). Relevant to this area is a table from Louise Damon (1987: 218) showing relationships between cultural/social distance, action and attitudes of students and acculturation: Case study Deniz is keen on soccer, as many people in Turkey are. Lately, he has had some interesting on-line chats with a guy who plays soccer in Manchester. They both chat about the Manchester United team and a Turkish player that is in the team. Soccer is a sport that has a huge following on both Turkey and the Uk. Deniz is Muslim. In Turkey there is a range of conservative to modern Muslim practices. The government is secular. Deniz sees himself as Muslim and Humanist, and open to Western culture. The Muslim and Humanist mix means that he believes and prays to God, but apart from some religious practices his decisions on how to live his life are based on his own reasoning of philosophies and approaches to modern day life.

After six months in Australia Secil has started a part-time job at a café. She is loving the integration with her workmates. Some of the people who come to the café really surprise her. Australian women seem to be very casually dressed, though this might just be Brisbane. The café in Brisbane is not dissimilar to the one she worked at in Turkey. People eat and drink tea and coffee inside and out. There is a difference though in the many varieties of coffee offered in Brisbane – that seems to be of a European approach. To be a barista, she will have to relearn that side of things.

Levels of Culture Learning

Stage Cultural / Social Distance

(cognitive / affective) (action) Degree of Acculturation

1 Maximum

Little or no knowledge of THEM Low awareness

Little interaction; stereotypic

Ethnocentrism

2 Some knowledge; brief experience Awareness of superficial or “exotic” features

Intellectual interest; some analysis

Euphoria

3 Much more knowledge and contact Greater awareness of differences

More analysis; evaluation; disorientation

Conflict SHOCK!!

4 Knowledge, experience, understanding Awareness of important similarities / differences

Accepting; tolerance of the new

Reintegration

5

Minimum

Understanding; insight Empathy

Interactive; mediating

Assimilation Adaptation Adjustment

Figure 2. The Paths of Culture Learning. From Damon, L. (1987) Culture Learning: The Fifth Dimension in the Language Classroom, Reading (Massachusetts): Addison-Wesley. p. 218.


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Attitude (Attitude to English and to native English speakers)

Students may possess varying attitudes towards 1) the English language, 2) English language speakers, 3) the L2 culture, 4) the social value of learning English, 5) particular uses of English, and 6) themselves as members of their own culture. These attitudes are likely to change according to the different social or academic contexts students experience. These attitudes “have an impact on the level of L2 proficiency achieved by individual learners and are themselves influenced… by their degree of success” (Ellis, 1994: 198). L2 students and native speakers may have a positive or negative attitude towards each other. This attitude may vary according to an individual’s experience. One post graduate student reported to the writer that after a lecture in a faculty subject, she asked an Australian student for clarification of a point the lecturer had made. The Australian student rudely told her “I’m not the teacher!” The international student involved is subsequently loathed to attempt communication with L1 speakers. Students often suffer more outrageous forms of discrimination in the community. Such experiences will impact in ways described by Baker (1988) in Ellis (1994: 199): “1. Attitudes are cognitive and affective (are capable of being thought about and have emotions attached to them). 2. Attitudes are dimensional rather than bipolar – they vary in degree of favourability/unfavourability. 3. Attitudes predispose a person to act in a certain way but the relationship between attitudes and actions is not a strong one. 4. Attitudes are learnt, not inherited or genetically endowed. 5. Attitudes tend to persist but they can be modified by experience.” (These characteristics indicate some implications for administration and academic staff which will be discussed along with other recommendations later). Case study Deniz’ conversations with his soccer contact over the Internet have been great because his level of knowledge and ability to express himself in English, in text at least, is quite high. Actually, there is a group of interested people that enter into the chat at times. Most of them are in the UK, but there are also a number of non English people like him. He is really looking forward to the Study Tour programme to the UK. In the afternoons they will tour Manchester and other places of interest. They also homestay with UK families. He is really looking forward to it. He has been finding out about English culture through his English course book. Now he will get he chance to experience it in person. Deniz also listens to music in English. He likes U2, Kylie Monogue, and the Black EYED Peas.

Secil’s time in Australia has been mixed because she had expected to have been more involved with native English speakers. However, now that she is working in a café in Brisbane, this is working out well. It has been a great experience to see how friendly Australians are. In Istanbul, where she is from, people are mainly openly friendly with their wider family and friends, but not as much with casual acquaintances as the Australian’s are. Secil feels a little uncomfortable with Australian women. Partly, it is because she thinks they wear quite skimpy clothing and because she dresses a bit more conservatively than them. Studying English in Australia is paying off. She feels her English has advanced far more than if she was studying in Turkey. Also when she graduates her certificate will help her get a better job back in Turkey.


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Intended Length of Residence (Time within a native English speaking context)

Generally, students who intend to stay in an English-speaking country for a long time, in order to complete their undergraduate studies or even to continue with post-graduate studies, are more likely to acculturate well. Some students may apply for permanent resident status and these students are more likely to be well-acculturated. Students who intend to complete a short term of study and return to their own country, seem less motivated to acculturate and maintain more of a social distance from the L2 culture. This is particularly the case with three Korean male students the writer has been working with. In fact, Korean males often have trouble acculturating, possibly because they come from a culture which has a strong hierarchical social structure in which males are quite dominant. Therefore, young Korean men, who have also invariably been in military service for several years, find it difficult to adjust to this society and to the education system in our universities. Many, therefore, are here for a short term stay and wish to return to Korea as soon as possible. The three men previously mentioned have significant difficulties with the English language and two of them do not communicate with their lecturers or their classmates.

Case study Deniz has enrolled in the three week UK Study Tour. He’s really excited because he will also be able to see some Manchester United games when he is there.

Secil has now been in Australia for nine months. She will be going back to Turkey after another three months. Before she came to Australia she had been looking for work for two years after University but was unsuccessful. That is normal in Turkey. It may take two or three years to get a job. She is wondering though if she should stay on for another year. Now she has her job at the café (and overtime is available), she could just about pay for her study and living costs if she reduced to part-time study and worked the full 20 hours a week that she can work on a student visa. Her family might help her out and especially if she takes on part-time university post graduate study.


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2. Under the category of Psychological Distance,

Language Shock (Preparedness and reality of learning English)

Many students arrive in Australia, for example, with an IELTS score of 5.5 or higher, (due to the requirements for obtaining an entry visa) and presume they have the capacity to understand and communicate in English. They are often ill-prepared for the idiomatic nature of informal (and also, often formal) language and for the requirements of academic writing. Newly-arrived students are therefore reticent to initiate conversations with L1 speakers and have great difficulty with listening comprehension. Furthermore, intelligent, university-level students get very frustrated when they cannot clearly express their ideas in their L2. They will often prefer not to speak at all. This is a factor that is likely to directly affect the development of a pidginised form of spoken language and “fossilisation” if the social and cultural distance remains high. (Schumann, 1995: 262; Schumann, 1990: 667) Case study Deniz started his Study tour in the UK. When out with friends after class, he was really surprised how difficult it was to understand what people are saying. It is quite different to the English he practiced in class back in Turkey.

Sometimes at the café, the staff get into some interesting conversations. It is hard for her to express her ideas about things at times. It is not that she does not have opinion, just that she is not confident enough with her English for the types of conversations they have.

Culture Shock (Emotional issues of adjusting to another, usually Western, culture)

Students have often reported to the writer that the biggest problem for them in terms of culture shock is Western food. Many students may be experiencing being away from home and family for the first time. Many young men know little about cooking for themselves and when they try to find the food they are used to, it is a disappointing experience. Lack of suitable food can make young people quite miserable and it may compound their difficulties in adjusting to a new environment and culture. The negative impact of culture shock can influence a student’s social distance and impact on their language and learning development. Culture shock can be a significant source of anxiety (Ellis, 1994: 480) which will be further discussed under “Ego Permeability.” Case study Deniz misses his mothers cooking while in the UK, but Turkish takeaways are easy to find in Manchester.

Secil sometimes goes without meals. In Turkey she always ate with friends or family. She doesn’t like to eat alone.


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Motivation (External and internal motivation) Beebe (1988: 69-71) discusses Gardner and Lambert’s (1972a) division of motivational orientations into integrative and instrumental, and this approach is significant in this area of discussion because most students would fall into the instrumental/external motivation category and there would be significant variations across a continuum in respect to integrative/internal self motivation. Beebe (1988: 71) quotes Gardner and Lambert as saying: For “members of ethnic minority groups… learning a second language of national or worldwide significance is indispensable, and both instrumental and integrative orientations…must be developed.” Walqui, A. (2000) cites Deci and Ryan (1985): “intrinsic motivation is related to basic human needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness. Intrinsically self motivated activities are those that the learner engages in for their own sake because of their value, interest, and challenge. Such activities present the best opportunities for learning.” However, Brown (2000: 163) reports that there are conflicting views over variable findings in research on the two motivation orientations of students and it would seem that they are not mutually exclusive. Students may benefit from both or either depending on the individual learner and /or their particular context. Gardner and MacIntyre (1995: 210-219) also conclude, after studying 92 university psychology students who were offered a $10 reward for success in a test, that generally, there is little difference between the two. Case study Through the soccer forum Deniz arranges to meet up with his on-line contact at a local pub and then to go on to a Manchester United match. It is not all fun though. He has to work hard learning English. He carries around a vocabulary book and tries to learn at least 10 new words and 10 phrases a day based on what he is studying. It is interesting that for the afternoon tours they have English worksheets and sometimes they do activities like interviewing people in the streets.

Secil is finding some really good social discussions are happening with her workmates at the café. Her experiences at the café also make for good discussion with her friends back at the language school. It is not all fun though. She still does her homework at night. She knows that this time in Australia is costing her family a lot of money and so she has to try her best.

Ego Permeability (Openness to Western ways of using language versus the learners own cultural norms) This is the degree to which a language learner perceives his/her native language and culture to have rigid, or, alternatively, permeable boundaries, and involves the degree of attachment an individual has to his/her self-identity in association with their native language and culture. A Japanese male student studying in a Foundation program had strong negative reactions to the way he was asked to write and describe his psychological conditioning in his Applied Psychology unit. His attachment to his own cultural conditioning and his native Japanese style of writing about his emotions (without revealing too much) were being challenged and he was reacting with a great deal of anger and frustration, preventing him from achieving at all well in this unit. Savignon (1997: 109) summarises research which finds that self-identity “is crucial to differential competence and to heterogeneity of speech communities.” The speech community at a Language School is indeed a complex one in which students must try to find a place and develop a sense of self. As mentioned previously, there is a strong relationship between ego permeability and levels of anxiety. Bailey (1995: 165) suggests older language learners may be generally more anxious. This may be because older students have a strongly developed sense of self associated with their own culture and language. Bailey cites an interesting experiment by Guiora and others who tested whether lower states of inhibition (achieved by administering small amounts of alcohol) caused higher ego permeability and thus a more successful completion of a Thai pronunciation test! A positive correlation was shown although those given too much alcohol scored lower. (Bailey, 1995: 165)


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Case study Deniz takes another student friend along to another soccer game meeting up with his UK friend again. Actually, they are the only students from the Study Tour who have made any sort of friendship with local English people. The other students seem to stick together when they go out. It is funny really, but the English guys he is meeting swear a lot. Maybe it is just that they are out socially. It is good that they have soccer as a common subject of conversation – he has mastered the technical language that is used when talking about soccer.

Secil’s flatmates also work. Two of them work at a hotel as cleaners and the other two at the fruit markets in Brisbane. The two who work at the hotel work just with other international students. The two who work at the fruit markets get to talk with some Australian workers. They are learning lots of swear words. Secil has noticed how individual Australians are. In Turkey everyone does things as groups. Here in Australia there are groups, but they just don’t seem to stick together as much. It is invigorating that she can go out walking alone and no-one worries.

Perhaps the major implication that emerges from this discussion is that students need to feel comfortable in their study environment and if the opportunity is there, they obviously want to integrate more with L1 speakers. The acculturation factors of Integration, Enclosure, Attitude, Language Shock, Culture Shock and Ego Permeability could perhaps be addressed to some extent through regular social functions where students are able to mix and speak with L1 speakers. ‘Social function’ can also be embedded in the curriculum. Gass and Selinker (1994: 173) discuss the importance of the interlocutor in the type of language that is produced by students. So although communicative activities and situations between students are extremely important, opportunities for communicative experience with L1 speakers is also necessary. “Since different social situations give rise to different affective responses, so the input a learner receives is differently attended to and differently processed” (Young, 1999: 118). Teachers, therefore, need to keep in mind that attitudes can be changed through experience and they can also have a direct impact on learning.

Task

Work on the downloaded Word document to complete this task. The points raised in Schumann’s Acculturation Theory for SLA have been related to a case study of two students. Imagine you own two language schools and so are able to devise programmes of study, activities and services to provide a holistic learning environment to maximise students’ learning/acquisition. Imagine you have an unlimited budget to establish a language school in Turkey and another in Brisbane, Australia. The two students we will be considering are Deniz and Secil. In the Case of Deniz, he is studying at University in Turkey and two nights a week at YOUR local English language school. In our story he also goes on a three week Study Tour to the UK, which YOUR school organises. There he meets up with a soccer friend that he had been in contact with on-line due to their mutual interest in the Manchester United soccer club. In the case if Secil, she has finished university in Turkey and is spending a year studying at YOUR language school in Brisbane. Initially, she stays with a homestay family. After a month, she moves into a flat with some other international students, and after six months she gets a part-time job at a local café where she is able to meet and converse with native English speakers. Perhaps she will stay on in Australia for another year for University post graduate studies.


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Please answer the questions with small paragraph answers. 1. UNDER THE CATEGORY OF SOCIAL DISTANCE, Social Dominance (The effect of cultural and political power on language learning) In our example, Deniz is studying for two nights a week at a local language school. This is an expensive commitment. Students’ families often sacrifice a lot to send children and young adults to language schools. Likewise, Secil’s family will be providing financial support for her to study overseas Q1 How could your school help with students’ finances (Perhaps a description of a scholarship and/or student job search help)? Integration Pattern (The degree of integration with the culture of the English speaking world) Some students in countries, where English is not the common language, join overseas study tours. These programmes are usually organised through their school or university. Typically, a tour may be three weeks long and involve English study in the morning and afternoon and weekend activities and excursions, and often homestay accommodation. Q2: If your school is in Istanbul, what Overseas Study Tour could your school organise? (Describe the programme a little). Enclosure (The degree the English learning environment is disconnected from native English speaking culture) At universities in countries where English is not the common language there may be clubs that provide an opportunity for students to practice English. Q3: If your school is on a university campus, what kind of club could you run? Especially in countries where English is not the common language students often use the internet as a learning tool and with the rise of social networking they may find ways of communicating with native English Speakers on-line. Q4: If your school ran a class or club called “Internet English”, what things might the club do? Cohesiveness (Monolingual classes and student groups versus mixed international student groups ) In countries where English is not the common language the classes in language school have all students from the same country. Universities also will mostly have students from the same country. This limits the opportunity to practice English. Secil overcame this issue by studying in Australia and living with international students from different countries. Deniz has followed his interest in a Turkish player in the Manchester United Football Club. This gives him an opportunity to mix students and adults other than from Turkey. Q5: If your language school is in a country where English is not the common language, what special programmes could your school run to give these students greater opportunities to mix with international students and/or native English speakers? Size (Relative size of the learners own language (L1) social group) In our example, Deniz managed to connect with an English guy through initial contact on a soccer forum for the Manchester United Football Club.


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Q6: If your school ran a programme called “Making friends in the West”, what ideas would you want your teachers to use? Cultural Congruence (Perceived closeness to Western culture) In our example, Deniz considers his religious views to be open to western culture. Q7: If your school was running a class called “conversation on culture”, what topics would you like your teachers to cover? In our example, Secil is slightly uncomfortable with the casual nature of how women dress in Australia. In other cases students can come from very conservative religious backgrounds. One way of helping students work out how do live in another culture is to bring to the school a respected person from the student groups’ community – someone who can provide a good example of how to adapt to the given culture while maintaining their own general values and perhaps also their religious identity. Q8: What do you think such a person (respected person from the student groups’ community) would say to the students? Attitude (Attitude to English and to native English speakers) In our example, Deniz’ is keenly enrolled on a Study Tour to Manchester in the Uk. He is exited because when there he may be able to go to a soccer match and perhaps even meet up with his on-line friend. Q9: At your school what programmes or activities could be offered to open up the students attitudes to native speakers and/or Western culture? In our example, Secil has realised there is a more comprehensive group culture in Turkey compared to Australia, where people are more individualistic. She also remains a little uncomfortable about her dress style compared to Australian women. Being able to overcome cultural challenges will impact on a students’ attitude to learning English and native English speakers. Also Secil did not have a great experience with her homestay family when she first arrived. First impressions will also affect ones attitude. Q10: If your school had a student counsellor who was also a language teacher and they ran a small class tutorial called “your feelings and Western Culture” what would you want to know the counsellor-teacher was covering in the tutorial sessions? Intended Length of Residence (Time within a native English speaking context) In our example, Deniz is really excited about his Study Tour to the UK. But what if it turns out to be a bad experience for him. It is such a short time and he should make the most of it. Q11:If your school runs Study Tour programme in the Uk or another English speaking country, what would you add to the programme to ensure the students’ enthusiastic expectations are met? 2. UNDER THE CATEGORY OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DISTANCE: Language Shock (Preparedness and reality of learning English)

In our example, when Deniz was on his Study Tour in the UK he was initially shocked by the difference in the language he was hearing around him compared with the English he was exposed to at his school back in Turkey. Later on when he met up with his native English speaker friends at the pub he was surprised at the amount of swear words and slang that they used.


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It is unlikely that you want to run a class on swear words at your school, but you may be able to do something to prepare students for the Study Tour in various ways. Q12: If your school runs a “pre Overseas Study Tour class”, what listening activities could be included so that the students going on the UK Study Tour will experience a minimal amount of language shock? In our example, Secil struggled to enter into conversations at the café where she works. She has opinions but is not confident enough to express them. Q13: If your school is running a “debating” class or competition, what would be some good topics to debate? Culture Shock (Emotional issues of adjusting to another, usually Western, culture) In our example, while Deniz in on the Study Tour in the UK he misses his mother’s cooking, but makes up for it by eating Turkish takeaways. Q14: What other culture shock experiences might students have and how could they adjust, or compensate to minimise the culture shock? Motivation (External and internal motivation) In our example, Deniz is motivated enough with his English learning to learn a daily quota of vocabulary. To keep students motivated with their English learning when on study tours, the teachers usually provide worksheets to complete during or after afternoon activities. But what about when Deniz gets back to Turkey? One thing language schools do to keep students motivated, in countries where English is not the common language, is to have movie nights and conversation clubs. Q15: Imagine that you are running the language School in Turkey where Deniz studies two nights a week. Can you think of some ideas for conversation around movies or activities for a conversation club? Ego Permeability (Openness to Western ways of using language versus the learners own cultural norms) In our example, Secil finds it invigorating that she can go out walking on her own in Brisbane. In her own country she would generally go out with others. In this example of adapting to Western culture Secil found something that she adapted to. It is something that has been discovered. Therefore, we can expect their sense of self in relation to her language learning experience is also increased. Q16: At your school if you can a class tutorial called “Intercultural discovery”, what would you like to see included in the programme?


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A nativist approach, Krashen’s Monitor Theory (There is something inside of us that helps us learning languages)

The Monitor Theory proposed by Stephen Krashen (1988: 1) hypothesises that there are two independent systems involved in the attainment of a second language. One is subconscious acquisition and the other is conscious learning. Further, Krashen claims that subconscious acquisition is far more important in the process than conscious learning, although they are interrelated and the Monitor Theory attempts to explain this relationship. Following is an outline of the five hypotheses that the Monitor Theory rests on, and an examination of some of the research studies and data Krashen uses to support his ideas. A brief review will be given of some of the arguments that find fault with his theory. The hypotheses and the views concerning their validity will also be placed within the context of the writer’s own observations as an English as a Second Language teacher with over thirty years experience in the field. Case study While Deniz studies in the evening, sometimes he finds it enjoyable to listen to English music. His teacher also recommended he get the words and sing along.

While Secil has been studying hard at the language school in Brisbane, she has noticed how much she has improved just by working at the café. The study helps, but so does the exposure.

The five hypotheses Krashen has developed as support for the Monitor Theory are, in summary: The Acquisition-Learning Distinction, which contrasts learning a second language the natural, implicit way a first language is learned, with learning explicitly through “knowing about a language” by study of its rules or grammar; Case study Both Deniz and Secil learned English at High school, but it was more grammar and exercise focussed that at the language schools. Now they both study at language schools: Deniz part-time; Secil full time. At the language schools there is an emphasis on communicative activities. Grammar is covered more lightly. It is not that the high school classes were of no value. Certainly the grammar they learned is of use now when they are studying at the language schools. Also, at the language schools, it is not that they spend the whole time using English, because in each lesson there is at least some reference to grammar. But without practice during class time in using English, Deniz and Secil would both be struggling to increase their ability to produce English.

The Natural Order Hypothesis, which postulates that there is a certain natural order in which learners acquire a second language, regardless of the order of acquisition of their first language (shown in studies by Dulay and Burt in 1974/75 and cited by Krashen, 1987:12); Case study At the language schools Deniz and Secil use course books built on grammar and communicative activities which scaffold lesson by lesson. Some grammar is easy because it is not dissimilar to the grammar in the students’ first language. In Deniz’ school in Turkey, where the classes are monolingual the teachers usually spend extra time on explaining grammar when the grammar is not in the students’ first language. At Secil’s school in Brisbane the students are from different countries, so this does not happen, except some teachers provide extra grammar homework when individual or small groups of students struggle with any particular grammar. One of Deniz’ teachers is keen on Project Based Learning, where the class do more complete activities, for


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example, designing brochures. In this case they use English during the design, drafting and presentation stages. The teacher then discovers with the students the grammar that is needed, regardless of whether it would normally be in a course book for the class level.

The Monitor Hypothesis, which proposes that learning acts only as a monitor or editor for output, indicating the limited usefulness (although certainly a degree of usefulness) of formal grammar teaching. Effective monitoring is dependent on the three variables of time (the time it takes to use monitoring during a conversation for example) focus on form (the learner must be focused on the form of the language at the time of monitoring rather than the meaning) know the rule (monitoring cannot take place if the learner has not been exposed to the specific rule); Case study The course books Deniz and Secil use are well designed in terms of activities for using English in the real world. Deniz and Secil have different teachers. Some of them stick to the course book and some adapt the books to varying degrees to make them more relevant to the students’ interests. The typical communicative classes that Deniz and Secil attend have segments in the lessons where they look at grammar and then they have practice activities, some which are constrained by a language structure and some which are more like role plays. The teacher monitors their language providing correction during or after the activities and since the activities usually follow the grammar sections of the lesson Deniz and Secil also self monitor their own language use. Some teachers have Deniz and Secil correcting each others work. With written work there is often a requirement for Deniz and Secil to self and peer correct their drafts with teacher input along the way.

The Input Hypothesis, which rests on natural order in acquisition and states that a learner best acquires structure that is a little beyond their current abilities and that they acquire the structure using cues of context, knowledge of the world and other extra-linguistic information – all based on the meaning, rather than the form. Comprehensible input can also be in the form of reading (Krashen, 1994: 46); Case study At Deniz’ and Secil’s high school what was covered in the English classes was the same even though a few students were better than others. That is the case with most class subjects at school. However, one of the advantages of studying at language schools is that Deniz and Secil had tests and interviews before being placed in a class. Sometimes then the students in the classes are of different ages. Generally the learning material in the classes is pitched about right. It is not too easy and not too hard. Progressing to a higher class is handled differently at the different schools. At Deniz’ school in Turkey they guarantee that students move up a class every twelve weeks. Naturally some students struggle more than others, so teacher organises some extra tuition for students to help them keep up to speed. At Secil’s school in Brisbane they have to pass the monthly tests to go up a level. If you do not pass you cannot go up. This is not such a problem since some students study part time and some full time and then students can start on any Monday so there are lots of students coming and going from the classes.

and finally, the Affective Filter Hypothesis, which lists three variables that will affect acquisition. They are motivation, self-confidence and anxiety, again relating to acquisition rather than learning, according to Krashen (1987: 31). Case study This hypothesis is also covered in the Schumann’s Acculturation Theory. As covered above there are various approaches and implications for learning languages that come under the categories of motivation, self-confidence and anxiety.


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Perhaps to mention something about anxiety. You will remember Secil was nervous about spending time with Australian women and this related to her dress code which was more conservative. In many cases students hunger for opportunities to talk with native English speakers, but along with this comes anxiety over cultural issues. Deniz and Secil both managed to discover ways to meet and converse with native English speakers, but reading their stories you can see that they needed to overcome their anxieties to do so. In addition to his normal classes Deniz focussed on language to talk about soccer and this paid off when he was able to meet some soccer enthusiasts in the UK. Secil needed to overcome anxiety to get a job and then she was experiencing some anxiety to do with her dress preference and where she did not feel confident to share in some of the conversations the staff had at the café where she worked. Asian students often have anxiety in speaking up in class. This has a lot to do with their society which values listening and thinking before you speak rather than speaking out the first thing that comes into your head. Generally since students are asked to talk regularly in language school classes, the teacher can help them overcome their anxiety. Often if a student seems shy to answer you can ask some students next to them if they can help. This seems to work well to distress the environment.

While the Krashen SAL theory provides a clear enough model, it is like many theories regarded with degrees of scepticism from other theorists. The evidence Krashen uses for his hypotheses has mostly been gathered from research carried out subsequent to his formulations. “There is a strong tendency and tradition in the U.S.A. of beginning always with the formulation of a theory, from which practice is derived, whereas in Europe – and particularly in the UK – a more pragmatic attitude prevails, whereby a body of practice that can be seen to be effective may lead to the evolution of a theory derived from it,” assert Barasch and James (1994: 3). They continue by saying, “In so far as Krashen’s theory is based on empirical evidence, it is drawn almost exclusively from American sources and thus… needs more geographical coverage.”

Some other SLA considerations

Other theories consider the area of Language Transfer. The ability to learn a second language easily will depend on how closely the grammatical structure of the L2 resembles that of the L1. If there are similarities, there will be a positive language transfer. If the languages are quite different in structure, there will be significant interference or negative transfer (Ellis, 1994: 299-303). In other words, the language habits a student has will either interfere or reinforce her/his learning of the second language. Research is difficult because, of course, there are a number of other factors that influence the degree of language transfer, including the transfer influence of other languages a student may have learned or been exposed to. This area of research is part of what is termed Cognitive Studies of SLA because it deals with how existing knowledge influences a learner’s acquisition of the L2.

Universal Grammar Chomsky (1976: 29, quoted by Ellis, 1994: 430) defines Universal Grammar as ‘the system of principles, conditions and rules that are elements or properties of all human languages.’ In other words, second language acquisition is aided by there being a common grammatical basis for every language, despite there being many variations in specific usage. There are other universals too, such as in how language is processed and the order or sequence of development. These universals also apply to Interlanguage – the language characteristic of learners communicating with each other at a certain stage of acquisition (characterised by unique grammatical constructions that would normally be considered incorrect).


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Summary The communicative language teaching approach does in fact amalgamate various theories and approaches, including Krashen. Communicative language teaching takes a pragmatic approach in combining what seems to work best as drawn from a range of theories and methodology. Teachers each develop their own teaching pedagogy, based on where they think the emphasis should go. SLA takes us out of the classroom to consider many more factors that impact on a student successfully learning a language and certainly each teacher can help create a better environment for students by their extra curricular involvement at the schools where they work. Also being aware of the different issues that students face outside of the classroom will help you as a teacher by the way you encourage students and even you may step forward and run extra tutorial or school activity classes specifically aimed to address better language acquisition. You should be able to understand better why students enjoy contact with you as a teacher. As the students’ teacher, you may well be the only native English speaker they are able to converse and interact with.

Once you complete and revise the task in this unit, you will be ready to submit your work. E-mail your Word document to the unit coordinator on [email protected] UH. Include a clear ‘subject line’, such as your name followed by TIC4U4 or SLA tasks.


References and recommended further reading

For Schumman’s Acculturation Theory

Bailey, K.M. (1995) “Competitiveness and Anxiety in Second Language Learning: Looking at and through the Diary Studies,” in Brown, H.D. and Gonzo, S. (eds.) Readings on Second Language Acquisition, Upper Saddle River (NJ): Prentice-Hall. pp. 163 – 205. Beebe, L.M. (1988) “Five sociolinguistic approaches to second language acquisition,” in Beebe, L.M. (ed.) Issues in Second Language Acquisition, New York: Newbury House. pp. 41 – 78. Brown, H.D. (2000) Principles of Language Learning and Teaching, White Plains (NY): Longman.

Damon, L. (1987) Culture Learning: The Fifth Dimension in the Language Classroom, Reading (Massachusetts): Addison-Wesley. p. 218. Edwards, J. (1988) “Bilingualism, education and identity,” in Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 9 (1&2): 203 – 210. Ellis, R. (1994) The Study of Second Language Acquisition, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Gardner, R.C. and MacIntyre, P.D. (1995) “An Instrumental Motivation in Language Study: Who says it isn’t effective?” in Brown, H.D. and Gonzo, S. (eds.) Readings on Second Language Acquisition, Upper Saddle River (NJ): Prentice-Hall. pp. 206 – 225.


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Gass, S.M. & Selinker, L. (1994) Second Language Acquisition: An Introductory Course, Hillside (N.J.): Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Larsen-Freeman, d. and Long, M.H. (1991) An Introduction to Second Language Acquisition Research, New York: Longman. Pierce, B.N. (1995) “Social identity, investment and language learning,” in TESOL Quarterly 29 (1): 9 - 31. Savignon, S.J. (1997) Communicative Competence: Theory and classroom practice, texts and contexts in second language learning, New York: McGraw-Hill. Schumann, J.H. (1986) “Research on the acculturation model for second language acquisition,” in Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 7 (5): 379 – 392. Schumann, J.H. (1990) “Extending the Scope of the Acculturation/Pidginization Model to Include Cognition”, TESOL Quarterly, 24 (4): pp. 667 – 684. Schumann, J.H. (1994) “Where is Cognition? Emotion and Cognition in Second Language Acquisition”, Studies in Second Language Acquisition 16 (2): pp. 231 – 242. Schumann, J.H. (1995) “Second Language Acquisition: The Pidginization Hypothesis,” in Brown, H.D. and Gonzo, S. (eds.) Readings on Second Language Acquisition, Upper Saddle River (NJ): Prentice-Hall. pp. 262 – 280. Schumann, J.H. (2001) “Appraisal Psychology, Neurobiology, and Language”, Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 21. pp. 23 – 42. Walqui, A. (2000) Contextual Factors in Second Language Acquisition HUhttp://www.cal.org/ericll/digest/0005contextual.htmlUH

ERIC Clearing House on Languages and Linguistics Digest Watson-Gegeo, K.A. (1995) “Ethnography in ESL: Defining the Essentials,” in Brown, H.D. and Gonzo, S. (eds.) Readings on Second Language Acquisition, Upper Saddle River (NJ): Prentice-Hall. pp. 36 - 53. Young, R. (1999) “Sociolinguistic Approaches to SLA”, Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 19. pp. 105 – 132.

For Krashen’s Theory Barasch, R.M. & James, C.V. (1994). ‘Preface’ in Barasch, R.M. & James, C.V. (eds.) Beyond the Monitor Model: Comments on Current Theory and Practice in Second Language Acquisition, Boston: Heinle & Heinle. pp. 1 – 5. Ellis, R. (1985) Understanding Second Language Acquisition, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ellis, R. (1994) The Study of Second Language Acquisition, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ellis,R. (1994) ‘Variability and the Natural Order Hypothesis’ in Barasch, R.M. and James, C. V. (eds.) Beyond the Monitor Model: Comments on Current Theory and practice in Second Language Acquisition, Boston: Heinle and Heinle. pp. 139 – 158. Gass, S.M. & Selinker, L. (1994) Second Language Acquisition: An Introductory Course, Hillside (N.J.): Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Gregg, K. (1994) ‘Krashen’s Theory, Acquisition Theory, and Theory’ in Barasch, R.M. and James, C. V. (eds.) Beyond the Monitor Model: Comments on Current Theory and practice in Second Language Acquisition, Boston: Heinle and Heinle. pp. 37 – 55. Krashen, S.D. (1987) Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition, Hemel Hempstead: Prentice-Hall. Krashen, S.D. (1988) Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning, Hemel Hempstead: Prentice-Hall. Krashen, S.D. (1994) ‘The Input Hypothesis and its rivals’ in N.C. Ellis (ed.) Implicit and Explicit Learning of Languages, London: Academic Press. pp45-77.


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Lightbrown, P.M. & Spada, N. (1999) How Languages are Learned, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Long, M. and Robinson, P. (1998) ‘Focus on Form: Theory Research and Practice’ in Doughty, C. and Williams, J. (eds.) Focus on Form in Classroom Second Language Acquisition, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 15-41. Shannon, S.M. (1994) ‘Introduction’ in Barasch, R.M. & James, C.V. (eds.) Beyond the Monitor Model: Comments on Current Theory and Practice in Second Language Acquisition Boston: Heinle & Heinle. pp. 7 – 20. Thornbury, S. (1997) About Language: Tasks for Teachers of English, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Turner, G.W. (ed.), (1984) The Australian Pocket Oxford Dictionary (2P

ndP edition), Melbourne: Oxford University

Press.


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TIC4U5 – Observe and Analyse Whole Lessons

The observation of other teachers is an excellent way of becoming more aware of your own teaching, and the options and possibilities which are available to you in the classroom. Observation, reflection and discussion are invaluable learning tools, and the purpose of this unit is to encourage you to become a reflective teacher. You are required to complete an Observation Report and Reflection of two ESL lessons, preferably of two different language levels and if possible with two different teachers. Each report/reflection will include paragraphs detailing your responses to the questions below. They should be written in paragraph form, and should include specific examples from the lessons you observe. You may also include references from other TESOL resource books if you wish. Your Observation Reports and Reflections should be submitted to your tutor via email and should be no more than 3,000 words in total. After completion of the two reports, you should also write a paragraph (maximum 250 words) comparing the two different lessons, and what you learnt from observing them. Submission of work: Remember to download the Word template to work on and save it document with a clear title including your name, for example, “santa.claus.TIC4U5.doc”. Probably the best way to observe lessons is to use the Teach International Lesson Observation DVD. The reason for this is that the lessons are taught by Teach International trainers teaching real students. We organised the Lesson Observation DVD so that there are lesson covering all the levels and the four skills of Listening, Speaking, Reading and writing. We provide all students with a Lesson Observation DVD when they finish the in-class component. If for any reason you do not have a copy please contact teach International and we will mail one to you. Additionally to help you the lesson plans for these lessons are provided here: http://www.teachinternational.com/downloads/plans/Elementaryspeakingfocus.pdf http://www.teachinternational.com/downloads/plans/PreIntermediatespeakingfocus.pdf http://www.teachinternational.com/downloads/plans/Intermediatespeakingfocus.pdf http://www.teachinternational.com/downloads/plans/Intermediatereadingfocus.pdf http://www.teachinternational.com/downloads/plans/UpperIntermediatespeakingfocus.pdf http://www.teachinternational.com/downloads/plans/UpperIntermediateListeningandreading.pdf http://www.teachinternational.com/downloads/plans/UpperIntermediatewritingfocus.pdf You may have had other opportunities to observe classes, especially if you have undertaken practice teaching through the mentor teaching approach or have been working in a school where you can easily observe lessons.

Each report must include ALL THREE parts as described below:

Part 1:

Each report must Include A-D below: A: Basic details of the lesson (basic details in a list)

- Date and duration of lesson - Venue - Teacher’s name - Level of class - Cultural composition of class - Gender split

B: Aims and Objectives of lesson (include in note form under separate headings what you believe the lesson’s Aims and Objectives were). Then complete a short 75-100 word paragraph which explains:

- Are the aims/objectives of the lesson easily identifiable? - Are the objectives articulated to the students? - Are there any hidden aims? - Were the aims/objectives achieved? - How could you tell?


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C: What have I learnt from this observation? (50-100 words) D: Lesson Summary indicating the stages of the lesson and the approximate timings for these (note form or a list is ok)

- How did the teacher introduce the lesson? - How was the lesson developed? What was in the body of the lesson? - How did the teacher conclude the lesson?

Part 2 Each report must also include a paragraph (with specific examples given from the lesson) on: Language Skills (100-150 words max)

- Which of the four macro-skills (Reading, Writing, Listening, Speaking) were being used in this lesson?

- Which micro-skills (other skills required to communicate effectively) were being used in this lesson? - If more than one, were they integrated? How? - What tasks or activities were set? - What resources did the teacher use to develop these skills?

Part 3 Each report must also include two paragraphs on two of the topics of Uyour choiceU from the list of six below (each paragraph must include specific examples given from the lesson): Write 100-150 words max for EACH paragraph. The points under each topic are a guide only; you can talk about other issues within that topic. Materials including course books

- Which materials were used in the lesson? - Were they appropriate to the level? Time of day? Group interest? - Did these reflect the cultural composition of the class? Was it important that they did? - Was the whiteboard used? How effectively was it used? Why was it used as opposed to OHTs?

Interactions

- How did the students respond to the teacher? To the activities set by the teacher? - Did the teacher provide opportunities for group and/or pair work? - How did they respond to each other? - Were there any obvious areas of cultural misunderstanding? - How did the teacher take cultural differences into account in organising the activities? - Did the students respond to the teacher’s style? Were they used to the teacher’s approach? - What was the proportion of Teacher Talking Time to Student Talking Time?

Phonology - Which aspects of phonology were taught or revised? - How did the teacher deal with pronunciation difficulties? - Were phonetics used to explain pronunciation difficulties? - Were intonation, word or sentence stress addressed in any way?

Concept Checking/Questioning Techniques

- Did the teacher check that the students had fully understood the facts, concepts, new aspects of the lesson? How?

- What types of questions did the teacher use? - How did the teacher give feedback to the students? - How did the teacher take into account cultural or environmental (room size, equipment, ventilation,


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temperature) factors, the abilities of the students, other relevant factors?

Grammatical Content/Focus on Form - What language was presented or revised? - In what context was it presented? - How was it practised?

Approach and Method/ Appropriacy - Was a particular teaching approach or method used (eg. communicative approach etc.) - Did it seem appropriate for that level and group? - To what degree was the lesson student-centred? - Where or how would students use what they had learned in the lesson? - Is this appropriate?

Once you complete both reports and the comparison between the two lessons, you should email your Word document to the unit coordinator on [email protected] UH. Make sure you revise your work before sending it, and you check your spelling and grammar. Write a clear subject line, such as your name followed by TIC4U5 or Lesson Observation Tasks.


Well done!


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TIC4U6 – Teach ESL Independently

Introduction

This unit requires that you are undertaking or have undertaken the practice teaching component of your course. You also then should be familiar with the Teach International lesson plan format as explained in the MS Word file “Recommendations for preparing lesson plans.doc” which is internally attached in the Practice teaching Handbook. Submission of work: Remember to download the Word template to work on and save it document with a clear title including your name, for example, “santa.claus.TIC4U2.doc”.

1. Submitted Lesson Plans In the submitted document, you will submit three (3) speaking focussed Lesson Plans according to the Teach International format. These need to be according to the Teach International format. The Teach International format can bee seen in the “Recommendations for preparing lesson plans.doc” file which is internally attached in the Practice Teaching Handbook.

TASK 1. Submit three (3) speaking focussed Lesson Plans according to the Teach International format. Your lesson plans should include the following elements: � You name, date, time and place of delivery. � Language level of the class. � Age level of the class. � Communicative aims. � Linguistic/Grammar aim. � Clearly identified stages of the lesson. � Description of activities within each stage. � In the Target language sections, a dialogue context with underlined target language. � In the Target language sections, some reference to FORM. � In the Target language sections, some reference to MEANING. � In the Target language sections, some General CCQs for the context. � In the Target language sections, some Specific CCQs focussed on the target language. A free practice activity which demonstrates that the communicative aim is achieved. Exception: You may have conducted your practice teaching by being mentor trained and as such given direction to teach lessons other than with a speaking emphasis. In such a case we will accept lesson plans with other emphasis in listening, reading or writing, or blended skills lessons where more than one skill is focussed on.


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2. Pre-teaching reflections In the submitted document, you tell us the story of your planning and lesson preparation during your practice teaching component.

Task 2. Pre-teaching reflections. Tell us the story of your planning and lesson preparation during your practice teaching component. You can link your comments to particular lesson if you wish and/or you may refer to the first lesson, lessons at some stage of your practice teaching and your last lesson i.e. you may discuss how your planning and preparation developed over the course of your practice teaching. Include: � Lessons you could apply from previous observation or teaching of the same group. � Feedback on previously taught lessons. � Research on the topic and/or on the grammar. � Reasons for deciding on your aims. � Reasons for deciding on your target language dialogue/script, text, or media. � Reasons for resources used, including any designed materials such as worksheets or role cards). � Reason for deciding on the various activities. Word count? Try and aim for about one or two pages.


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3. Post-teaching Reflections

Task 2. Post-teaching reflections. Tell us the story of your reflection after teaching lessons during your practice teaching component. First paragraph Based on any advice, discussion and your own reflections, how might you like to develop your own teaching pedagogy/style? Second and third paragraphs Based on feedback given and your own reflections, what were you doing well by the end of your practice teaching component and what areas do you still need to work on? You might comment on some of the criteria from the feedback form: • Appropriateness of lesson plans used (adults or children).

(Not childish for adults, or advanced reasoning for children)

• Suitability of objectives for the level and age of learners. (Clearly identifiable, not too general or too specific, achievable by the end of the lesson, include a Communicative/behavioural and Linguistic/Grammar aims

• Degree that Aids and materials were appropriate and/or well organised. (Appropriate for the activities)

• The appropriacy of Lesson and materials for the age and cultural background of learners. (Not prejudicial or confronting, any blending of communication skills appropriate to needs)

• Rapport with your students. (Chatting before lesson, using names where reasonably possible, friendly mood, open to questions, encouraging, available at end of class)

• Effectiveness of pair and group work (In line with aims, A & B prompt cards, seating, role play props, *see below on demonstrating, see interactive activities below)

• Facilitation of activities. (Pull back for more demonstration/explanation if starts off track, echo correcting, Avoid getting pulled into students questions, monitoring/listening stance, take up at end, focus on common errors at end)

• Use of materials and whiteboard. (Organised placement – new vocab, target language, homework, alternative language; allow students to have copy before removing, size readable from back of class, tidy handwriting style)

• Interactiveness of activities. (Activities that include communicatively interactive roles, dominant interactive activities for speaking and listening skills, blended skills lesson can reflect interaction of communication modes e.g. might have email response after phone call or conversation about a read text)

• Ratio of student/teacher talk time. (avoiding explanation where demonstration is possible - see Activities demonstrated and not explained below, for listening and writing activities first example provided, avoiding off the subject discussion, reflected in amount of student activities, avoidance of lecturing style, for listening and writing skills time doing an activity can be included in 80/20 goal)

• demonstrated of activities. (All pair work and role play type activities demonstrated, avoidance of an addition explanation, use concept checking questions so on the word “go” students know what to do, and game rules stated and checked, one run through of competition activities)

• Presentation of Target Language. (Target language may include but is not limited to grammar forms, functional phrases, vocabulary, word collocations (groups), or other linguistic aspect e.g. phonetics, rhythm, intonation, patterns of sound, gesture and language; For speaking focus lessons target language is underlined within a dialogue, pre-teaching of essential vocabulary, concepts questions focus on general meaning and target language, For skills lessons other than speaking aspects of language form/construction are focussed on - usually extrapolated after skills work, target language trackable through the lessons.)

• Positive reinforcement. (Encouraging and praising the efforts of the students)

• Clarity of instructions. (Concise, used imperatives, no waffling, no restating in other words)

• Effectiveness of non-verbal communication. (Positive body language with clear, appropriate gestures that clarifies language demonstrations and instruction)

• Grading of speech. (Not too complex or unusual vocabulary in relation to the lesson and class level; conversely, not too simple - childspeak or pidgin with verbs/articles or subjects missing or limited repetitive vocabulary)

• Clarity of voice and pace of speaking. (Clear in regards to accent, speed and volume, no mumbling)

• Pace of the lessons. (Activities were well timed for the lesson, providing adequate practice time, not prolonging - tying up activities and moving on, free activities at the end of lesson are not crowded out, not going over or under time by a large margin)

Word count? Try and aim for about one or two pages.


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This is the final page of this unit. Once you have completed your minimum teaching load for this unit and developed: a timetable, 3 suitable lesson plans, 3 suitable pre-reflections and 3 suitable post-reflections, you will be ready to submit your work. Make sure you check spelling and grammar. When you are ready, email your Word document to the unit coordinator on [email protected] ensuring the ‘subject’ line is clear, for example, “Wonder Woman – Unit 6 Tasks”


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