cell plant

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IB Biology/Cells [edit ] 2.1 Cell Theory 2.1.1 Outline the Cell Theory Living organisms are composed of one or more cells Cells are the smallest unit of life Cells must come from pre-existing living cells 2.1.2 Discuss the evidence for the cell theory The cell theory has amassed tremendous credibility through the use of the microscope in the following: Robert Hooke- studied cork and found little tiny compartments that he called cells Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek- observed the first living cells, called them 'animalcules' meaning little animals Schleiden- stated that plants are made of 'independent, separate beings' called cells Schwaan- made a similar statement to Schleiden about animals 2.1.3 State that unicellular organisms carry out all of the functions of life Metabolism; chemical reactions inside the cell, including cell respiration to release energy Response; perceiving and responding to changes in the environment Homeostasis; keeping conditions inside the organism within tolerable limits Growth; an irreversible increase in size Reproduction; producing offspring either sexually or asexually

Transcript of cell plant

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IB Biology/Cells [edit] 2.1 Cell Theory

2.1.1 Outline the Cell Theory

Living organisms are composed of one or more cells Cells are the smallest unit of life Cells must come from pre-existing living cells

2.1.2 Discuss the evidence for the cell theory

The cell theory has amassed tremendous credibility through the use of the microscope in the following:

Robert Hooke- studied cork and found little tiny compartments that he called cells

Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek- observed the first living cells, called them 'animalcules' meaning little animals

Schleiden- stated that plants are made of 'independent, separate beings' called cells

Schwaan- made a similar statement to Schleiden about animals

2.1.3 State that unicellular organisms carry out all of the functions of life

Metabolism; chemical reactions inside the cell, including cell respiration to release energy

Response; perceiving and responding to changes in the environment Homeostasis; keeping conditions inside the organism within tolerable

limits Growth; an irreversible increase in size Reproduction; producing offspring either sexually or asexually Nutrition; obtaining food, to provide energy and the materials needed for

growth Defense; protection against enemies

Amoeba would be an example of an unicellular organism.

2.1.4 Compare the relative sizes of molecules, cell membrane thickness, viruses, bacteria, organelles and cells, using the appropriate SI unit

nm = nanometer µm = micrometer

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Molecules - 1 nm Thickness of membrane - 10 nm Viruses - 100 nm Bacteria - 1 µm Organelles - up to 10 µm Most cells - up to 100 µm (three dimensional nature/shape)

2.1.5 Calculate the linear magnification of drawings and the actual size of specimens in images of known magnifications

 :Drawings should show cells and cell ultrastructure.

Include: A scale bar: |------| = 1 µmMagnification: ×250To calculate magnification:

Magnification = Measured Size of Diagram ÷ Actual Size of Object

but before this, both magnifications must be in the same measuremente, either in mm, cm etc..

2.1.6 - Explain the importance of the surface area to volume ratio as a factor limiting cell size.

A cell needs a large surface area in order to carry out metabolic functions (as chemical reactions require a surface). As a cell grows, it needs to carry out more and more reactions. Therefore, since a cell has to maintain a certain surface area to volume ratio, its size is limited.

The rate of exchange of materials (nutrients/waste) and energy (heat) is a function of its surface area.

Thus: As a cell grows in size (volume), the distance increases between the cytoplasm at the center of the cell and the cell membrane. The rate of chemical exchange with the surrounding environment may hence become too low to maintain the cell. It is not able to excrete waste quickly enough or take in important minerals.Volume of a cell determines requirements while surface area determines supply.

2.1.7 - State that multicelluar organisms show emergent properties

Emergent properties arise from the interaction of component parts: the whole is greater than the sum of its parts

2.1.8 - Explain how cells in multicellular organisms differentiate to carry out specialized functions by expressing some of their genes but not others.

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During the early development stages of multicellular organisms, cells undergo differentiation, becoming specialized in structure and function. These cells are then organized into tissues and organs. Cells of multicellular eukaryotes express only a small fraction of their genes, allowing them to perform highly specialized functions. Cells, such as those of muscle or nervous tissue, express only a tiny fraction of their genes.

2.1.9 - State that stem cells retain the capacity to divide and have the ability to differentiate along different pathways.

2.1.10 - Outline one use of theapeutic stem cells .

Bone marrow transplants. They only work because what you are actually transplanting is the hematopoetic stem cells in the marrow. And peripheral blood stem cells, as well as cord blood stem cells, can be used in lieu of bone marrow, making being a donor FAR easier today than in decades past.

http://www.marrow.org

Random Stuff that Doesn't fit or is old syllabus material

State that a virus is a non-cellular structure consisting of DNA or RNA surrounded by a protein coat.

Viruses are not cells. They are simple particles consisting of DNA and RNA wrapped in a protein coat. Viruses are not considered alive because they have no metabolism and they require a host to live. Viruses do not carry out all the functions of life, therefore they are not living.

Explain three advantages of using light microscopes.

Light microscopes Display color instead of monochrome (black and white) images. Provide a large field of view. Facilitate preparation of sample material. Allow for the examination of living material and the observation of

movement. Cheap in comparison to electron microscopes

Outline the advantages of using electron microscopes.

Electron microscopes:

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Provide images of higher resolution and magnification than light microscopes.

Resolution refers to the ability to distinguish two objects as separate entities.

Magnification refers to the ability to increase the size of a viewed object.

Scanning Electron Microscopes (SEM) provide images of the specimen's surface while Transmission Electron Microscopes (TEM) provide images of a sample's interior. The resolution of an SEM is approximately half that of a TEM.

May provide a three dimensional view.

Define organelle.

An organelle is a discrete structure within a cell, and has a specific function. A mitochondrion would be an example of an organelle.

Organelle List:

mitochondrion

golgi body

endoplasmic reticulum

vacuole

lysosome

ribosome In contrast to the other organelles, they are not surrounded by a membrane.

centriole (Unique to animal cells)

chloroplast (Unique to plant cells)

Define tissue, organ and organ system.

Tissue : An integrated group of cells that share structure and are adapted to perform a similar function.

Organ : A combination of two or more tissues which function as an integrated unit, performing one or more specific functions.

Organ system : A group of organs that specialize in a certain function together.

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[edit] 2.2 Prokaryotic Cells

2.2.1 Draw and label a diagram of the ultrastructure of Escherichia (E. coli) as an example of a prokaryote

The Diagram Should show cell wall, plasma membrane, cytoplasm, pili, flagella, ribosomes and nuceloid (region containing naked DNA)

Two Good Pictures

http://www.the-simple-homeschool.com/image-files/prokaryote_cell_.gif http://www.ecoliblog.com/cell-ecoli.gif

2.2.2 Annotate the diagram from 2.2.1 with the functions of each of the named structures

1. Cell Wall : Maintains the cell's shape and gives protection.2. Plasma Membrane : Regulates the flow of materials (nutrients, waste,

oxygen, etc.) into and out of the cell.3. Cytoplasm : Holds and suspends the cell's specialized organelles and

enzymes.4. Pili : The function of the pili is attachment to solid surfaces, apparatus for

use in transfer of DNA from one cell to another, twitching motility, and cell-cell adhesion.

5. Flagella : Flagella are whip like tails that are used to propel the organism forward.

6. Ribosome : Protein synthesis.7. Nuceloid : Nucleoid is the area in the cytoplasm where the strands of DNA

are present.

2.2.3 Identify structures from 2.2.1 in electron micrographs of E. coli

http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/bacteria/bacteriatem.gif http://www.exploratorium.edu/traits/images/ecoli_micro.jpg

2.2.4 State that prokaryotes divide by binary fission.

Prokaryotes divide by binary fission.

Old Stuff not in syllabus or misplaced

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State that prokaryotes show a wide range of metabolic activity including fermentation, photosynthesis and nitrogen fixation.

Prokaryotes demonstrate a range of metabolic activity

Cyanobacteria (often referred to as blue-green algae although they are not algae) obtain their energy through photosynthesis.

Bacteria can convert organic substances into other organic substances. (i.e., glucose to lactic acid during anaerobic respiration)

Some bacteria can fix nitrogen from the air, converting it into ammonia (which is biologically available).

[edit] 2.3 Eukaryotic Cells

2.3.1 Draw and label a diagram of the ultrastructure of a liver cell as an example of an animal cell

Diagram of an animal cell Should include free ribosomes, the rough endoplasmic reticulum (rER),

lysosome, Golgi apparatus, mitochondrion, and nucleus.

2.3.2 Annotate the diagram from 2.3.1 with the functions of each of the named structures.

1. Ribosomes : Main site of protein synthesis.2. Rough endoplasmic reticulum (rER) : Packages the proteins synthesized in

the ribosomes.3. Lysosome : Digests macromolecules and contain digestive enzymes.4. Golgi apparatus : Modifies, stores and routes products of the endoplasmic

reticulum.5. Mitochondrion : Serves as the site of cellular respiration.6. Nucleus : Contains a cell's genetic material

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2.3.4 Compare prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

Differences should include Contain naked DNA vs. DNA associated with proteins (DNA wrapped

around histones, a protein molecule, creating units called nucleosomes) DNA in cytoplasm vs. DNA enclosed in a nuclear envelope - Prokaryotes

have naked DNA in cytoplasm, Eukaryotes have a nuclear membrane surrounding it in a nucelus.

No membrane-enclosed organelles vs. membrane-enclosed organelles (e.g., mitochondria, chloroplasts) - Prokaryotes have no mitchondria, thousands of reactions occur in cytoplasm.

70S vs. 80S ribosomes - Prokaryotes = 70S, Eukaryotes = 80S. Eukaryotic cells have internal membranes that compartmentalize their

functions prokaryotic is usually smaller in size, Eukaryotic is larger both have cytoplasm prokaryotic has no nucleus, Eukaryotic has a membrane-bound nucleus prokaryotic has one chromosome / circular, Eukaryotic has two or more

chromosomes prokaryotic has DNA only, Eukaryotic has DNA with histones to bind

together prokaryotic has no membrane-bound organelles, E has some membrane-

bound organelles Eukaryotic has mitochondria, prokaryotic does not Eukaryotic has other example of organelle, prokaryotic does not both can have a flagellum if flagella then E has 9+2 fibrils, prokaryotic does not prokaryotic can have pili, E does not prokaryotic can have plasmids, Eukaryotic does not both have ribosomes prokaryotic has small ribosomes, Eukaryotic has larger ones both have cell membrane prokaryotic has cell wall, Eukaryotic has no cell wall Eukaryotic has centriole, prokaryotic has no centriole

2.3.5 State three differences between plant and animal cells.

Only plant cells have: Cell walls Chloroplasts Vacuole - more specificially central vacuole Plasmodesmata

2.3.6 Outline two roles of Extracellular components

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The plant wall maintains shape, prevents excess water uptake, and holds the whole plant up against the force of gravity.

Animal cells secrete glycoproteins that form the extracellular matrix (ECM). This functions in support, adhesion and movement.

Stuff not in syllabus or not relevant or misplaced

Starch granules for storage of carbohydrates Centrioles Cholesterol in the plasma membrane Glycogen for storage of carbohydrate

State the composition and function of the plant cell wall

The main component of plant cell walls is cellulose. Cellulose molecules are arranged in bundles called microfibrils. These give the cell wall great tensile strength and allow high pressures to develop inside the cell.extra:The cellulose cell wall consists of three layers: middle lamella, primary cell wall, and secondary cell wall. The overall functions the cell wall preforms are: structure, support, protection.

[edit] 2.4 Membranes

2.4.1 Draw and label a diagram to show the structure of membranes.

Diagram should show the phosopholipid bilayer, cholesterol, glycoproteins, and integral and peripheral proteins. Use the term plasma membrane not cell surface membrane for the membrane surrounding the cytoplasm. [1]

2.4.2 Explain how the hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties of phospholipids help to maintain the structure of cell membranes.

Hydrophilic molecules are attracted to water. Hydrophobic molecules are not attracted to water, but are attracted to each other. The phosphate head is hydrophilic and the two hydrocarbon tails are hydrophobic. In water, phospholipids form double layers with the hydrophilic heads in contact with water on both sides and the hydrophobic tails away from the centre. The attraction between the heads and the surrounding water makes membranes very stable.

In your answer you should:

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— First discuss PHOSPHOLIPID STRUCTURE hydrophobic tail/hydrophillic head head made from glycerol and phosphate tail made from two fatty acids

—Then discuss the ARRAGEMENT IN MEMBRANE form a bilayer heads face outside the membrane/ tails face inside the membrane there is a hydrophobic interior and a hydrophillic exterior

—DRAW A DIAGRAM—STATE ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

phospholipids are held together by hydrophobic interactions stabilized by interaction of hydrophillic heads with surrounding water fluidity helps the membrane to be stable the fluidity allows for breaking and remaking of the membranes allows for endo/exocytosis the hydrophyllic/hydrophobic layers resrict movement phopholipids can move about horizontally.

2.4.3 List the functions of membrane proteins.

hormone binding sites enzymes electron carriers Channels for passive transport Pumps for active transport cell to cell recognition receptors for neurotransmitters

2.4.4 Define diffusion and osmosis.

Diffusion Diffusion : is the passive movement of particles from a region of higher

concentration to a region of lower concentration, as a result of the random motion of particles.

Osmosis : the passive movement of water molecules, across a partially permeable membrane, from a region of lower solute concentration to a region of higher solute concentration.

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2.4.5 Explain passive transport across membranes by simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion. Mention channels for facilitated diffusion. A molecule or ion that crosses the membrane by moving down a concentration or electrochemical gradient and without expenditure of metabolic energy is said to be transported passively/diffused. All molecules and ions are in constant motion and it is the energy of motion - kinetic energy - that drives passive transport. Transport of uncharged species across a membrane is dictated by differences in concentration of that species across the membrane - that is, by the prevailing concentration gradient. For ions and charged molecules, the electrical potential across the membrane also becomes critically important. Together, gradients in concentration and electric potential across the cell membrane constitute the electrochemical gradient that governs passive transport mechanisms.

Facilitated diffusion is diffusion that is "facilitated" by proteins that span the membrane and provide an alternative route or bypass. It is similar to simple diffusion in the sense that it does not require expenditure of metabolic energy and transport is again down an electrochemical gradient. Two major groups of integral membrane proteins are involved in facilitated diffusion:

1. Carrier proteins (also known as permeases or transporters) bind a specific type of solute and are thereby induced to undergo a series of conformational changes which has the effect of carrying the solute to the other side of the membrane. The carrier then discharges the solute and, through another conformational change, reorients in the membrane to its original state. Typically, a given carrier will transport only a small group of related molecules.

2. Ion Channels do not really bind the solute, but are like hydrophilic pores through the membrane that open and allow certain types of solutes, usually inorganic ions, to pass through. In general, channels are quite specific for the type of solute they will transport and transport through channels is quite a bit faster than by carrier proteins. Additionally, many channels contain a "gate" which is functions to control the channel's permeability. When the gate is open, the channel transports, and when the gate is closed, the channel is closed. Such gates can be controlled either by voltage across the membrane (voltage-gated channels) or have a binding site for a ligand which, when bound, causes the channels to open (ligand-gated channels). Ion channels allow currents to be carried across the membrane and are thus of particular importance in the physiology of excitable cells like neurons and muscle cells.

—BROKEN DOWN passive transport requires no energy molecules move down a concentration gradient water moves by osmosis moves from lower solute concentration to higher solute concentration small uncharged molecules move by diffusion charged molecules move by facilitated diffusion facilitated diffusion requires protein channels

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2.4.6 Explain the role of protein pumps and ATP in active transport across membranes.

Active transport is the movement of substances across membranes using energy from ATP. Active transport can move substances against a concentration gradient. Protein pumps in the membrane are used for active transport. Each pump only transports particular substances so cells can control what is absorbed and what is expelled.

goes against concentration gradient requires a protein in the cell membrane /pump/carrier protein hydrolysis of ATP / ATP → ADP + phosphate; involves a conformational change in the pump / protein

2.4.7 Explain how vesicles are used to transport materials within a cell between the rough endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, and plasma membrane.

vesicle is made by pinching off a piece of membrane fluidity of membrane allows this vesicles can be used to transport material around inside cells proteins are transported in vesicles from the rough endoplasmic reticulum to the Golgi apparatus from the Golgi apparatus to the plasma membrane formation of vesicle from plasma membrane allows material to be taken in endocytosis/pinocytosis/phagocytosis is absorption of material using a

vesicle fusion of vesicle with plasma membrane allows material to be secreted /

passed out exocytosis is secretion of material using a vesicle

2.4.8 Describe how the fluidity of the membrane allows it to change shape, break and re-form during endocytosis and exocytosis

In endocytosis part of the plasma membrane is pulled inwards. A droplet of fluid becomes enclosed when a vesicle is pinched off. Vesicles can then move through the cytoplasm carrying its contents.

In exocytosis vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane. The contents of the vesicles are then expelled. The membrane flattens out again.

[edit] Cell Division

2.5.1 State that the cell-division cycle involves interphase, mitosis, and cytokinesis.

New cells are produced by the division of an existing cell (remember the cell theory). Beginning with Interphase, then mitosis and then cytokinesis.

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1. Interphase : DNA replication and transcription occurs.2. Mitosis : The division of the nucleus to form two genetically identical

nuclei is termed mitosis.3. Cytokinesis : Division of the cytoplasm to form two new cells is called

cytokinesis.

2.5.2 State that interphase is an active period in the life of a cell when many biochemical reactions occur, as well as DNA transcription and DNA replication.

During interphase the cell grows larger. Genes of chromosomes are subsequently transcribed to allow for protein synthesis. The DNA is then replicated.

2.5.3 Describe the events that occur in the four phases of mitosis (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.)

Include supercoiling of chromosomes, attachment of spindle microtubules, splitting of centromeres, movement of sister chromosomes to opposite poles and breakage and reformation of nuclear membranes.

1. During Prophase, the mitotic spindle (made from microtubules) starts growing (going from pole to pole).Chromatin coil up to form distinct chromosomes. (Each chromosome contains two identical sister chromatids, attached to each other at the centromere region.) The nuclear envelope starts breaking down.

2. During Metaphase, each chromosome attaches to two spindle microtubules (one going to each pole) at the centromere region, so that they line up at the (virtual) equator of the cell. The mitotic spindle is fully developed: some microtubules are attached to chromosomes and reach to the equator, whilst others go from pole to pole.

3. During Anaphase, the spindle microtubules pull the sister chromatids to opposite poles (each sister chromatid becomes one new chromosome of the daughter cell).

4. During Telophase, each sister chromatid reaches its pole (becoming a chromosome). The nuclear envelope starts to reform. Spindle microtubles deteriorate. Cytokinesis (division of the cytoplasm) takes place.

A useful mnemonic for remembering all the phases in the correct order is "I Passed My Algebra Test" or "Interphase Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase." If this does not help you, try thinking of the simple acronym "P-MAT," or learning the word "prometanelo."

2.5.4 Explain how mitosis produces two genetically identical nucleus.

The result of the process of mitosis is two nuclei. During S phase, each chromosome replicates (forms an exact copy of itself). These copies are called sister chromatids. These

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identical sister chromatids are separated during Anaphase, and are moved to each pole. When they are separated they are referred to as chromosomes. The result is two nuclei, identical to each other and to the original nucleus.

2.5.6 Outline the differences in mitosis and cytokenisis between animal and plant cells.

Limit this to the lack of the centrioles in plant cells and the formation of the cell wall.

In plant cells there are no centrioles and after anaphase a cell wall forms dividing it into two cells. In animal cells after anaphase the plasma membrane forms dividing it into two cells by forming a cleavage furrow.

2.5.7 State that growth, tissue repair, and asexual reproduction involve mitosis.

a useful way to remember it Greater Tracy Area, (Growth, Tissue repair, Asexual reproduction) GTA

1. During growth.2. When a tissue is damaged.3. asexual reproduction.

2.5.8 State that tumors are the result of uncontrolled cell division and that these can occur in any organ.

1. Sometimes, mitosis gets out of control and a cell begins to divide and the new daughter cell begins to divide as well. Soon, this overflow of cells is called a tumor. Tumors can occur in any organ. Cancer is a disease caused by tumors

Struktur dan fungsi sel – Biologi sel adalah cabang ilmu biologi yang mempelajari tentang sel. Sel sendiri adalah kesatuan structural dan fungsional makhluk hidup dimana keberadaannya sangat berpengaruh terhadap kepribadian dan tingkah laku dari masing masing makhluk hidup

Teori-teori tentang sel

- Robert Hooke (Inggris, 1665) meneliti sayatan gabus di bawah mikroskop. Hasil pengamatannya ditemukan rongga-rongga yang disebut sel (cellula)- Hanstein (1880) menyatakan bahwa sel tidak hanya berarti cytos (tempat yang berongga), tetapi juga berarti cella (kantong yang berisi)- Felix Durjadin (Prancis, 1835) meneliti beberapa jenis sel hidup dan menemukan isi

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dalam, rongga sel tersebut yang penyusunnya disebut “Sarcode”- Johanes Purkinje (1787-1869) mengadakan perubahan nama Sarcode menjadi Protoplasma- Matthias Schleiden (ahli botani) dan Theodore Schwann (ahli zoologi) tahun 1838 menemukan adanya kesamaan yang terdapat pada struktur jaringan tumbuhan dan hewan. Mereka mengajukan konsep bahwa makhluk hidup terdiri atas sel . konsep yang diajukan tersebut menunjukkan bahwa sel merupakan satuan structural makhluk hidup.- Robert Brown (Scotlandia, 1831) menemukan benda kecil yang melayang-layang pada protoplasma yaitu inti (nucleus)- Max Shultze (1825-1874) ahli anatomi menyatakan sel merupakan kesatuan fungsional makhluk hidup- Rudolf Virchow (1858) menyatakan bahwa setiap cel berasal dari cel sebelumnya (omnis celulla ex celulla)

Macam Sel Berdasarkan Keadaan Inti

a. sel prokarion, sel yang intinya tidak memiliki membran, materi inti tersebar dalam sitoplasma (sel yang memiliki satu system membran. Yang termasuk dalam kelompok ini adalah bakteri dan alga birub. sel eukarion, sel yang intinya memiliki membran. Materi inti dibatasi oleh satu system membran terpisah dari sitoplasma. Yang termasuk kelompok ini adalah semua makhluk hidup kecuali bakteri dan alga biru

Struktur sel prokariotik lebih sederhana dibandingkan struktur sel eukariotik. Akan tetapi, sel prokariotik mempunyai ribosom (tempat protein dibentuk) yang sangat banyak. Sel prokariotik dan sel eukariotik memiliki beberapa perbedaan sebagai berikut :

Sel Prokariotik- Tidak memiliki inti sel yang jelas karena tidak memiliki membran inti sel yang dinamakan nucleoid- Organel-organelnya tidak dibatasi membran- Membran sel tersusun atas senyawa peptidoglikan- Diameter sel antara 1-10mm- Mengandung 4 subunit RNA polymerase- Susunan kromosomnya sirkuler

Sel Eukariotik- Memiliki inti sel yang dibatasi oleh membran inti dan dinamakan nucleus- Organel-organelnya dibatasi membran- Membran selnya tersusun atas fosfolipid- Diameter selnya antara 10-100mm- Mengandungbanyak subunit RNA polymerase- Susunan kromosomnya linier

Macam Sel Berdasarkan Keadaan Kromosom dan Fungsinya

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a. Sel Somatis, sel yang menyusun tubuh dan bersifat diploidb. Sel Germinal. sel kelamin yang berfungsi untuk reproduksi dan bersifat haploid

Bagian-bagian Sel

- Bagian hidup(komponen protoplasma), terdiri atas inti dan sitoplasma termasuk cairan dan struktur sel seperti : mitokondria, badan golgi, dll- Bagian mati (inklusio), terdiri atas dinding sel dan isi vakuola

mari kita bahas masing-masing bagian satu per satu

a Dinding sel

Dinding sel hanya terdapat pada sel tumbuhan. Dinding sel terdiri daripada selulosa yang kuat yang dapat memberikan sokongan, perlindungan, dan untuk mengekalkan bentuk sel. Terdapat liang pada dinding sel untuk membenarkan pertukaran bahan di luar dengan bahan di dalam sel.Dinding sel juga berfungsi untuk menyokong tumbuhan yang tidak berkayu.

Dinding sel terdiri dari Selulosa (sebagian besar), hemiselulosa, pektin, lignin, kitin, garam karbonat dan silikat dari Ca dan Mg.

b. Membran Plasma

Membran sel merupakan lapisan yang melindungi inti sel dan sitoplasma. Membran sel membungkus organel-organel dalam sel. Membran sel juga merupakan alat transportasi bagi sel yaitu tempat masuk dan keluarnya zat-zat yang dibutuhkan dan tidak dibutuhkan oleh sel. Struktur membran ialah dua lapis lipid (lipid bilayer) dan memiliki permeabilitas tertentu sehingga tidak semua molekul dapat melalui membran sel.

Struktur membran sel yaitu model mozaik fluida yang dikemukakan oleh Singer dan Nicholson pada tahun 1972. Pada teori mozaik fluida membran merupakan 2 lapisan lemak dalam bentuk fluida dengan molekul lipid yang dapat berpindah secara lateral di sepanjang lapisan membran. Protein membran tersusun secara tidak beraturan yang menembus lapisan lemak. Jadi dapat dikatakan membran sel sebagai struktur yang dinamis dimana komponen-komponennya bebas bergerak dan dapat terikat bersama dalam berbagai bentuk interaksi semipermanen Komponen penyusun membran sel antara lain adalah phosfolipids, protein, oligosakarida, glikolipid, dan kolesterol.

Salah satu fungsi dari membran sel adalah sebagai lalu lintas molekul dan ion secara dua arah. Molekul yang dapat melewati membran sel antara lain ialah molekul hidrofobik (CO2, O2), dan molekul polar yang sangat kecil (air, etanol). Sementara itu, molekul lainnya seperti molekul polar dengan ukuran besar (glukosa), ion, dan substansi hidrofilik membutuhkan mekanisme khusus agar dapat masuk ke dalam sel.

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Banyaknya molekul yang masuk dan keluar membran menyebabkan terciptanya lalu lintas membran. Lalu lintas membran digolongkan menjadi dua cara, yaitu dengan transpor pasif untuk molekul-molekul yang mampu melalui membran tanpa mekanisme khusus dan transpor aktif untuk molekul yang membutuhkan mekanisme khusus.

Transpor pasif

Transpor pasif merupakan suatu perpindahan molekul menuruni gradien konsentrasinya. Transpor pasif ini bersifat spontan. Difusi, osmosis, dan difusi terfasilitasi merupakan contoh dari transpor pasif. Difusi terjadi akibat gerak termal yang meningkatkan entropi atau ketidakteraturan sehingga menyebabkan campuran yang lebih acak. Difusi akan berlanjut selama respirasi seluler yang mengkonsumsi O2 masuk. Osmosis merupakan difusi pelarut melintasi membran selektif yang arah perpindahannya ditentukan oleh beda konsentrasi zat terlarut total (dari hipotonis ke hipertonis). Difusi terfasilitasi juga masih dianggap ke dalam transpor pasif karena zat terlarut berpindah menurut gradien konsentrasinya.

Contoh molekul yang berpindah dengan transpor pasif ialah air dan glukosa. Transpor pasif air dilakukan lipid bilayer dan transpor pasif glukosa terfasilitasi transporter. Ion polar berdifusi dengan bantuan protein transpor.

Transpor aktif

Transpor aktif merupakan kebalikan dari transpor pasif dan bersifat tidak spontan. Arah perpindahan dari transpor ini melawan gradien konsentrasi. Transpor aktif membutuhkan bantuan dari beberapa protein. Contoh protein yang terlibat dalam transpor aktif ialah channel protein dan carrier protein, serta ionophore.

Yang termasuk transpor aktif ialah coupled carriers, ATP driven pumps, dan light driven pumps. Dalam transpor menggunakan coupled carriers dikenal dua istilah, yaitu simporter dan antiporter. Simporter ialah suatu protein yang mentransportasikan kedua substrat searah, sedangkan antiporter mentransfer kedua substrat dengan arah berlawanan. ATP driven pump merupakan suatu siklus transpor Na+/K+ ATPase. Light driven pump umumnya ditemukan pada sel bakteri. Mekanisme ini membutuhkan energi cahaya dan contohnya terjadi pada Bakteriorhodopsin.

c. Mitokondria

Mitokondria adalah tempat di mana fungsi respirasi pada makhluk hidup berlangsung. Respirasi merupakan proses perombakan atau katabolisme untuk menghasilkan energi atau tenaga bagi berlangsungnya proses hidup. Dengan demikian, mitokondria adalah “pembangkit tenaga” bagi sel.

Mitokondria banyak terdapat pada sel yang memilki aktivitas metabolisme tinggi dan memerlukan banyak ATP dalam jumlah banyak, misalnya sel otot jantung. Jumlah dan bentuk mitokondria bisa berbeda-beda untuk setiap sel. Mitokondria berbentuk elips

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dengan diameter 0,5 µm dan panjang 0,5 – 1,0 µm. Struktur mitokondria terdiri dari empat bagian utama, yaitu membran luar, membran dalam, ruang antar membran, dan matriks yang terletak di bagian dalam membran [Cooper, 2000].

Membran luar terdiri dari protein dan lipid dengan perbandingan yang sama serta mengandung protein porin yang menyebabkan membran ini bersifat permeabel terhadap molekul-molekul kecil yang berukuran 6000 Dalton. Dalam hal ini, membran luar mitokondria menyerupai membran luar bakteri gram-negatif. Selain itu, membran luar juga mengandung enzim yang terlibat dalam biosintesis lipid dan enzim yang berperan dalam proses transpor lipid ke matriks untuk menjalani ?-oksidasi menghasilkan Asetil KoA.

Membran dalam yang kurang permeabel dibandingkan membran luar terdiri dari 20% lipid dan 80% protein. Membran ini merupakan tempat utama pembentukan ATP. Luas permukaan ini meningkat sangat tinggi diakibatkan banyaknya lipatan yang menonjol ke dalam matriks, disebut krista [Lodish, 2001]. Stuktur krista ini meningkatkan luas permukaan membran dalam sehingga meningkatkan kemampuannya dalam memproduksi ATP. Membran dalam mengandung protein yang terlibat dalam reaksi fosforilasi oksidatif, ATP sintase yang berfungsi membentuk ATP pada matriks mitokondria, serta protein transpor yang mengatur keluar masuknya metabolit dari matriks melewati membran dalam.

Ruang antar membran yang terletak diantara membran luar dan membran dalam merupakan tempat berlangsungnya reaksi-reaksi yang penting bagi sel, seperti siklus Krebs, reaksi oksidasi asam amino, dan reaksi ?-oksidasi asam lemak. Di dalam matriks mitokondria juga terdapat materi genetik, yang dikenal dengan DNA mitkondria (mtDNA), ribosom, ATP, ADP, fosfat inorganik serta ion-ion seperti magnesium, kalsium dan kalium

d. Lisosom

Lisosom adalah organel sel berupa kantong terikat membran yang berisi enzim hidrolitik yang berguna untuk mengontrol pencernaan intraseluler pada berbagai keadaan. Lisosom ditemukan pada tahun 1950 oleh Christian de Duve dan ditemukan pada semua sel eukariotik. Di dalamnya, organel ini memiliki 40 jenis enzim hidrolitik asam seperti protease, nuklease, glikosidase, lipase, fosfolipase, fosfatase, ataupun sulfatase. Semua enzim tersebut aktif pada pH 5. Fungsi utama lisosom adalah endositosis, fagositosis, dan autofagi.

- Endositosis ialah pemasukan makromolekul dari luar sel ke dalam sel melalui mekanisme endositosis, yang kemudian materi-materi ini akan dibawa ke vesikel kecil dan tidak beraturan, yang disebut endosom awal. Beberapa materi tersebut dipilah dan ada yang digunakan kembali (dibuang ke sitoplasma), yang tidak dibawa ke endosom lanjut. Di endosom lanjut, materi tersebut bertemu pertama kali dengan enzim hidrolitik. Di dalam endosom awal, pH sekitar 6. Terjadi penurunan pH (5) pada endosom lanjut sehingga terjadi pematangan dan membentuk lisosom.

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- Proses autofagi digunakan untuk pembuangan dan degradasi bagian sel sendiri, seperti organel yang tidak berfungsi lagi. Mula-mula, bagian dari retikulum endoplasma kasar menyelubungi organel dan membentuk autofagosom. Setelah itu, autofagosom berfusi dengan enzim hidrolitik dari trans Golgi dan berkembang menjadi lisosom (atau endosom lanjut). Proses ini berguna pada sel hati, transformasi berudu menjadi katak, dan embrio manusia.

- Fagositosis merupakan proses pemasukan partikel berukuran besar dan mikroorganisme seperti bakteri dan virus ke dalam sel. Pertama, membran akan membungkus partikel atau mikroorganisme dan membentuk fagosom. Kemudian, fagosom akan berfusi dengan enzim hidrolitik dari trans Golgi dan berkembang menjadi lisosom (endosom lanjut).

e. Badan Golgi

Badan Golgi (disebut juga aparatus Golgi, kompleks Golgi atau diktiosom) adalah organel yang dikaitkan dengan fungsi ekskresi sel, dan struktur ini dapat dilihat dengan menggunakan mikroskop cahaya biasa. Organel ini terdapat hampir di semua sel eukariotik dan banyak dijumpai pada organ tubuh yang melaksanakan fungsi ekskresi, misalnya ginjal. Setiap sel hewan memiliki 10 hingga 20 badan Golgi, sedangkan sel tumbuhan memiliki hingga ratusan badan Golgi. Badan Golgi pada tumbuhan biasanya disebut diktiosom.

Badan Golgi ditemukan oleh seorang ahli histologi dan patologi berkebangsaan Italia yang bernama Camillo Golgi.

beberapa fungsi badan golgi antara lain :

1. Membentuk kantung (vesikula) untuk sekresi. Terjadi terutama pada sel-sel kelenjar kantung kecil tersebut, berisi enzim dan bahan-bahan lain.2. Membentuk membran plasma. Kantung atau membran golgi sama seperti membran plasma. Kantung yang dilepaskan dapat menjadi bagian dari membran plasma.3. Membentuk dinding sel tumbuhan4. Fungsi lain ialah dapat membentuk akrosom pada spermatozoa yang berisi enzim untuk memecah dinding sel telur dan pembentukan lisosom.5. Tempat untuk memodifikasi protein6. Untuk menyortir dan memaket molekul-molekul untuk sekresi sel7. Untuk membentuk lisosom

f. Retikulum Endoplasma

RETIKULUM ENDOPLASMA (RE) adalah organel yang dapat ditemukan di seluruh sel hewan eukariotik.

Retikulum endoplasma memiliki struktur yang menyerupai kantung berlapis-lapis. Kantung ini disebut cisternae. Fungsi retikulum endoplasma bervariasi, tergantung pada jenisnya. Retikulum Endoplasma (RE) merupakan labirin membran yang demikian

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banyak sehingga retikulum endoplasma melipiti separuh lebih dari total membran dalam sel-sel eukariotik. (kata endoplasmik berarti “di dalam sitoplasma” dan retikulum diturunkan dari bahasa latin yang berarti “jaringan”).

Ada tiga jenis retikulum endoplasma:RE kasar Di permukaan RE kasar, terdapat bintik-bintik yang merupakan ribosom. Ribosom ini berperan dalam sintesis protein. Maka, fungsi utama RE kasar adalah sebagai tempat sintesis protein. RE halus Berbeda dari RE kasar, RE halus tidak memiliki bintik-bintik ribosom di permukaannya. RE halus berfungsi dalam beberapa proses metabolisme yaitu sintesis lipid, metabolisme karbohidrat dan konsentrasi kalsium, detoksifikasi obat-obatan, dan tempat melekatnya reseptor pada protein membran sel. RE sarkoplasmik RE sarkoplasmik adalah jenis khusus dari RE halus. RE sarkoplasmik ini ditemukan pada otot licin dan otot lurik. Yang membedakan RE sarkoplasmik dari RE halus adalah kandungan proteinnya. RE halus mensintesis molekul, sementara RE sarkoplasmik menyimpan dan memompa ion kalsium. RE sarkoplasmik berperan dalam pemicuan kontraksi otot.

g. Nukleus

Inti sel atau nukleus sel adalah organel yang ditemukan pada sel eukariotik. Organel ini mengandung sebagian besar materi genetik sel dengan bentuk molekul DNA linear panjang yang membentuk kromosom bersama dengan beragam jenis protein seperti histon. Gen di dalam kromosom-kromosom inilah yang membentuk genom inti sel. Fungsi utama nukleus adalah untuk menjaga integritas gen-gen tersebut dan mengontrol aktivitas sel dengan mengelola ekspresi gen. Selain itu, nukleus juga berfungsi untuk mengorganisasikan gen saat terjadi pembelahan sel, memproduksi mRNA untuk mengkodekan protein, sebagai tempat sintesis ribosom, tempat terjadinya replikasi dan transkripsi dari DNA, serta mengatur kapan dan di mana ekspresi gen harus dimulai, dijalankan, dan diakhiri

h. Plastida

Plastida adalah organel sel yang menghasilkan warna pada sel tumbuhan. ada tiga macam plastida, yaitu :- leukoplast : plastida yang berbentuk amilum(tepung)- kloroplast : plastida yang umumnya berwarna hijau. terdiri dari : klorofil a dan b (untuk fotosintesis), xantofil, dan karoten- kromoplast : plastida yang banyak mengandung karoten

i. Sentriol (sentrosom)

Sentorom merupakan wilayah yang terdiri dari dua sentriol (sepasang sentriol) yang terjadi ketika pembelahan sel, dimana nantinya tiap sentriol ini akan bergerak ke bagian kutub-kutub sel yang sedang membelah. Pada siklus sel di tahapan interfase, terdapat fase S yang terdiri dari tahap duplikasi kromoseom, kondensasi kromoson, dan duplikasi sentrosom.

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Terdapat sejumlah fase tersendiri dalam duplikasi sentrosom, dimulai dengan G1 dimana sepasang sentriol akan terpisah sejauh beberapa mikrometer. Kemudian dilanjutkan dengan S, yaitu sentirol anak akan mulai terbentuk sehingga nanti akan menjadi dua pasang sentriol. Fase G2 merupakan tahapan ketika sentriol anak yang baru terbentuk tadi telah memanjang. Terakhir ialah fase M dimana sentriol bergerak ke kutub-kutub pembelahan dan berlekatan dengan mikrotubula yang tersusun atas benang-benang spindel.

j. Vakuola

Vakuola merupakan ruang dalam sel yang berisi cairan (cell sap dalam bahasa Inggris). Cairan ini adalah air dan berbagai zat yang terlarut di dalamnya. Vakuola ditemukan pada semua sel tumbuhan namun tidak dijumpai pada sel hewan dan bakteri, kecuali pada hewan uniseluler tingkat rendah.

fungsi vakuola adalah :1. memelihara tekanan osmotik sel2. penyimpanan hasil sintesa berupa glikogen, fenol, dll3. mengadakan sirkulasi zat dalam sel

Perbedaan Sel Hewan dan Tumbuhan

1. Sel Hewan :* tidak memiliki dinding sel* tidak memiliki butir plastida* bentuk tidak tetap karena hanya memiliki membran sel yang keadaannya tidak kaku* jumlah mitokondria relatif banyak* vakuolanya banyak dengan ukuran yang relatif kecil* sentrosom dan sentriol tampak jelas

2. Sel Tumbuhan* memiliki dinding sel* memiliki butir plastida* bentuk tetap karena memiliki dinding sel yang terbuat dari cellulosa* jumlah mitokondria relatif sedikit karena fungsinya dibantu oleh butir plastida* vakuola sedikit tapi ukurannya besar* sentrosom dan sentriolnya tidak jelas