CCSP Stage II-Lloyds

84 Cargo Surveying Proficiency – Stage Two © Lloyd’s 2006

INTRODUCTIONOver the past 50 years, container shipping has been the key facilitator in the expansion of internationaltrade. It has helped redefine global sourcing and manufacturing as an easy-to-use low-cost door-to-doormethod of transportation, thereby dramatically expanding consumer choice.

In the 1930’s Mr Malcolm P McLean, operating as a small-scale haulier invented the concept of thecontainer. Initially he loaded complete trucks onto ships but subsequent standardisation of containers andtrailers, made it possible to ship the containers on top of trailers to save space and cost. Further moneysaving developments were initiated when containers alone were shipped at the load port to besubsequently collected by trailer at the discharge port.

In 1955 Mr McLean sold his 75 percent interest in McLean Trucking for $6 million and bought the coastaltankship operator Pan Atlantic Steamship. The first ship to carry containers was a converted oil tanker, theIdeal X, which left Newark, New Jersey on 26 April 1956 carrying 58 containers and sailed to Houston,Texas. In 1959 Pan Atlantic became Sea-Land Service. Sea-Land grew rapidly and in 1999 it was sold toMaersk. Today Maersk Sealand has one of the largest container fleets in the world.

The first container ship to arrive in Europe at the port of Bremerhaven was the ‘Fairland’ on 15 May 1966.The containers initially used by Sealand in the Northern European trade were 35 foot ASA containers.American standards, however, did not suit the European trade and so ISO standard lengths of 10, 20, 30and 40 foot containers were created. The standard width of a container was fixed at 8 foot and the heightat 8 foot or 8 foot 6 inches.

The majority of the world’s containers are owned by shipping companies that specialise in containercarriage. However, there are containers owned by leasing companies and by forwarders who ship theirproducts in their own containers.

Containers are constructed to ensure a useful working life of 10 to 12 years. They will be lifted by cranesand loaded and unloaded by forklift trucks thousands of times during their lifetime. They will be exposed tothe harsh and rigorous elements of the sea as well as the hazards of land based transport on rail androad, continuously transporting tonnes of cargo from fine crystal and electronic products to heavymachinery and scrap metal.

Quality of construction, specific materials and design ensure a container will fulfil its requirements safelyand efficiently. Containers are designed and constructed in accordance with prescribed specifications andinternationally acceptable standards. They must also meet the requirements of a particular client.

If a problem occurs or the container is damaged, the fleet owner has no alternative but to spend moneyon maintenance and repair or to prematurely sell it as a land based storage unit or for scrap.

Containers will suffer normal wear and tear and damage during their life and must therefore be regularlyinspected to ensure that they are in a safe, sound and ‘within standard’ condition to carry the prescribedcargo.

Thus, the need for container inspections.

Cargo Surveying Proficiency – Stage Two © Lloyd’s 2006 85

BACKGROUNDThe Convention for Safe Containers (CSC)

IMO, in co-operation with the Economic Commission of Europe developed a draft Convention regulatingthe construction and use of containers. The Convention for Safe Containers (CSC) was finalised andadopted at a conference by the United Nations and IMO in 1972.

The CSC has two goals viz;

1. The safety of human life in the transport and handling of containers by providing generallyacceptable strength requirements and test procedures.

2. To facilitate the international transport of containers by providing uniform internationalsafety regulations, applicable to all modes of surface transport, thereby preventing theproliferation of divergent national safety regulations.

The Convention applies to the majority of freight containers used internationally, except those designed forcarriage by air. As it was not intended that all containers or reusable packaging boxes should be affected,the scope of the Convention is limited to containers of a prescribed minimum size having corner fittingswhich permit handling, securing and/or stacking.

The Convention includes two annexes:

• Annex I includes Regulations for the Testing, Inspection, Approval and Maintenance of Containers.

• Annex II covers Structural Safety Requirements and Tests, including details of test procedures.

Annex I sets out the procedures whereby containers used in international transport must be safety-approved by the administration of a contracting state i.e. a state which is a party to the Convention, or byan organisation acting on its behalf.

The administration or its authorised representative will authorise the manufacturer to affix to approvedcontainers a Safety Approval Plate containing the relevant technical data.

The approval, evidenced by the Safety Approval Plate granted by one contracting state will be recognisedby other contracting states to the CSC. This principle of reciprocal acceptance of safety-approvedcontainers is the cornerstone of the Convention; and once approved and plated, it is expected thatcontainers will be able to cross international borders thereby facilitating international transportation withthe minimum of safety control formalities.

The subsequent maintenance of a safety-approved container is the responsibility of the container owner,who is required to have the container periodically examined.

The Convention specifically requires that the container be subjected to various tests, to comply with thesafety requirements of both inland and maritime modes of transport.

The Convention contains a tacit amendment procedure which makes it possible to speedily update andadapt the test procedures to the requirements of international container traffic.

The Safety Approval Plate contains the following information:

• CSC Safety Approval.

• Customs Seal Approval.

• Country of Approval and Approval reference.

• Date (month/year) of manufacture.

• Manufacturer’s container identification number.

• Maximum Operating Gross Weight.

• Allowable Stacking Weight.

• Transverse racking test load value.


The CSC approval also incorporates an Approved Continuous Examination Programme (ACEP). ACEP wasintroduced as a requirement for the regular inspection of containers by qualified personnel and a record ofthese inspections is made by punching details on the Safety Approval Plate at the designated location. Thistask is normally contracted to a Classification Society, such as American Bureau of Shipping (ABS), LloydsRegister of Shipping (LRS), Bureau Veritas (BV), Germanischer Lloyd (GL), Nippon Kaiji Kyokai (NK), etc.

However, containers that are owned and operated by companies which have approved inspection systemsin place, e.g. large container lessors and/or ship operators such as Hapag Lloyd and P&O Nedlloyd, areexempt from these provisions.

An example of a Safety Approval Plate:

Key:1. Custom Seal Approval Number2. Manufacturer’s Number3. Timber Component Treatment (Australian requirements)4. Manufacturer5. Owner6. CSC Number7. Container’s Number (Prefix and Numbers)8. Max. Gross Weight

Also note the ACEP, which refers to the ‘Approved Continuous Examination Programme’ and that the CSCSafety Approval section of the plate also includes the date of manufacture as well as the AllowableStacking Weight and the Racking Test Load Value.

The International Institute of Container Lessors Ltd (IICL)

The International Institute of Container Lessors (IICL) was formed in 1971 and is based in WestchesterCounty, New York. The Institute is governed by a Board of Directors who are elected annually by themembership made up of various container leasing companies such as Cronos and Triton.

IICL’s membership engages in leasing marine cargo containers to ship operators and other interestedparties around the world. The membership companies of IICL own approximately 97% of the leasedcontainer fleet, which is considered to be half the world’s entire container fleet.


The Institute was instrumental in developing the CSC. The IICL Committee has also dealt with customsissues around the world to ensure that containers continue to move freely as an instrument ofinternational trade. This has included monitoring developments under the Customs Convention onContainers (1956 and 1972) and regulations in the USA, the EU and other countries.

The IICL has taken a leadership role in the container standards activities of the International Organisationfor Standardisation (ISO), and has consultative status at the IMO, the UN Economic and Social Council andthe UN Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). It has been proactive in promoting equipment,quality and safety through the development and publication of the container inspection criteria,sponsorship of examinations and courses, and the advocacy of interchange efficiency. Their efforts inthese areas are credited with contributing to cost savings throughout the container industry.

IICL’s technical publications have received world-wide acceptance. The ‘Guide for Container EquipmentInspection’, known as the ‘IICL – 5’ is now in its fifth edition and was published jointly with the InternationalChamber of Shipping (ICS) in 1996.

Other manuals published by the IICL, which are used by container depots, container surveyors andcontainer repair contractors around the world include:

• Repair Manual for Steel Freight Containers.

• Supplement on Container Inspection and Repair.

• Guide for Container Damage Measurement.

• General Guide for Container Cleaning.

• Specifications for Steel Container Refurbishment.

• General Guide for Refrigeration Container Inspection and Repair,

as well as manuals on container testing requirements, container coating systems and a pamphlet on theCSC.

The IICL has also developed worldwide certification programmes for inspectors of containers, which beganin 1983 with the container inspector’s examination which has been taken by a large number ofinternational container inspectors involved in surveying and container repair and refurbishment.

When inspecting containers for general maintenance and refurbishment, the various publicationsproduced by the IICL should be consulted and followed.


CONTAINER CONSTRUCTIONThe International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) prescribes certain minimum and maximumdimensions that have to be preserved, with positive and negative tolerances (i.e. allowances above andbeyond the specified dimensions).

The ISO dimensions and tolerances required for conventional steel general purpose containers follows below:

S = Length between centres in corner fitting apertures

P = Width between centres in corner fitting apertures

L = External length of the container

W = External width of the container

D = Distance between centres of apertures of diagonally opposite corner fittings

K1 = Difference between D1 and D2 or D3 and D4

K2 = Difference between D5 and D6

H = Overall height

EXTERNAL DIMENSIONS AND TOLERANCES IN MILLIMETERS AND IN FEET AND INCHES

Height – 8 ft. high: 2 438 + 0 / - 5 mm (8ft 8in. + 0 / - 3/16 in.)

Height – 8½ ft. high: 2 591 + 0 / - 5 mm (8ft 6in. + 0 / - 3/16 in.)

Height (external) – 9½ ft. high: 2 896 + 0 / - 5 mm (9 ft 6 in. + 0 / - 3/16 in.)

Width – All containers: 2 438 + 0 / - 5 mm (8 ft 0 in. + 0 / - 3/16 in.)

Length (external) S P K1 max. K2 max. Freight container

designation mm ft in mm ft in mm ft in mm in mm in

40 12 192 + 0

- 10

40 0+0

-3/8

11 985 39 3-7/8 2 259 7 4-31/32 19 3/4 10 3/8

30 9 125 + 0

- 10

29 11-1/4 + 0

- 3/8

8 918 29 3-1/8 2 259 7 4-31/32 16 5/8 10 3/8

20 6 058 + 0

- 6

19 10-1/2 + 0

- 1/4

5 853 19 2-7/16 2 259 7 4-31/32 13 1/2 10 3/8

MINIMUM INTERNAL DIMENSIONS

Minimum width Minimum lengthFreight container

designation

Minimum height

mm in mm ft In

20 5,867 19 3

30 8,931 29 3-5/8

40

Nominal container external

height minus 241mm (9-

1/2 in)

2,330 91 – 3/4

11,998 39 4-3/8


The various components of a general purpose container including that of an open top type have been reproduced on thefollowing pages from the ‘IICL – 5’ publication (Guide for Container Equipment Inspection).


CONTAINER COMPONENTSThe following diagram highlights the main components of a container and the terms used to refer to itsvarious parts:

A brief description of the main components follows below:

Corner post: Vertical frame components located at the corners of containers and integral with the cornercastings and floor structures.

Corner castings: Fittings located at the corner of the container which provide the means for lifting,handling, stacking and securing.

Header and sill: In way of the door entrance with overhead horizontal header frame and similar floorlevel threshold sill.

Front-end frame: The structure at the front end of the container (opposite the door end) consisting oftop and bottom rails attached to the front corner posts and other corner castings.

Top rail: Longitudinal structural members located at the top edge on either side of the container.

Bottom rail: Longitudinal structural members located at the bottom edge on either side of the container.

Cross-members: A series of transverse beams pitched at approximately 12” (30 cm) attached to thebottom side rail and an integral part of the floor frame support.

Floor: The floor may be hard (steel) or soft laminated wood, planks or plywood.

Roof: Roof bows which support the under-most structure of the roof are usually pitched at 18” or 24”(46-61 cm). Modern steel GP containers (except open top containers) are not fitted with roof bows but willhave corrugated or flat steel sheet roofs welded to the frame members. Aluminium containers have


aluminium sheathing, bonded with adhesive to the roof bows and riveted to the top rails and headers.Glass Reinforced Plastic (GRP) containers have fibreglass reinforced plywood panels fastened to the railand headers. Note: The roof is the part of the container most vulnerable to damage.

Sides and front: Modern steel GP containers will have corrugated steel panels. Aluminium containershave aluminium sheathing on the sides and front of the container which are affixed to aluminium stringerswhich are in turn bolted to the top and bottom rails and also to the front end frame. The stringers may beon the outside or inside of the sheathing. GRP containers do not use stringers for supporting the fibreglassreinforced plywood panels. The side and front of steel containers are made of corrugated steel sheetseliminating stringers.

Doors: Doors may be ply-metal (i.e. plywood core with steel or aluminium facings), corrugated orcombinations with fibreglass. The hinged doors have plastic or rubber lined door gaskets as seals againstwater ingress.

Security seal: Used in conjunction with the locking mechanism in order to seal the containers forsecurity purposes. These seals are numbered and are often colour coded.

General Note: There are containers being used in the industry that do not comply with the ISO Code andparticular attention must be paid to this when inspecting containers. Should it be discovered that acontainer does not comply with the ISO Code, the client should be notified immediately prior to thecontainer being placed into service for packing.

TYPES OF CONTAINER AND THEIR USESInitially, containers were constructed of steel and used for carrying general packaged cargoes but nowthere are a large variety each designed for a specific type of cargo. They are required to conform to ISOstandards as well as the International Convention for Safe Containers (CSC) and the Customs Convention.

There are various types of containers which have been developed and designed to accommodate generaland specific cargoes.

The majority of containers used in world-wide trade today conform to the ISO standard with thepredominant size being 20 and 40 foot with a height of 8 foot 6 inches (2.6 metres) generally referred to asa TEU which stands for 20 foot equivalent unit or FEU which is the 40 foot equivalent unit.

There are a number of variations on the TEU and FEU ISO standard container dimensions, the mostcommon being the ‘high cube’, with a height of 9 foot 6 inches (2.9 metres).

The majority of containers are the standard general purpose 20-foot ‘box containers,’ generally referred toas TEUs, which exists in a number of variations, namely ‘open top’, ‘ventilated’, or ‘hard top’ containers aswell as larger 40-foot units. FEUs can be of general purpose design as well as variations on the 20-foot units.

Containers designed to carry abnormal loads or loads that are difficult to stow inside an enclosed generalpurpose container, can be accommodated in ‘flat racks’ and on ‘platforms’. ‘Open-top’ containers are alsoused for the carriage of units that have unusual dimensions. Cargo is inserted from above through the topand then protected from the weather by a tarpaulin cover.

The more rigid type of container for roof access is the ‘hard-top’ unit, which has a steel hard top roof panelwhich can be removed in sections easily handled by a forklift. In some cases, the door header at the rear ofthe container can be swung out to accommodate cargo loading using a crane via the door and/or roof.

There are general purpose steel containers constructed for the carriage of ‘bulk’ commodities, whichusually have 3 man-hole lids fitted in the roof panel. These are ideally suited to the carriage of grain andfree flowing powdery substances such as fertilizers.

‘Flat racks’ are constructed in 20 and 40-foot unit size and can vary in height from the standard 8’6’ to the


high-cube 9’6’ height. These flat racks are designed with fixed or hinged end panels. The hinged end panelsfold inwards and can be collapsed flat on the floor surface of the unit to allow multiple stacking of thecollapsed units when empty. Once collapsed and stacked they are locked together to form a single unitwhich saves space during transit. These flat rack units are provided with removable vertical side posts and insome cases, with removable topside rails. The flat rack unit’s top and sides can be covered with a tarpaulin.

‘Ventilated’ containers are of general purpose design and exist in various forms. Some have passiveventilation provided by small ventilation openings in the side panels at the top via a perforated ventilationstrip running along directly below the top side and directly above the bottom side rails. They are usually atthe forward end of the right side panel and the after end of the left side panel.

Other types of ventilated containers may be insulated or refrigerated containers.

For cargoes which are susceptible to climatic change and temperature, there are ‘insulated’ and‘refrigerated’ containers, based on the standard TEU and FEU. An insulated container is constructed withpanels made from a ‘sandwich-construction’ with polyurethane foam to provide maximum insulationthereby facilitating the carriage of cargoes that require constant temperatures above or below freezingpoint. Insulated containers are usually carried on specifically designed vessels so that the containers canbe plugged into the vessel’s cooling system. The air is circulated through two apertures in the front wall.These types of containers are called ‘porthole’ units. When discharged from the vessel, they needrefrigeration to be provided by a ‘clip-on’ unit.

Refrigerated containers are constructed using insulated panels and have integral refrigeration plants builtin to the front end of the unit. There are variations of these types of units but some can provide set pointsfor temperatures as low as -27°C as well as having de-humidification options and ‘cold treatment’.

Inside an integrated refrigerated container unit refrigerated air flows through and around the goods in thecontainer. This cold air is blown in through the base gratings (or ‘T-section flooring’) and then drawn offagain below the container ceiling (i.e. the top). The circulating fans then force the air through the air cooler,which also acts as the evaporator in the cold circuit, and back through the gratings into the cargo. An


example of the air flow in an integral refrigerated container is shown in the figure below:

In the case of pre-cooled frozen goods, air only has to flow around the goods, since no heat has to bedissipated from the goods themselves. Thus, only the heat which penetrates the insulation from theoutside of the unit has to be dissipated.

However, when transporting fruit and vegetable products, the air flows through the goods since theseproducts generate respiration heat inside the container, which has to be dissipated.

In order to ensure that air can flow around frozen goods, without interrupting the normal flow ofcirculation during transportation, the inner walls of the container are normally constructed with‘corrugations’. This type of construction allows air to flow freely through the corrugated channels evenwhen the goods are packed and stacked directly against the container walls. Heat that may penetrate fromthe outside, will thus be dissipated.

The air exchanges within a container are approximately 30-40 changes per hour when transporting frozengoods and approximately 60-80 changes per hour when transporting fruit and vegetables. The pressuredifferential at the circulating fan (difference in pressure between the pressure side and the suction side)for normal stowage is approximately 12-25mm/H2O but other values are possible, depending on thestowage, the power supply frequency and the extent to which the fresh air flaps are opened. In certainnewer designed containers, variable speed fans are provided where the speed is determined by thetemperature differential between the supply air and the return air.

The internal walls and panels of a container are marked at the top with a ‘load limit line’, which isnormally in red. When stowing a container, the goods should not be stowed beyond this limit, in order toprovide sufficient space at the top of the container to allow the air to circulate.


The following diagram is a cut-away view of an integral refrigerated container:

1. High level full width air return grill

2. Loadline markings

3. Stainless steel inner linings

4. Evaporator/condenser centrifugal fans with motor

5. Evaporator section front face inspection panel

6. Air supply and exhaust vents

7. Gas sampling port

8. Condenser section drop down door

9. Electrical compartment

10. High and low power electrical supply cables

11. Compressor

12. Control compartment

13. Delivery air plenum chamber

14. Strengthened T-section floor

15. Evaporator air movement over cooling coil and down sides of unit to form symmetrical air flow to T-sectionfloor and through cargo

16. Delivery air duct

17. Diesel generator set locating points


Liquid products can be carried in bulk in ‘tank’ containers. Tank units are also designed for various typesof liquid products including hazardous cargoes. They are found in 20 and 40-foot units. The tanks aregenerally manufactured of stainless steel and provided with a manhole on the top for access and loadingpurposes with a valve at the bottom to facilitate discharge. The tanks can be clad externally with insulationmaterial and be internally fitted with steam heating coils.

There are other types of containers that have been specifically designed and constructed for a particulartype of cargo. One example is a ‘coil-container’, which accommodates the quick loading and securing oflarge steel coils. It is built like a flat rack but the base is constructed from a corrugated surface on top ofwhich the coils can be placed ‘on-the-roll’ horizontally in a transverse direction and cradled within thetroughs of the corrugations. This facilitates ease of loading from the sides of the open flat rack unit andsince the coils are resting in the troughs of the corrugations, movement is restricted and the coils areeasily secured for land and sea transportation.

There are also ‘half-height’ containers, which are designed as both 20 and 40-foot units. Thesecontainers are usually used for high density cargoes including free-flowing and liquid cargoes and arenormally provided with openings in the roof panel to facilitate the loading or discharge of the product.Half-height containers can also be of the ‘open-top’ variety.

Platforms consist of flat beds with corner castings. Some platforms have goose-necks which assistloading and discharging by trailer.

Examples of some of the containers previously referred to are shown below:

Bulk container Tank container

Standard container High-cube container Hard-top container Open-top container

Flatrack Platform (plat) Ventilated container Insulated and refrigeratedcontainer


General view of 20ft container, side and end views.

General view of 40ft container, side and end views

General views of container with side doors.


Hard-top container.

Unventilated general purpose containers made of sheet steel.

Open-top container with tarpaulin cover in place


Open-top container with roof covering removed and door header hinged open to allow adequate access.

20 foot flat rack with fixed ends

40 foot flat rack with fixed ends


Platform

Standard general purpose containers with vents in the sides – normally positioned at the top of the sidepanels with one at the forward end on the right side and one at the after end on the left side.

General purpose container with mechanical ventilation installed in the container.


Close up view of ventilation perforations close tothe top rail on the side of a GP (general purpose)container.

Internal view of the ventilation perforationsrunning along the top rail of the side panel.

A ventilated container with a longitudinal strip of ventilation perforations directly below the top of theside panels and in some cases, running along the base of the side panels. The arrows highlight theposition of the top ventilation strip.

External view showing the bottom ventilationperforations.

Internal view showing the bottom performationsproviding ventilation.


Internal view with the arrows highlighting thepositioning of the longitudinal vents running alongthe full length of the sides at the top and bottom.

Container with end wall doors and partial openingsat the side.

Comparison of a high-cube container (9’6’) with a8’6’ container.

Coil container with folding end walls.

20’ flatracks with fold-down end walls and coil wells (coil containers).


20’ and 40’ half-height open-top containers, with and without a tarpaulin cover.

20’ x 8’ x 4’3’ half-height open-top – external and internal view.

Flat racks, also known as flats, consist of acontainer floor and end walls. Flat racks withfolding or collapsible end walls or end frames arecommonly known as collapsible flats or collapsible

Half-height container usually used for liquid cargo

40’ platform with complete folding end walls in acollapsed state

40’ platform with complete folding end walls in acollapsed state


Typical use of flatracks and platforms

Tank containers for liquid cargo Example of a bulk container fitted with roofopenings.

An example of a tanktainer.


An example of an integral reefer container.


Type

Open-top

Half-height

Flat racks

Platforms

Fantainers

Highlyventilated

Top ventilated

Open-sides

Bulk

Tank containers

Refrigerated –integral

Refrigerated –insulated

Size

20 / 40

20 / 40

20 / 40

20 / 40

20 / 40

20

20

20

20

20 / 40

20 / 40

20

Characteristics

Do not have a solid roof but instead they arecovered with a removable waterprooftarpaulin that can be secured to the side andend rails by way of lacing rope. The metalbeam above the door can be opened to theright or left or removed completely.

Soft detachable roof tarpaulin, half height.

No side walls or roof, ends may becollapsible.

Flat bed with corner castings.

GP container fitted with an extractor fan.

Side vents along the top and bottom rails.

Side vents along the top rail.

Side gates and side curtains.

Top loading ports and door discharge chute.

Tank within an ISO frame – various types oftanks e.g., stainless steel, insulated externallyand heated internally, etc.

Electrically powered self-containedrefrigeration unit.

Top and bottom end ports (portholes) whichconnect to a ship’s refrigeration system (onlyon specially designed vessels); require clip-on refrigeration units when landed ashore.

Typical Use

For machinery requiring top loading and forover-height cargo.

High density cargo such as ingots, heavysteel work, drums, Ferro Alloys, etc.

For out of gauge cargoes and restrictedloading situations. Best suited for thestowage of heavy lifts including over-heightand over-length items. Heavy gauge lashingpoints are provided on the bottom side railsand corner posts as well as in way of thefloor areas to enable cargo to be securedadequately by heavy gauge lashing material(including chains).

Over-sized cargoes and special projectcargoes.

Perishable products which requireventilation. This type of container can also beutilised as a normal GP container.

Hygroscopic cargoes such as coffee, cocoa,tobacco and various seed products.

Hygroscopic cargoes such as coffee, cocoa,tobacco and various seeds.

Agricultural products requiring ventilation,live stock and side loading cargoes

Dry cargoes in bulk – e.g. malt, sugar,fertilizers, grain products, etc. This containercan also be utilised as a normal GP unit.

Liquid cargoes in bulk including food stuffsand hazardous products.

Refrigerated cargoes for international tradeprovided with connections compatible withcontainer terminal and ship’s electricalpower sockets.

Refrigerated cargoes on specialised shipsusually operated between Europe, SouthAfrica, Australia and New Zealand.

There follows a schedule of the most common containers and their typical use.


STUFFING AND UNSTUFFINGIntroduction

In the shipping industry the packing and unpacking of containers is called ‘stuffing’ and ‘unstuffing’.

Prior to stuffing a container, a general inspection of the unit is undertaken to verify the safety and cargoworthiness of the container and this inspection must cover both the external and internal areas.

After stuffing the container, another inspection should be carried out to ensure that the unit is in asatisfactory condition for shipment.

The choice of container will depend on the type of cargo to be stuffed. As there are various types ofcontainers, a container has to be selected for the specific type of cargo and the intended voyage from theplace of stuffing to the container’s final destination for unstuffing.

Shipments of goods in containers fall into two basic categories which are abbreviated as FCL (‘FullContainer Load’) and/or LCL (‘Less Than Container Load’), defined as follows:

FCL (‘Full Container Load’):

1. A container stuffed or unstuffed at the risk of the shipper and/or the consignee.

2. A general reference for identifying container loads of cargo loaded and/or discharged atmerchant’s premises.

LCL (‘Less Than Container Load’):

1. A general reference for identifying cargo in any quantity intended for carriage in a container,where the carrier is responsible for packing and/or unpacking the container.

2. For operational purposes a LCL container is considered a container in which multipleconsignments or parts thereof are shipped.

Fundamentals for Successfully Containerising Cargo

The fundamental requirements for a successful containerised cargo shipment are:

• Matching the cargo to the correct type of container that is best suited for the intended voyage includingland and sea based sectors.

• Ensuring that the container is in a safe and cargo worthy condition prior to stuffing the cargo and that it iscarried and handled correctly throughout each sector of the voyage.

• Ensuring that the cargo is stuffed correctly into the container and that it is adequately and properlysecured against any movement that may be anticipated during land transport and the rigors of the seavoyage.

• Ensuring that all relevant cargo information is provided and forwarded to all parties involved in order toensure that the container and its contents will arrive at the destination in a satisfactory condition.

Inspection prior to Stuffing

1. External Checks:

Ensure that there is:

• No obvious physical damage to the exterior panelling of the container or structure – i.e. no holes, cracks,tears or deformed structural components.

• No adhesive labels referring to previous cargo carried – i.e. IMO hazardous cargo labels, etc.

• All external markings should be clearly visible as should the safety data plate.

• The rear doors must operate satisfactorily with the rubber gasket seals intact and sealing correctly. Doorhinges, locking bars and door securing arrangements should operate satisfactorily.


2. Internal Checks:

Consider the following:

• Cleanliness – that there are no previously carried cargo residues, no stains and no contamination. Payspecial attention to the timber flooring and that there are no grease, oil or chemical stains. The interiorshould be dry and free from condensation. There should be no evidence of infestation which may lead tocargo contamination and health authority infringements.

• Paint free – immediately on opening the doors of a container check for any lingering odours. The interior ofthe container should be ‘odour free’ especially if delicate goods susceptible to damage by bad odours areto be carried.

• Watertight integrity – a light / leak test should be carried out by entering the container and then closingand sealing the doors. The inspector should wait a while for his eyes to adjust to the darkness and thencarefully examine the internal panels, floor area and door seals to detect any light shining through thatmight indicate a problem with the watertight integrity of the unit. Obviously, this test can only be carriedout during daylight hours and requires a reliable assistant outside the container to lock the inspector inand more importantly let him out again.

• The container floor area should be clear of any protrusions (i.e. nails, etc), which may damage the cargo.

Inspection after Stuffing

• Distribution – Ensure that the container has been packed with the appropriate cargo and that the cargohas been evenly distributed throughout the floor area so as not to over stress any part of the container orcause any imbalance when the container is lifted or handled during the anticipated voyage.

• Doors – Cargo should be clear of the door areas so no undue stress is placed on them and the face of thestow at the rear end should be adequately secured to minimise the possibility of movement or collapseagainst the doors.

• Secured – Ensure that the cargo is adequately secured to minimise movement during the transit period.Void spaces should be ‘chocked’ and ‘tommed’ with timber to restrict both longitudinal and transversemovement. The cargo should be secured in such a manner so as to minimise the possibility of movementin any direction, bearing in mind that during the rigors of a sea passage, cargo is subjected to movementin all directions.

• Timber – If timber has been used for packing or to secure the cargo (e.g. pallet bases) it may be necessaryto comply with the quarantine regulations of the country of destination and a phytosanitary certificate orproof that the timber has been treated (or fumigated) may have to be placed near the door end, possiblytaped to the inside (in a plastic envelope). It may be necessary for information to be obtained from thephytosanitary authorities of the country to which the consignment is destined.

• Customs inspection requirements – If one or more type of article is stuffed into the container, it may savetime and the cost of a customs search, if a sample of each article is positioned close to the rear door end.

• Security – When the rear doors are closed and secured, all the securing lugs should be properly engagedin order to force the door seals into compression. Ensure the door seal gaskets have not folded over orbecome mis-aligned during this securing operation. Additionally, there should be no remnants of cargoresidue or small pieces of timber from the securing operation, in the way of the door sill, which may impairthe correct compression sealing of the rubber gaskets. It is advisable to sweep the area clean oncepacking has finished. An approved ‘seal’ should be fitted in the appropriate position on the right hand door,and the seal number should be noted and recorded for inclusion in the bill of lading and other shippingdocuments. In addition, security against theft can be provided by padlocks and/or additional seals. Thereare four locations where security devices can be inserted on the door handles. Ensure that no ‘old’ labelsof any kind are attached to the outer surfaces as this may cause confusion, especially with respect tohazardous cargo labels.

• Labels – Hazardous cargo IMO labels, if appropriate, should be fixed to the external part of the container.These labels should be positioned so that they do not obscure any other reference information ordistinguishing marks, which are permanently displayed on the container. This includes the containernumber.


• Contents – In certain instances, a packing depot may place a temporary label on the outside of thecontainer indicating the commodity of the consignment to be packed therein. It is recommended thatlabels referring to the contents (other than the internationally required IMO hazardous labels) be removedto minimise the possibility of pilferage.

Security Seals

Seals are an important aspect of security in container transportation and much research has beenundertaken to design a ‘foolproof’ seal.

One of the recommended seals in use today is referred to as the ‘bolt-seal’ and an example of the typeutilised by P&O Nedlloyd follows below:

The above type of security seal has a plastic coated steel pin, which acts as an early warning if there hasbeen any interference with the seal, as the plastic shatters when tampered with.

Occasionally Customs or Port Health Officials need to inspect the container’s contents which requiresbreaking the seal. In this situation, if at all possible, someone representing the carrier should be present toensure that another seal is fitted after the inspection.

Should the seal have to be broken prior to the container arriving at its destination, and a new seal fitted,the new seal number must be recorded on the appropriate documentation. It is recommended that whenthe seal is broken to unstuff the container, the broken seal should be retained until such time as a fullinspection and tally of the contents has been carried out. It goes without saying that if the seal has beentampered with or is not secure on arrival at the consignee’s premises, then the carrier should be informedimmediately and certainly prior to opening and unstuffing of the container.

Example of a security seal fitted to a containerdoor.

Close up view of the ‘bolt-seal’ type security seal


Procedure prior to Unstuffing

When attending the unstuffing of a container, the following procedures should be carried out:

• Inspect the exterior of the container to ensure that it has not suffered any damage during transit and thatthere are no breaches such as holes or cuts in the steel panels.

• Inspect the door area prior to opening the container in order to ensure that the door seals are intact andsealed correctly. Ensure that the securing locking bars are intact and in place and that the security of thecontainer has not been breached.

• Inspect the security ‘seal’ ensuring that it is intact and that it has not been tampered with. Record thenumber on the seal and compare it with the accompanying documentation to ensure that the numbersmatch and the seal matches that mentioned on the Bill of Lading.

• Obtain a copy of the packing list in order to verify the contents of the container.

• Prior to opening the doors, due regard should be taken of any hazardous cargo labels. If the containerdoes contain hazardous cargo, then be prepared and take the necessary precautionary measures whenopening the doors.

• On opening, open the right hand door cautiously, so as to ensure and guard against the risk of improperlysecured cargo that may have fallen against the door which may cause personal injury when the door isopened.

Procedure after Unstuffing

Once the container has been emptied of cargo, a thorough inspection should be carried out for anydamage inflicted to the container, which may give rise to claims. Obviously, during the unstuffing operation,the cargo itself would have been examined and any defects or damage noted must be recorded andreported on.

In certain cases, there is a requirement and an obligation on behalf of the FCL consignee to clean out thecontainer and ensure that all cargo residues, lashing equipment and packaging material is cleared and thatthe container is swept clean.

Furthermore, it is prudent to examine the container for any signs of wet stains or holes in the sides or roofthat may have affected the cargo which has just been unstuffed, and to carry out a ‘light/leak’ test withspecial attention being paid to the door seal areas. At the same time check for any odours.

The floor area of the container must also be carefully examined and checked to ensure that there are noremnants of previously carried cargo and no stains such as oil or grease from the cargo carried, in order toensure that no claims may arise from the container owner or lessor.


STOWAGE AND SECURING OF CONTENTS1. Homogenous cargo

If the load consists of a homogenous type cargo (all cargo items of the same size), all of the space in thecontainer should be utilised. Packaged cargoes involving e.g. cartons, cases, boxes, bags, drums, barrels,or rolls should be carefully stowed in order to maximise the use of the available space. This will thenmaximise freight capacity whilst helping to prevent cargo from shifting during transit.

The photograph below illustrates a container completely stuffed with a homogenous type cargo. Not onlyis this a satisfactory and secure stow but no securing materials have had to be used thus reducing the riskof damage and saving costs.

2. Uniform stowage

When a uniform unit of cargo is stowed into a container, the dimensions of the individual packages will notnecessarily facilitate a stow where free space is unavoidable. Therefore, the stowage plan should try toachieve a uniform pattern and restrict lashing and securing. It is preferable when packing uniform sizeboxes or crates, which will require securing due to their size in relation to the internal dimensions of thecontainer, to have a gap in the middle of the stow, longitudinally from forward to aft within the container.This gap can then be adequately secured with timber chocking / tomming, etc.


3. Palletised cargoes

Palletised cargoes normally expedite the stuffing and unstuffing operation of a container and dependingupon their dimension, they can be stowed to minimise wasted space and securing. The units are normallyhandled by forklifts. Sometimes shippers do construct their palletised units to optimise the space of acontainer and thus minimise broken stowage and of course, loss of space. The following photograph is anexample of a combination of palletised units stowed together with cartons.

The following photographs illustrate palletised stowage within a container that has optimised the spaceand does not require any form of physical securing.

4. Cartons and packages

When packing cartons into a container, it is extremely important to examine the markings and instructions,which are normally printed on the cartons. International logos may reflect ‘THIS WAY UP’; ‘KEEP DRY’,‘FRAGILE – HANDLE WITH CARE’, etc. To ensure stability in the stow and spread the weight as evenly aspossible, a ‘bonded block stow’ should be achieved.

5. Bagged cargo

Bagged cargoes, when packed ‘as loose bags’, should be placed in an interlocking stow. Bags do tend tosettle during transit and may cause pressure on the side panels of the container. If the product containedin the bag needs ventilation, then the stow needs ventilation channels. The bags should be secured at therear door end in order to minimise the possibility of undue pressure being placed on the doors therebycausing the bags to fall out when the doors are opened. It is therefore recommended that the face of thestow at the door end be secured either by placing a net over the face, pulled back towards the forwardend, or by placing several timber pallets nailed together with timber braces, to form a secure face.

6. Drums

It is normal practice to stow drums vertically on end with their ‘bung holes’ facing upwards. Drums usuallycontain liquids or powders and thus it is essential to conduct a thorough pre-loading inspection to ensure


that no damaged drums are shipped. If the drums are stowed in layers or tiers (vertically on end), it isnecessary to place dunnage material in the form of plywood sheeting in-between the layers.

Once the container is filled with drums, the door end area can be secured by placing several timber palletsbetween the face of the drum stow and the door. This will assist in restricting movement and ensure thatthe drums do not lean against the doors during the transit. In some instances, drums are palletised andthis method of palletising (usually four drums together, with a 210 litre capacity) expedites the handlingoperation during both stuffing and unstuffing operations. However, adequate dunnaging may be requiredbetween rows of pallets in order to minimise chafe and if large voids remain at the end towards the doorarea, timber chocking and tomming may be required to ensure that the stow is secure.

7. Vehicle tyres

Vehicle tyres can be interlocked (braided) to form a secure stow within a container.


8. Bulk liquids

Various liquid products are carried in bulk and not necessarily in tank containers. They may be carried instrong synthetic ‘flexi-bags’ with one large flexi-bag accommodated within a 20ft GP steel container.Products normally carried in this way include wine, latex, printing ink and other non-hazardous typeliquids. The flexi-bag must be supported and braced at the door end of the container with a strong timberbulkhead. There is no reason for securing the bag within the container but the placing of undue pressureon the side panels of the container must be taken into account.

Bulk liquids can also be carried in Intermediate Bulk Containers (IBC’s), some of which are specificallydesigned to be pallet handling friendly.

The photograph below illustrates the carriage and stowage of IBC’s.

9. Mixed cargoes

When packing a mixed cargo load within a container, due care must be taken to ensure that liquidproducts are always stowed in the lower tier with the dry cargo on top. The following illustrates how tostow drums with palletised crates of solid dry cargo.


10. Unpacked Machinery

Unpacked machinery items are often carried within normal GP containers. Prior to stuffing the containerthe load distribution and configuration of the stow should be carefully planned taking into considerationboth the handling operation and the lashing method to be adopted. An example of unpacked machinerystowed in a container is illustrated in the photograph below.

11. Motor vehicles

The standard GP container is suitable for the carriage of light motor vehicles. These units can easily bemanoeuvred into the container and require minimal lashing due to their weight. It is normal for vehicles tobe lashed with synthetic rope or webbing in the form of cross lashings at the front and rear ends of thevehicle, which are secured to the lashing points within the container (at the bottom side rails). Tensioningof the rope / webbing belts is done using a ‘Spanish Windlass’. This involves inserting a piece of timberinto the loop. The rope or webbing is then tightened by turning the wood. The wheels can easily bechocked with timber placed in a transverse direction at the front and rear of each set of wheels, which isthen nailed to the container floor. An illustration of the stowage of a vehicle in a container follows below:

12. Dry Bulk

Standard GP containers can also be used for the carriage of dry bulk commodities by using an inner‘Linerbag’. These linerbags are made of polyurethane and fitted into the container and then secured at theforward and rear ends (top and bottom corners) by securing ropes. The rear end of the linerbag isconstructed with a flap opening at the top. The door end area is secured by placing horizontal pipes


between the rear corner posts and the first corrugation, in a horizontal position and at several layers,usually four, spaced equidistantly from top to bottom. Loading occurs via a chute through the top flap atthe rear end of the linerbag. This method of carrying dry bulk cargo eliminates contamination and/orwetting of the contents.

The liner bag is designed for single use only. The bag is made from soft pliable elastic fabric therebyminimising possible tearing and consequent loss of cargo. The product can be loaded via a chute or by apneumatic system and the diagrams below illustrate the linerbag method of carrying dry bulk cargo.


13. Oversized and irregular shaped cargoes

These cargoes are accommodated on flat racks, platforms and open top type containers.

Flat rack containers can withstand concentrated loads and have adequate heavy gauge lashing points tosecure heavy cargoes.

Over-height cargo is easily accommodated within flat rack units.

The open top container is ideally suited for project type cargoes where loading is facilitated via the roofand door end.


14. Refrigerated Cargo

Normally the operator of a refrigerated container fleet will inspect the refrigerated unit by performing a‘pre-trip’ inspection (PTI). This inspection involves both the physical and technical inspection of each unitto ensure that the unit will perform as required.

The container will be cleaned to ensure that there is no previously carried cargo residue. Cleaning normallyentails the use of hot water, detergent and steam. Once the container is dry it will be moved to the‘stuffing’ point.

The shipper should then inspect the container to verify that it is in operational condition and that it is cleanand odour free.

Pre-cooling

Pre-cooling of an integral refrigerated container should be avoided if possible. This is because thetemperature inside the container will be cooler (if pre-cooled) than the temperature outside and will, whenthe doors are opened, result in condensation on the internal surfaces. The moisture from the condensationwill be removed once the refrigeration process begins but it will reduce the net refrigeration effect. Theonly exception is when the container is being stuffed directly from a cold store and the loading dock orport door is sealed against the ingress of moist air.

Loading procedures

There are certain procedures that should be adhered to when stuffing a refrigerated container in order toensure that the cargo is loaded efficiently and effectively for both refrigeration and transit.

Air must be able to circulate around the cargo to absorb the small amount of heat that enters thecontainer through the insulated walls, ceiling and floor. As a result it is imperative that the cargo is notloaded above the ‘load limit line’, which is marked on the inner wall surfaces of the container. Air must beallowed to flow between the door and the rear cargo stow and the stow should not extend beyond theend of the grating or T-section flooring. If there are any areas of the T-section flooring exposed then theyshould be covered.

Ventilation columns (or ‘chimneys’) must not be created between the goods that are stowed in thecontainer (i.e. pallets or cartons) as this will then short-circuit the air flow back to the refrigeration unit. Anygaps within the stow should be closed off with dunnaging material to ensure that the maximum volume ofair flows around the door area. When very small cartons are being stowed in a container, it isrecommended that the floor area be covered with a layer of perforated hardboard sheeting as this willthen allow small amounts of air to flow through the goods.

It is extremely important to ensure that the cargo is evenly distributed throughout the container prior toclosing and securing the doors. The container payload should be adhered to.

Shippers of containerised goods should ensure that the individual packages have been designed to utiliseand maximise the volume available within the container.

They should also provide the following information: the precise commodity details, the containertemperature set point in Celsius (°C), any fresh air venting in cubic metres per hour (cbm), if required, thedehumidifier setting as relative humidity, any generator requirements if continued refrigeration is needed,whether any pre-cooling of the container is needed, the location for stuffing the container and timerequired on site and any hazardous or noxious materials must be declared.

The shipper should also verify that the container is sound, without visible defects, that all panels aresecured and that it is internally clean, odour free, and dry with no moisture present.

He should check that the set point is correct, that the temperature chart is correctly endorsed and that ifpre-cooling is required, that the container has been pre-cooled to the correct temperature. This onlyapplies if the container is to be stuffed through a ‘port’ door at a cold-room facility.

When stuffing, ensure that the cargo is at the correct temperature prior to placing it into the container aswell as packed in packaging that will protect the product throughout the transit. Ensure that the stow is


below the ‘load limit line’ and that the stow does not extend beyond the floor’s T-section. Air circulationthrough the cargo may be needed for respiring products and ensure that only sound intact packages arestuffed into the container. Damaged goods should not be accepted.

Delays during stuffing operations should be kept to a minimum but if unavoidable, ensure that the doorsare closed until the stuffing can continue. If delays are experienced while un-stuffing the container, thecargo must be returned to the cold store in order to maintain its temperature.

15. Hazardous Cargo

Hazardous cargoes (whether dry solid or liquid cargoes) are often carried in containers. The carriage ofhazardous cargo is governed by the international regulations contained in the International MaritimeDangerous Goods Code, generally referred to as the IMDG Code. This Code must be consulted to ensuresafe packaging and normally the local safety authority will require information on both the cargo and howit has been packaged.

The compatibility of dangerous goods and their segregation is governed by the IMDG Code. The individualpackages, as well as the container itself, have to be clearly marked with the appropriate hazardous labelsin accordance with the IMDG Code for the class of commodity contained within. There are also specificrequirements for the declaration and documentation of hazardous cargo which have to be prepared priorto shipment.

The shipper of dangerous goods must provide a Dangerous Goods Declaration embodying the relevantdetails listed in Section 9 of the general introduction of the IMDG Code. Without such a Declaration, thecontainer cannot be accepted by the carrier for shipment. The original declaration should remain on boardthe ship while the container is on board.

The packing depot responsible for packing the dangerous goods into the container must also provide asigned Dangerous Goods Container Certificate, which states that the provisions of Paragraph 5.4 of theIMDG Code have been met. The original of this certificate should also be handed over to the vessel’soperator as without this certification, the container will not be accepted for shipment.

For further information on Hazardous Cargoes see Chapter 4.

16. Securing

Cargo stowed in containers must be secured to minimise movement and shifting. Therefore, any voids atthe sides or ends should be filled with timber tomming and/or chocking and the cargo unit itself should besecured to the floor area to minimise movement in the vertical plane. It is extremely important to ensurethat the cargo is well secured at the rear door end area so as to minimise the possibility of undue pressurebeing placed on the doors.

Although the container will provide some protection for the cargo when compared with break bulk typecargoes, it will still be subject to constant movement and stresses during transit. During the rigors of a seapassage, the cargo is exposed to compressive forces due to ‘pitching’ and ‘rolling’ as well as the verticalmovement of ‘heave’. (See Container Damage page 131)

The Code of Safe Practice for Cargo Stowage and Securing in freight containers published by the IMO,should be consulted when planning the stuffing and securing of a container for a sea passage.

There are many different types of securing materials available including:

• Heavy gauge timber for bracing, chocking and tomming.

• Plywood sheeting for separation as well as to provide a flat surface up against which a lattice fence-workand timber tomming can be braced.

• Netting (synthetic rope type).

• Flat webbing belts (nylon woven type) with ratchet tensioners.

• Polypropylene rope (usually 12mm diameter) for light cargoes.

• Wire rope lashings (usually 14mm diameter) tensioned by turnbuckles for heavy cargoes and steelproducts.


• Chain lashings with tensioners or turnbuckles for heavy cargoes.

• Steel strapping bands (flat steel usually 20/25mm in width).

• Timber pallets – ideal for filling void spaces or creating a surface / fence up against a face stow.

• Inflatable air bags – the polyurethane type with outer paper protection for once only use or the heaviergauge rubber type for multiple use. These however can only be utilised on cargoes that do not have sharpedges and cannot be utilised on heavy cargoes.

• Corrugated cardboard sheeting – used for the protection of soft goods prior to placing plywood sheetingand/or timber fencing in order to minimise chafe damage.

• Rubber matting – utilised to minimise slip or friction on steel surfaces as well as any edges where lashingbands, wires or ropes pass over in an attempt to minimise chafing.

• Second-hand vehicle tyres – utilised to prevent chafing. The rubber tyres can be cut up into sections topass over areas where lashing wires are fitted in order to prevent chafing or otherwise the tyresthemselves can be filled internally with crumpled up paper or bags of sawdust so as to provide acushioning effect.

• Foam-rubber cushions – to reduce vibration.

Some illustrations depicting the securing arrangements of various types of cargo, follow below.

Cargo secured by timber bracing on one side andairbags on the other.

The rear door area of the container is void with thecargo within being secured by building a base brace.

Another method of securing the base of cargowhich does not fill the container, is to wedgetimber in a transverse direction in-between theside panel corrugations.


Packages (2) and (3) may slip towards the container side wall (1). Package (4) may slip and tip resulting indamage to packages (5), (6) and (7) as well as other packages within the unit. If there is a continualmovement from side to side (i.e. rolling), the movement of items within the container will not only damagethe cargo but also the container itself. Containers stowed adjacent to this unit may also be damaged.

An illustration of the cargo securing components ina container.

1. Lashing bars (corner post).2. Lashing bars (side rail).3. Corner posts.4. Lashing rings.5. Wooden floor.

Boxes and crates inadequately stowed with various other packages:


The photograph which follows below shows the movement that may occur if the container is tilted 30° tothe horizontal (e.g. during a rolling motion aboard a vessel).

An ideal solution for mixed packages involving boxed and crated cargo is shown in the photograph below:

After viewing the type of cargo to be packed the stow must be pre-planned in order to ensure evendistribution and a tight fit with voids secured by timber or shoring, if needed.


Another example illustrating the packing and securing of mixed cargoes is shown below:

When loading containers, bear in mind the need for even distribution and if some items are smaller thanthe container floor dimension and require dunnaging for load distribution, then the following illustrationswould be of assistance:

The use of dunnage distributes the load over the floor strengthening members. Also refer to the nextdiagram.

Inadequately distributed cargo. Well distributed cargo through correct planning anddistribution with the use of an air bag and building of atimber platform.


It is recommended that a minimum distance of 100mm cross-sectional timber dunnage placed in thelongitudinal direction, be positioned along the centreline, approximately 0.4m either side of the centreline,so as to ensure even distribution. However, this will differ and alter depending upon the type of unit and/orcargo being placed within the container.

Containers may be packed by forklift trucks but particular care must be taken to ensure that thepermissible load of the container floor is not exceeded.

An example of load distribution and securing of a unit which does not fill the container follows below:


Utilisation of airbags

Stowed tightly and securely.

Timber utilised to secure the face of the stow


Note that the timber has been wedged in between thecorrugations of the side panels to secure the drums.

Steel coils lashed with woven nylon belts, cradled within timberbearers with timber chocks to prevent transverse movement. Thetimber bearers and chocks have been nailed to the wooden floor.

Coils cradled in stout timber bearers to restrictmovement and secured, by pulling the coildownwards to prevent the coil from jumping clear ofthe timber cradle.

Blocks of granite are more suited forcarriage on platforms or flatracks.

Securing of granite blocks on flatracks.


Summary

The following are a number of points to bear in mind as a quick reference guide for stuffing a container:

• Once the cargo booking list has been made available, select the most suitable container type toaccommodate the particular cargo or mix of cargo items to be loaded.

• Prepare a pre-stowage plan taking into consideration weight and volume distribution, and any pointloading limits that may arise due to the type and size or mass of an individual item. Bear in mind the loaddistribution in both the longitudinal and transverse dimensions within the container in order to minimisethe possibility of ‘tilt’ when the container is lifted.

• Ensure that the payload limits of the container are not exceeded by the weight of the cargo.

• Be aware of any land road regulations with regard to the combined weight of the container and contents,the course of transit from the packing depot to the container terminal and onto its final destination (if youcan). Ensure that the applicable regulations are adhered to.

• Distribute the weight of the cargo evenly over the floor of the area and avoid stowing heavy items in onesection and lighter volume items in another.

• Ensure that heavy items are not stowed on top of light goods.

• Ensure that a tight stow is achieved (as best as possible) in order to minimise movement within thecontainer. However, also ensure that the cargo is adequately secured to restrict movement. Securing canbe in the form of lashing the items down to the base of the container (utilising the lashing points providedon the inner side of the bottom rail) or otherwise by chocking and/or tomming the void areas with timber.

• Observe all the handling instructions displayed on the individual cargo items, i.e. ‘DO NOT DROP’, ‘THISSIDE UP’, ‘FRAGILE – HANDLE WITH CARE’, ‘KEEP DRY’, etc.

• Stow items with sharp protruding sections separately from other softer merchandise, making use ofseparating material as appropriate (e.g. plywood sheeting, corrugated cardboard sheeting, rubber matting,etc).

• For mixed loads, place packages containing liquid substances on the bottom tiers with dry substances ontop.

• Use protection lining material for obnoxious substances such as hides and carbon black – so as to protectthe container from becoming tainted and stained.

• Ensure that the handling devices being utilised (e.g. clamps) are designed for the goods being handled andthat the goods themselves can withstand that particular method of handling.

• Ensure that no damaged items are packed into the container e.g. packaging material torn with contentsexposed, etc. Advise the shipper to have the item replaced or repaired. If repaired ensure that this isrecorded on the relevant packing list.

• Avoid the stowage of wet and damp goods with dry goods.

• Do not utilise dunnaging or packaging material which is not compatible with that particular type of cargobeing stowed. Note: ‘green’ or new timber used as dunnage could be damp and may itself cause damage.

• Refrain from stowing goods which emit tainting odours close to sensitive merchandise.

• Consult the IMDG Code with respect to hazardous cargo ensuring that packaging and segregation iscarried out correctly and that the appropriate labels are displayed on both the items stowed within thecontainer as well as the labels being adhered to the external surfaces of the container to highlight thespecific type and class of hazardous cargo.

• If a container is to be packed with a mixed load of cargo which includes certain items of hazardous cargo,then ensure that there are no cargo incompatibilities and that the IMDG Code is adhered to. The hazardouscargo items should be packed close to the door end in order to be accessible.

• Ensure that personnel engaged in stuffing or unstuffing the container do not smoke either in the closeproximity of the cargo and container or inside the container.

• Include all necessary documentation.

• Record the security seal number and the container number on all shipping documentation.


CONTAINER DAMAGEThe common types of container damage generally experienced are as follows:

Racking

This occurs when the structural shell of the container twists due to static or dynamic forces and iscommonly associated with the movement of a ship in a seaway.

On a sea passage a container will be subjected to six distinct, basic ship motions:

• Rolling,

• Pitching,

• Yawing,

• Heaving,

• Sway, and

• Surge.

Any or all of these movements can have an effect on the container and its cargo and care therefore needsto be taken when stuffing, loading and lashing containers to prevent damage to the cargo, container andthe vessel itself.

It should not be forgotten that carriage of containers by road and rail also produce movement that maydamage and/or cause movement to both the cargo and container if not properly lashed and secured.

The standard ISO container racking limit is normally 15 tonnes. To counter these forces, diagonal lashingsmay be applied in accordance with the vessel’s lashing system. In high stacks, the lower container issubject to the greatest racking forces and the lashing systems may be designed to take this into account.


Toppling

This can occur when containers are subjected to extreme rolling motions aboard ship or standing in astack, exposed to high winds. Counter measures are twist-locks and lashings.

Container collapse (corner post compression)

This results from exceeding the allowable loads on the container corner posts and can be avoided byremaining within the weight limits of the container. Where lashings are applied aboard the vessel, avoidover tensioning the lashing components.

Containers are also damaged as a result of cargo movement within the container due to possible poorstuffing and inadequate securing, incompatible cargo for the type of container and/or heavy weatherexperienced by the vessel. Examples of some types of damage, follows in the photographs below:

Heavy Weather

Heavy weather damage


INSPECTION OF CONTAINERS FOR DAMAGE AND REPAIR1. Inspection Procedures:

The inspector should establish an inspection procedure which will include the examination of all areas andcomponents of the container. The inspection for damage must include an assessment of cleanliness and ifany previously carried cargo residues, debris, odour, contamination or infestation, which may beconsidered harmful to human health or future cargo are noted, then the client must be informed. This isextremely important when dealing with hazardous cargo.

The inspector must be properly equipped with the tools necessary to conduct the examination. Theseinclude a measuring tape, small steel ruler, a scraper, a torch and chalk to mark any defective areas.

When carrying out a container inspection, the client should be consulted for any specific inspectionrequirements. Particular attention should in any event be paid to damage or wear of an unusual naturewhich may prevent the unit from safely carrying cargo in accordance with international requirements.

The inspector should always bear in mind that containers are categorised as standard units and that thecarriers of such units (be they ships or land based transport – trucks / trailers and rail rolling stock) havebeen specifically designed to carry them. If the container does not comply with the prescribedinternationally accepted dimensions including any margin of tolerance, then the unit should be repairedand reinstated to meet the required tolerance (ISO).

The inspection of standard general purpose steel containers should include an examination of thefollowing areas and components:

Front End:

• Front panels, including corrugations.

• Front header (top rail).

• Front sill (bottom rail).

• Front corner posts.

• Upper and lower front corner fittings including attachments.

• Markings.

Left and Right Sides:

• Top rail.

• Side panels, including corrugations.

• Bottom rail and forklift pocket entrances.

• Front and rear corner posts.

• Upper and lower corner fittings and attachments.

• Ventilators.

• Markings.

Door End:

• Door header (top rail), including cam retainers (keepers).

• Door sill (bottom rail), including cam retainers (keepers).

• Door panels.

• Locking bars (rods), including brackets, guides and cams.

• Locking bar cams.

• Hinge components.

• Door gaskets and retaining strips.

• Rear corner posts.


• Upper and lower corner fittings and attachments.

• Rain gutter.

• Door handles, handle catches and retainers.

• Markings decals and plates.

• Door seals (rubber gaskets).

• The doors to ensure correct operation, including correct closure and operation of door-lockingmechanisms.

Roof:

• Panels, including corrugations.

• Header extension plate.

• Corner fittings and attachments.

• Markings.

Interior:

• Roof panels.

• Floor, including centre spacers.

• Side and front panels.

• Door panels and frame.

• Threshold plate.

• Lashing fittings.

• Corner posts and corner fittings.

• Ventilators.

• Markings.

• Light / leak test – this is carried out from the interior with the doors completely closed and secured. Checkfor light penetration through defects in the door seals (rubber gaskets), holes, damaged welded seams,damaged or separated floor boards, etc.

Under Structure:

• Cross members.

• Bottom side and sills.

• Floor boards, panels or planks.

• Tunnel recess.

• Forklift pockets and straps.

• Undercoating.

General:

• Cleanliness.

• Paint condition and colour.

• Certification and identification markings.

• General structural integrity and preservation of dimensions within ISO tolerances.

• Any repairs carried out to the container which are considered to be non-conforming.

When inspecting containers in possible need of repair the ‘IICL-5’ publication should be consulted. Thispublication contains information on various types of damage or wear and tear as well as the appropriateterms, abbreviations and documentary requirements for container repair.


2. Acceptable Damage:

Acceptable damage is that which does not require repair and does not reduce the safety and cargoworthiness of the unit. Examples, include:

• All flange damage except where welded connections are defective.

• Deformation of structural members in accordance with ISO tolerances.

• Previous repairs – unless the structural integrity of the container is compromised or it is unsuitable for thecarriage of cargo.

3. Non-Acceptable Damage:

Non-acceptable (also referred to as ‘non-conforming’) damage must be repaired because of one or moreof the following reasons:

• Non-conformance with the CSC (1972),

• Breach of the Customs Convention.

• A reduction in the internal height dimensions by more than 70mm or with length dimensions by more than50mm.

• The container is unsuitable for the carriage of cargo.

• Cracks in welds.

• Corrosion, not due to paint coating failure (which may be of a minor nature), but which may cause a loss instructural integrity.

4. Wear and Tear:

Wear and tear is defined as unavoidable change or deterioration of the condition of the container broughton by routine operational use and includes:

• General paint deterioration.

• Deterioration of door seals (rubber gaskets) and fittings.

• Deterioration of door fixings arising from the deterioration of the doors.

• Flooring de-lamination resulting from routine cargo loading and unloading cycles.

5. Manufacturing Defects:

If the inspection reveals what is suspected to be a manufacturing defect, then this must be reported tothe client.

Example of various types of damage

CCSP Stage II-Lloyds

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Transcript of CCSP Stage II-Lloyds