Key Information

Haiti New Zealand

Main Location Port-au-Prince Christchurch

Date, time 12/01/2010, 16:53pm 22/02/2011, 12:51 pm

Magnitude 7.0 6.3

Distance of epicentre from main location 13km South West 10km South East

Focus 13km 5km

Summary Statistics

316,000 people killed, 300,000

injured, 1.3 million displaced,

97,294 houses destroyed and

188,383 damaged.

181 people killed, 1,500

injured and about 100,000

buildings destroyed or

damaged

Causes

Haiti New Zealand

The boundary region separating the Caribbean plate and

the North America plate. This plate boundary is

dominated by left-lateral strike slip motion and

compression, and accommodates about 20 mm/y slip,

with the Caribbean plate moving eastward with respect

to the North America plate.

The earthquake occurred as part of the aftershock

sequence of the M 7.0 03/09/2010 Darfield, NZ

earthquake and like the mainshock itself is associated

with boundary deformation as the Pacific and Australia

plates meet in the central South Island, New Zealand.

Primary Effects

• Key buildings such as hospitals and roads collapsed • 19million cubic metres of rubble and debris left in

Port-au-Prince.

• No telephone system due to collapsed lines

• Main prison collapsed releasing 4000 inmates

• Buildings weakened in the previous earthquake (September 2010) were shaken and collapsed

• The tremor sent the spire of Christchurch Cathedral, a landmark in the centre of the city, toppling into the square below.

• Liquefaction caused cars and buildings to sink

Secondary Effects

Short Term Responses

• Communication systems, air, land, and sea transport facilities, hospitals, and electrical networks had been damaged by the earthquake, which hampered rescue and aid efforts.

• Confusion over who was in charge further complicated early relief work.

• Port-au-Prince's morgues were quickly overwhelmed with many tens of thousands of bodies had to be buried in mass graves.

• Flash Appeal raised £380m (target later raised to £1.5bn)

• Emergency camps were set up by many aid agencies.

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Emergency management plan was deployed

One experienced international Urban Search and Rescue team member described the response as "the best-organised emergency" he had witnessed. 300 Australian Police were sworn in as NZ police to help support the relief.

The military were deployed to help the rescue effort. Many other countries sent supportive search and rescue teams

Electricity supplies were reconnected within 2days over 20 000 portaloos were put in place to combat the lack of sewerage systems

Telephone companies gave free phone calls to all

Long Term Responses

• 8 large aftershocks caused further devastation • Roads were not fixed or cleared so emergency

services (mainly NGOs) were not able to gain access to the victims

• Landslides occurred due to widespread deforestation across Haiti

• Thousands of refugees moved across the border into the Dominican Republic.

• Slow distribution of resources in the days after the earthquake resulted in sporadic violence, with looting reported.

• Emergency shelters made from tarpaulin are not substantial enough to withstand the hurricanes and many temporary camps are also prone to severe flooding.

• Conditions in the camps led to a Cholera outbreak in

October 2010 which affected more than 122,000

people, leaving at least 2,600 dead

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Police said that the dead included people on two buses which were crushed by falling buildings.

Insurance cost equivalent to 10% of GDP

Shipping containers used to protect homes and roads from rock collapse

30 million tonnes of ice came off the Tasman Glacier Electricity and sewage networks

collapsed around the city Majority of deaths were through collapsed

buildings,

over 100 in

the

television

tower.

• Aid workers are distributing and building "transitional shelters" which have steel or timber frames.

• Social services were inadequate before the earthquake with many children not attending school and 38% of the adult population were illiterate. Reconstruction money will be spent on providing free primary education for all and reducing malnutrition.

• The Red Cross pays local people to improve the camps.

• Charity groups have helped people start small businesses (e.g. Tearfund)

• Poor governance has led to housing repair and rubble

removal to still be incomplete and in many cases

barely started over one year on from the event.

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Six thousand people in Christchurch are living in the so-called red zone, where the land was so badly shaken the government has decided they must leave, the government is buying the homes from the victims Australia sent extra counsellors to help people deal with the effects of the earthquake.

Temporary Accommodation Assistance given to those whose houses are uninhabitable

Building regulations were

further enhanced to limit

the impact of another

event.

NZ - Causes and Background information

1. An earthquake struck New

Zealand’s South Island on

22nd February 2011 at

12.51pm

15. The earthquake was

magnitude 6.3 on the

Richter scale

29. The epicentre was 10km

away from Christchurch,

which is the second highest

populated city in New

Zealand

2. The Christchurch area of

New Zealand also suffered

an 7.1 magnitude earthquake

in September 2010

16. The earthquake was a

shallow-focus earthquake

with a depth of 5km

30. The earthquake caused

shaking that lasted for 12

seconds

3. New Zealand has very

strict building codes which

limit damage during

earthquakes

17. The earthquake was

felt across the South

Island and in some parts

of the North Island

31. The government

declared a national state of

emergency which remained

in place until 30th April 2011

4. The 2011 earthquake was

of smaller magnitude than

the 2010 earthquake, but

was more destructive for

many reasons:

Epicentre closer to Christchurch

Struck in the middle of the day

More liquefaction

causing greater damage to

infrastructure

18. New Zealand is located

on the plate boundary

between the Australian

and Pacific plates

32. The plate boundary

moves in two ways-

destructive and

conservative

NZ Impacts

5. Building damage was

widespread because the

2010 earthquake had

already weakened building

structures

19. Liquefaction- when the

ground is shakes it causes

water (and often mud/dirt)

to rise to the surface

33. Liquefaction produced

400,000 tonnes of silt

6. 181 people were killed in

total

20. Over half of deaths

occurred in the 6-storey

Canterbury Television (CTV)

building when it collapsed

and caught fire.

34. Approximately 2000

people were treated for

minor injuries

7. Road and bridges were

severely damaged in places

21. Cars and buses were

reported to be crushed by

falling debris

35. Christchurch cathedral

lost its spire

8. Although many buildings

did not collapse during the

earthquake, they were

demolished because they

were unsafe.

22. High-rise buildings

constructed within the last

30 years generally survived

the earthquake

36. 10,000 houses would

need to be re-built

9. Land that was damaged by

liquefaction cannot be built

on again

23. Landslides in some

suburbs caused serious

damage to buildings

37. Christchurch

International Airport was

unaffected by the

earthquake, but was closed

as a precaution

NZ - Response

10. The New Zealand Red

Cross launched an appeal to

raise funds to help victims

24. The Australian

Government donated NZ$6

.7 million to the Red

Crossed appeal

38. A full emergency

response plan was in place

within 2 hours of the

earthquake happening

11. Satellite imagery was

used to co-ordinate the

recovery of New Zealand

25. The Australian police

joined forces with New

Zealand police to enforce

cordons, organise

evacuations, help with

search and rescue, traffic

control and prevention of

looting

39. Search and rescue

teams came from New

Zealand, Australia, UK,

USA, Japan, Taiwan, China

and Singapore

12. The New Zealand

Defence Force provided

equipment, transport,

evacuation, food and water

aid to 1000 homeless people

as a result of the

earthquake

26. Hospitals survived the

earthquake and medical

teams organised treatment

for victims

40. Electricity companies

worked around the clock to

restore power to areas that

were cut off

13. Electricity was restored

to 80% of household within

5 days, and to 95% of

households within 2 weeks

27. Communication

companies worked to

restore telephone lines

41. Bottled water was

provided as water supplies

were cut off

14. Water supplies were

restored to 70% of

households within 1 week

28. 27,000 chemical toilets

were flown into the area as

sanitation and sewerage

works were damaged

42. Local people helped

with the cleaning up their

local areas

Information from BBC Bitesize Website

Case study: Boxing Day Tsunami, 2004

On 26 December 2004 a tsunami occurred in the Indian Ocean. It was the result of the Indio-Australian Plate subducting below the Eurasian Plate. It was caused by an earthquake measuring more than magnitude 9. The earthquake caused the seafloor to uplift, displacing the seawater above.

In open ocean the tsunami measured less than 1 metre high. The tsunami travelled at speeds up to 800km per hour. When the Tsunami reached the shores, the height of the wave increased to 15 metres in

some areas.

Map of Indian Ocean tsunami 2004

Main impacts

A quarter of a million people died. Two million people were made homeless. People were swept away in the waters, which arrived rapidly and with little warning. Thirteen countries were affected, the worst being Indonesia. Indonesia was hit by the tsunami first. Fourty-five minutes later the tsunami reached

Thailand. Mangrove swamps helped to act as a barrier to reduce the energy of the water in some

areas. Short-term aid, such as water purification tablets, temporary housing and medical

supplies were given from international countries. Islands reliant on tourism and fishing, such as the Maldives, had to rebuild their industries. An early warning system between countries surrounding the Indian Ocean has been set

up.

Information from Charity Website – BCOM.org.uk

Scale of the devastation of the Boxing-day tsunami

1. 275,000 people were killed in fourteen countries across two continents, with the last

two fatalities being swept out to sea in South Africa, more than twelve hours after the

earthquake.

2. 40,000 to 45,000 more women than men were killed in the tsunami.

3. US $ 9.9 billion was originally estimated to be the value of economic, infrastructural

and human development losses.

4. 141,000 houses were destroyed, which accounts for 47.9 percent of the total damage

(BRR & World Bank, 2005)

5. Over 600,000 people in Aceh lost their livelihoods (in some cases only for a few

months) including all those in the fishery sector and 30 percent of those in

agriculture.

6. A 1,200km section of the earth’s crust shifted beneath the Indian ocean and the

earthquake released stored energy equivalent to over more than 23,000 Hiroshima

bombs.

7. Speeds of 500km/h were reached as the tsunamis radiated through the Indian Ocean.

In the worst cases, the waves reached over

8. Tsunamis reached 20m in height at landfall in parts of Aceh. In other locations they

spread 3 km inland carrying debris and salt water with them. The retreating waters

eroded whole shorelines.

9. Within ten minutes of the earthquake, tsunami waves started to strike the Nicobar

and Andaman Islands. Banda Aceh was struck within another ten minutes.

10. Within two hours of the earthquake, both Thailand and Sri Lanka had been hit. The

east cost of India was hit shortly afterwards.

11. Three hours after the earthquake tsunamis rolled over the Maldives and more than

seven hours after, hit the Somali coast.

12. Over 1,000 German and Swedish tourists were killed. Germany and Sweden were the

worst affected countries outside the region and lost more citizens than all but the

four most affected countries.

Information from Charity Website – BCOM.org.uk

The scale of the public response to the tsunami

1. About US $14 billion was raised internationally. The scale of the generous public

response was unprecedented, not only in the amount of money raised but also in the

proportion of funding from the general public, and the speed with which money was

pledged or donated.

2. US $ 2.5 billion at least, was added to the above amount by Governments of affected

countries.

3. US $190 million was donated by the population of the affected countries recorded

through formal channels. There is no reliable estimate of the economic value of the

contribution of the affected population to their own survival. Other forms of help from

neighbours, such as providing accommodation or food, is rarely quantified in

monetary terms and so it impossible to value what communities have done for

themselves.

4. This funding is less than the cost of a single large defence contract, such as

refuelling a tanker or fighter plane. The report is calling on developed countries to

increase their official development assistance (ODA) to reach the minimum net

amount of 0.7 per cent of their gross national product as promised at the 1970 UN

General Assembly.

5. US $250 million worth of support was provided across the region by the United States

military.

6. An average of US $ 7,000 was raised for every affected person which contrasts

starkly, for example, to funding of only US $4 per head actually spent on someone

affected by floods in Mozambique.

7. 91 percent of those interviewed in Indonesia reported that they had been rescued by

private individuals.

Cause

Caused by the Indo-Australian plate being subducted under the Eurasian

plate – a destructive margin. Pressure built up in the plates and was

released as a massive megathrust earthquake when a section of the seabed

was pushed up by 30m.

The focus was only 10km below the seabed. High magnitude, shallow focus

earthquakes are very dangerous because strong seismic waves reach the

surface.

Epicentre was 160km of the coast of Sumatra so the wave only took 10

minutes to hit land at Banda Aceh.

The tsunami waves travelled 4,000kms hitting the coasts of 14 countries.

The wave was nearly 30m high when it hit Banda Aceh. In some places it

pushed 2kms inland.

The effects on coastal areas

14 countries were affected by the tidal waves. The most badly affected were

the densely populated coastal communities of Indonesia, Thailand. India and

Sri Lanka. These people were dependent on fishing or tourism. The province

of Banda Aceh on the Indonesian island of Sumatra was the worst hit.

220,000 people died.

650,000 were seriously injured

Women and children were the main victims because they are not as strong

as men and were swept away. Also in fishing communities men were out at

sea and were safe.

Many tourists from Europe, Australasia and North America were affected

and this made the tsunami a global catastrophe. Especially as the tourist

areas of Thailand including Phuket were badly hit.

50,000 people are estimated to be missing, mostly from the Banda Aceh

province. They were swept out to sea or buried under debris.

Relatives were desperately searching for their families. This was especially

difficult because of the scale of the disaster.

Medical care was difficult because hospitals were wiped out. Wounds

became infected without proper treatment. Bodies lay in the streets,

amongst the rubble so eventually people were buried in mass graves to

avoid disease.

2 million people were made homeless

Coastal villages and towns were destroyed. The only building left standing in

the town of Aceh was the mosque.

Fishing boats were destroyed. In India 450 boats were destroyed in one

coastal area. This meant that people lost their livelihoods.

Places like Phuket in Thailand, that had a significant tourist industry lost

their incomes.

The response

Short term response - Emergency Relief Aid

Rescue teams from all over the world arrived very quickly to rescue people.

Aid poured in from the international community. Flights brought in tents,

water and water purification tablets, food and medical supplies. Medical

teams like the Red Cross arrived. The United Nations Disaster Emergency

Committee co-ordinated the relief effort working with NGOs like Oxfam who

sent in teams.

Tented camps were set up by the relief organisations.

Heavy equipment was brought in to clear roads etc .

Countries provided funds - eg the UK government promised £75 and

donations following the appeals quickly raised another £100m.– more than

was eventually spent by the UN Disasters Emergency Committee.

Many foreigners flew in to try and find out what happened to their relatives.

Lists and photographs of people were put up so that people could track

down the dead and

injured people.

The scale of the disaster

was so great that

eventually it was decided

that people should be

buried in mass graves to

reduce the threat of

disease and

contamination.

Longer term development aid

Indian ocean tsunami warning system set up 2006 with education

programmes to ensure that people know what to do – set off in 2012.

The rebuilding operation has provided new homes, new schools and medical

centres, water and sanitation systems for coastal villages and towns.

51,395 new houses have been built; 289 hospitals and clinics built or

rehabilitated. Pledged international aid from all sources for the recovery has

topped $13.5bn, almost half of it given by private individuals and

organisations. After a year £372m was donated by the British public alone

Coastal resorts have been rebuilt e.g. Phuket in Thailand

An example of the redevelopment work done by Oxfam and its partners in Banda

Aceh, Sumatra, Indonesia – the place nearest the epicentre.

The rebuilding operation has provided new homes, new schools and medical

centres, water and sanitation systems for coastal villages and towns like

Banda Aceh. The type of housing was done in consultation with the

communities.

You can find out more about this on -

http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/video/2009/dec/24/aceh-five-years-on

Livelihoods: The fishermen of Banda Aceh have received new boats and

fridges. Rickshaws were provided so that people can earn a living and also

get produce like fish to market. Farms were restocked and co-operatives

established. Micro-credit schemes have been supported to enable people to

set up small businesses.

Water and sanitation: Water and sanitation systems were improved with a

new water system reaching 10,000 people in Banda Aceh. Wells were dug.

Latrines were constructed and people have been trained in hygiene and

sanitation.

Other evidence for retreat of the Rhone Glacier comes in the form of photographs taken

over time.

1865 – The glacier fully extends to the valley floor,

widening out as it hits the floor. It is a short

distance away from the singular house on the flat

valley floor; with the amount of melted ice

creating a small glacial river.

1870 – The glacier continues to extend to the

valley floor, and widens out but there is

significantly less than five years previously where

there was a visible mound of ice at the snout of

the glacier.

It is further away from the house on the valley

floor (which has been joined by other buildings)

and the river is greater in size.

1900 – The glacier just about extends to the valley

floor but no longer widens out at the snout. There

is significantly more building on the valley floor,

with a wider river producing plenty of water; likely

for a popular tourism trade.

2005 – The glacier no longer extends to the valley

floor, the snout is about a quarter of the way up

the valley, the flat valley floor is very green, and

almost all of the buildings have gone. This could

be because of increased chances of flooding, or a

decrease in tourism to the area. The river is long,

but not particularly wide.

2008 – The glacier has retreated higher now, it is

about halfway up the valley itself, and the flat

valley floor is now totally green, with farming

buildings having been built, showing that the

valley is no longer in danger of ice, instead it is a

fertile area for crops. Rock, previously eroded by

abrasion (see later) has been uncovered as the

glacier has retreated backwards.

Tourism in Mountain Areas: Chamonix

Chamonix is a massive tourist resort located in the north-

west of the Alps, close to the Swiss (15kms) and Italian

(15kms) borders making it popular with a large number of

tourists from all across Europe.

Chamonix and its valley are famous for the views of Mont

Blanc, Europe’s highest mountain (4,808m)

Chamonix has been a popular tourist destination for over

250 years. It has a population of 10,000, and over

100,000 tourists a day in summer and 60,000 tourists a

day in winter. Many people who live in the area work in

the tourism industry and the town his now well served by

fast motorway roads, and a nearby airport will only

increase the number of tourists who visit.

Tomorrow’s Valley

is a management scheme used in Chamonix

to be able to continue to encourage the

continued growth of tourism while protecting

the natural and cultural environment, in

other words – through sustainable

development.

For example it has developed more service networks, like electricity lines, and are

burying these underground to protect the look of the area. Historic

buildings/monuments are being preserved or renovated to protect the history of

the area, and to encourage tourists to learn about it.

Natural wetlands and peak bogs have been preserved and the planting of trees

and the use of local building materials minimises the visual impacts of skiing on the

landscape.

In popular tourist areas the scheme has spent money on maintaining and way-

marking footpaths and cleaning rivers to help preserve the environment and

provide seasonal employment for locals while also supporting traditional local

employment sectors like farming so that not everyone who lives in the town relies

on tourism.

This is particularly important should the impacts of climate change effect places

like Chamonix – as they have done in other mountainous areas.

Options for skiers

and snowboarders

of all abilities

Roads into

Chamonix are

small and easily

congested at

peak times.

In summer, the

Montenvers

railway takes

visitors to the

Mer de Glace.

350km marked hiking

trails, 40km of

mountain bike tracks

and Snowshoe trails

for hikers

In summer the town

comes to life with

live music,

colourful flowers

and cafes.

Mass tourism

can be noisy and

damaging to the

environment,

conflicting with

tourists

interested in

more peaceful

activities.

Escape Mont-

Blanc – A

cooperation

addressing

issues on

transport, nature

conservation,

forests and

water resources.

Job opportunities are

available in hotels,

restaurants, sports

facilities and as

guides/instructors.

The money from

tourism supports

local services, e.g.

shops.

The local

transport and

health care

systems are

maintained.

Hiking and

mountain biking

has eroded

mountain paths.

At peak tourist time

the town is noisy and

crowded.

Museums, shops

and historical

buildings provide

attractions away

from the slopes.

Easy access to

peaks from cable

cars and cog

railways

Shops,

restaurants, etc.

are tourist

orientated

making prices

higher for locals.

The money from

tourism allows

Chamonix to be

maintained as an

attractive town.

Activities include;

rock climbing,

mountaineering,

paragliding, rafting,

canyoning and

pony trekking.

Tourists can

conflict with

locals, e.g. Farm

animals can be

affected by

tourists who

leave gates open

or leave litter.

Tomorrow’s

Valley initiative

works with locals

and tourists to

plan sustainable

management.

The local authority

provides

environmentally

friendly transport

system with clean

energy buses and

free transport.

A range of hotels,

restaurants, heated

swimming pools

and spas.

Chamonix are

promoting

responsible

tourism, and

working to

protect the

environment.

At the Mer de

Glace visitors

can get up close

to the glacier and

even go in an ice

cave.

Two new cross

country ski courses

The Alps has a variety of different zones of land use. For example it gets colder the

higher up you go. There is more rain and snow and it is windier. Trees cannot grow

on the highest slopes. Whereas the deep valleys are sheltered and so

temperatures are warmer and it is less windy at the valley floor.

The valleys have been widened and deepened by glaciers so there is quite a lot of

room on the flat valley floor for villages, fields for crops and communication

systems like roads and railways which have brought extra tourists in.

The Alps are used for four main things – farming, hydro-electric power, mining and

tourism. The following sections will take each of these in turn. There’s activities to

complete dotted around in there too.

Farming

The valley floor is the ideal location for farming because the land is flatter, the soils

are deeper and more fertile and it is sheltered from the wind. Most farms extend up

on to the sunnier south facing slopes.

Also there is better access; roads and railways follow the valleys.

Traditional farming

The traditional farming in the area is dairy

farming using a system called

transhumance which means the movement

of animals according to the season.

In summer the cattle are taken to higher

areas to graze. This allows hay and fodder

crops to be grown in the valley. In some

parts of the Alps where slopes are south

facing (and therefore sunny!) vines of fruit

are also grown in small fields.

Recent changes in farming

Cable cars which have been built for skiers and tourists, are now used to bring

milk to the dairies down on the valley floor. Some of the milk comes down the

mountain slopes through plastic pipes.

In the past the farmer would stay with his cattle on the high alpine summer

pastures and churn the milk into butter and cheese up there but new roads and

quad bikes allow farmers easy access to pastures higher up the slopes and so they

do not have to stay there, they can just leave their cattle there

Farmers can also buy additional feed now the area is richer so the cattle can stay

on the valley floor all year meaning that transhumance is rapidly dying out.

Forestry

Another type of farming that happens lots in

the Alps is the growing of conifer trees.

Coniferous forests cover the slopes, especially

the north facing ones up to about 1,800m high.

Wood is the main building material of the Alps

and is a source of fuel. Saw mills are located in

the valley floor and some timber is now pulped

to make paper, chipboard etc.

Tourism

Tourism is all year round in the Alps in part because it close to the rich areas of

western Europe and therefore within easy reach. Also the area has benefited from

good communications using existing alpine passes (areas of flat land between

mountains) eg St Bernard pass, for road links. Local airports eg Geneva for air

travel, especially now the budget airlines like EasyJet are flying there.

Winter tourism

In winter Skiing is big business in resorts

most famously in Chamonix and St Moritz.

The Alps usually get fairly heavy snow fall

making it perfect for skiing and other

winter sports giving a long season from

October to Easter.

The days are clear, crisp and sunny,

especially on the ski runs and resorts of

the south facing slopes, while the flatter land of the high Alp is useful for building

resorts, restaurants, cable cars and ski lifts. This higher area also offers great

scenery and spectacular mountain views to enjoy as you ski/board/walk, while

steeper slopes even higher up provide expert ski runs.

Concerns

There are concerns though - climate change may have a massive impact as

winters seem to be getting warmer which could mean less snow and a shorter

season. In fact some resorts in the Alps have even taken to creating their own

snow to guarantee enough to snow on.

Some places are so popular with tourists that people are now skiing on worn

slopes, damaging the vegetation and the ground below. This is causing bare

slopes and soil erosion and an increased risk of avalanche and rock fall.

Summer tourism

Summer tourism is now big business in the Alps with lots of people attracted to the

spectacular scenery and landscape with glacial lakes like Lake Como and Lake

Garda in Italy adding to the beauty, providing lakeside resorts and provide

opportunities for water sports.

The facilities for winter tourism like hotels, restaurants and cable cars can be

used for both winter and summer tourism meaning more money for the local area.

Walking can be as easy or difficult as people want it to be – trails and routes are

well laid out with plenty of facilities on the way. With local guides available for

walking, mountaineering and wildlife watching providing jobs for local people.

Hydro Electric Power (HEP)

High rainfall in the Alps ensures that there is a

constant supply of water in the area, steep slopes,

and summer melting of the glaciers and snowfields

produce fast flowing rivers that are ideal for

generating HEP.

Storage of the water has been possible as dams

built across the narrow valleys so that reservoirs

build up behind them and form lakes as shown in

the picture above.

The HEP is cheap, clean and sustainable and it supplies the local area but is also

sent to other regions along the national grid power lines and it supplies local

industries like sawmills which uses a lot of electricity.

Quarrying

In the Italian Alps quarrying for marble has been important for many years used by

artists like Michelangelo. Today it is an expensive and high quality and exported all

over the world to be used in buildings as tiles and blocks.

The marble quarries have become a tourist attraction with small workshops

making souvenirs for the tourist trade.

How people adapt to using the Alps

The Alps are in Western Europe which is one of the wealthiest and technology

advanced areas of the world.

Also countries like France, Switzerland, Italy and Germany work with each other to

overcome the problems of living in a difficult high mountain environment.

Communications and steep relief

Communications within a fold mountain region are difficult because of the steep

relief (slopes).

The main roads and railways follow the valleys and make use of the passes over

the mountains like the St Bernard pass connecting Switzerland and Italy. Modern

road and rail tunnels have been cut through the mountains. The most recent is the

Gotthard tunnel which is the longest rail tunnel in the world and was completed in

mid-2016.

Overall, accessibility is being improved with winding hairpin roads enable steep

slopes to be used by cars and cable cars and chair lifts being used to cross valleys

and climb slopes.