Cassia senna and Cassia occidentalis have important medicinal properties

By Ashwani Kumar | October 31st 2009 05:47 AM | Print | E-mail | Track Comments

Ashwani KumarTop of Form

Bottom of Form

Though Cassia consists of large number of plants but during present investigation Cassia senna and Cassia occidentalis were examined. Cassia senna :- It is known by different names in Hindi : Bhuikhakhasa, Hindisana and Sonamukhi ; English : Alexandrian, Bombay, or Tinnevelly senna ; Sanskrit : Bhumiari, Pitapushpi, Swarnamukhi, swarnapatrika ; Rajasthan : Senna. The plant is a variable, branching, erect shrub, upto 1.8 m in height. Leaves pinnate pubescent, leaflets pale green to bluish green, 3 to 9 pairs, lanceolate or elliptic, varying on the same plant, 1.5 to 5 cm. X 0.4 to 2 cm. ; flowers brilliant yellow, in erect, terminal racemes ; pods light green when young to dark brown or black when mature, flat, thin, oblong pubescent, 3.5 to 7 cm. x 0.2 to 2.5 cm. ; seeds dark brown, obovate-oblong, 5 to 7. It is highly drought resistant crop and suitable for desert. It is largely cultivated on marginal lands in a 10,000 ha. , both as rain-fed and irrigated crop, mainly in Tamil Nadu, where it is now grown principally as a cash-crop in Tirunelveli, Ramanathapuram, Tiruchchirappalli and Madurai districts and to a lesser extent in Salem district (Gupta et. al., 1977). Recently, it has been observed occuring wild in Cuddapah district of Andhra Pradesh, and Bhuj district of Gujarat. At present, it is also being cultivated in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Maharashtra (Pune). About 2,700 ha. is under cultivation in Cuddapah, Mysore and Anand and Mehsana districts of Gujarat. Trials conducted at Jammu, Jhodhpur district of Rajasthan and Delhi have given very encouraging results ; in Jammu, it can be grown at lower altitudes in drier regions. It was successfully introduced into West Bengal, and recommended for Tripura (Gupta et.al.,1977). The plant requires dry and warm climate, bright sunshine, and occasional drizzle for good growth. It can grow in places where the average minimum and maximum temperatures fluctuate between 10 and 420 C. A rainfall of 60-70 cm per year is sufficient for a good crop ; however, 25-40 cm of rainfall was reported to be sufficient in arid areas. The plant is stripped three times during the season, first picking is in March and others before May ; more picking can be taken later in October and December. (Pareek et al 1984, Shah et al., 1979). Immediately after picking the leaves are dried in sun. Quick drying ensures excellent green colour. The method of drying affects the percentage of sennosides in the leaves. In sun drying-sennosides are 2.98% ; moisture , 70.60% and in oven drying ( 400 to 20 ) sennosides are 3.03% ; moisture 72.80% (Pareek et al., 1981). Among different methods of drying, freeze drying was found to be the best method of drying.Table-5.Yield of sennosides through different methods of drying of leaves of Cassia senna Method Sennosides Total A B C DSun drying 0.63 0.64 0.60 0.58 2.45Air Oven drying 0.69 0.70 0.70 0.67 2.76Freeze drying 0.97 0.95 0.91 0.85 3.68 The senna is well known drug in Unani, Ayurvedic and Allopathic systems of medicines and is also a house hold medicine. The drug from India is known as Tinnevelly senna. The dried leaves and pods comprise the drug, the former known as Senna leaf and later Senna fruit as pod. The commercial drug consists of dried green leaves and shells of nearly dried and ripe pods. The flowers are reported to contain considerable quantity of sennoside (2.6%). The commercial samples of pod (shells) contain sennosides 3 to 5% and the foliage 2.5 to 4% (Kapoor and Atal, 1982 ; Pareek et al. , 1983). The Senna leaves and pods contain sennasoides A, B, C, D, G, rhein, aloe-amine, Kaempferein and iso-rhein in the free and compound glycoside forms (Srivastava et al., 1982, 1983). The leaves, pods and roots of Cassia senna contains rhein, chrysophenol, imodin and aloe-imodin ( Srivastava et al., 1980). The leaves and pods (shells) are usually administered in the Ayurvedic and Unani systems of medicine as infusion, and considered a great tonic. The milk of nursing women acquires purgative properties after the use of senna. The drug is contra indicated in spastic constipation and colitis. The senna is an efficient purgative either for occasional use or for habitual constipation. It is free from astringent action of rhubarb (Rheum sp.) type but has a tendency to cause gripe ; hence it is combined with carminatives, aromatics and other saline laxatives ; the pods, however, cause less gripe. The disagreeable odour is masked by the addition of ginger or cloves. In India several household preparations such as decoction, powder, syrup, infusion and confection are made with senna. It enters into a compound Nilaavarai Churnam used for treating distention of stomach, hiccups, vomiting and biliousness (Kapoor and Atal, 1982). Besides being an excellent laxative, the senna is used as a febrifuge, in splenic enlargements, anaemia, typhoid, cholera, biliousness, jaundice, gout, rheumatism, tumours, foul breath and bronchitis and probably in leprosy. It is employed in the treatment of amoebic dysentery, as an anthelmintic and as a mild liver stimulant. The leaf is one of the constituents of a patented drug reported to have protective effects on the liver. The leaves in the form of confection of senna are used in treating haemorrhoids. They are externally used for certain skin diseases and the powdered leaves in the vinegar are applied to wounds and burns, and to remove pimples. However, it has been known to cause a severe and painful dermatitis in sensitized persons. The leaves along with those of hina are used to dye the hair black (Chopra et al. 1958).Botanical name:- Cassia occidentalis Linn. It is known by different names. In Hindi ; Badikanodi, Chakunda, Kasonda, in English ; Coffee-senna, Foetid Cassia, Negro coffee, Rubbish Cassia, Stinking-weed, in Sanskrit:- Kasamarda and in Rajasthan, Chakundra Talka. An erect, foetid, annual herb or under shrub, 60-150 cm. in height found throughout in India upto an altitude of 1500 m. Leaves, 15-20 cm. long, lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate, leaflets 3 pairs, membranous, glaucous, ovate or lanceolate ; flowers yellow, in short racemes ; pods recurved,glabrous, compressed 10-13 cms x 0.8 cm. ; seeds dark olive green, ovoid, compressed 6 mm. x 4 mm., hard and smooth shining. The herb is reported to be used as condiment and in perfumery. The young leaves are eaten aloned as potherb or cooked along with unripe pods and eaten with rice ; the leaf when eaten is reported to act as a prophylactic against leucorrhoea. The herb can be utilized as cattle-feed and can from maintenance ration for bullocks although suspected poisoning of stock in Northern Queensland and scouring in heifers have been reported. The herb can be used for reclamation of land and also as green manure to restore fertility in exhausted fields. It is often cultivated as a shade plant. All parts of the plant have almost similar properties. They possess purgative, tonic, febrifugal, expectorant and diuretic properties. The plant is used to cure sore eyes, haematuria, rheumatism, typhoid, asthama and disorders of haemoglobin, is also reported to cure leprosy. A decoction of the plant is used in hysteria, in dysentery and other stomach troubles, and also as an application to sores, itch and inflammation of the rectum. The plant is employed in dropsy, and as a vermifuge. Along with other plant as, it is made into an ointment used for skin diseases. The herb forms an ingredient of the patented indigenous herbal drug Liv-52, which shows marked effect in the early cases of hepatic cirrhosis having steatorrhoea ; Liv-52 reduced the toxicity of cadmium and beryllium in experimentally infected rats with SFV (Semiliki forest encephalitis virus). As an ingredient effect in rats ; excellent response was recorded in senile pruritus cases. An infusion of the bark is given in diabetes. The volatile oil obtained from the leaves, roots and seeds showed anti-bacterial and anti-fungal activity. The leaves have purgative, febrifugal, tonic, sudorific, diuretic and stomachic properties. They are given in cough and hysteria. A lotion of the leaves is used as an eye-wash in tetanus. The leaves are used internally and externally in skin-diseases, such as itches, yaws, scabies and ring-worm. A decoction of the leaves is given to children as a mild vermifuge ; the hot decoction is given as an antiperiodic and is reported to be preferred to quinine for its tonic properties. The fresh leaves, pounded with salt and onions, are applied as a poultice to guineaworm sores to extruse the worms. They are used in the inflammatory swelling, rheumatism, wounds, sprains and wrenches and also given in jaundice, pleurisy, headache and toothache. A paste of the leaves with calcium hydroxide is applied on abscesses for quick opening and pus clearance. The leaf paste is also applied externally for bone fracture. The leaves are used in foot and mouth disease of cattle. Their extract exhibits activity against earthworms. The seed is bitter and has tonic, febrifugal and purgative properties. It is considered to be a blood tonic and excellent diuretic. Seeds are useful in cough and whooping cough, convulsions and in heart diseases. Their powder is externally applied in cutaneous diseases and eruptions. The extracts showed positive response on guineapig-ileum, rat-uterus, rabbit-heart, and depressor-effect on blood-pressure of dogs, and also activity against earthworms. Like all systems of Indian sciences, the science of medicine has taken origin from the gods. According to Indian mythology, Ayurveda was first Humboldt Fellow and Science More Articles Feeling no pain: plants were first to let it happen Sitopaladi churna is an ayurvedic medicine for cough and cold Ethnobotany and Ocimum sanctum (Tulsi) All ArticlesAboutProfessor Emeritus ,Former Head of the Department of Botany, and Director Life Sciences, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur. 302004, India At present...

Senna (plant)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

Senna

Senna alexandrina

Scientific classification

Kingdom:Plantae

(unranked):Angiosperms

(unranked):Eudicots

(unranked):Rosids

Order:Fabales

Family:Fabaceae

Subfamily:Caesalpinioideae

Tribe:Cassieae

Subtribe:Cassiinae

Genus:SennaMill.

Type species

Senna alexandrina Mill.

Species

Around 260-350, see text

Synonyms

Cathartocarpus (partim)ChamaefistulaDiallobusEarleocassiaHerpeticaIsandrinaPalmerocassiaPseudocassia

Senna (from Arabic san), the sennas, is a large genus of flowering plants in the legume family Fabaceae, and the subfamily Caesalpinioideae. This diverse genus is native throughout the tropics, with a small number of species in temperate regions. The number of species is estimated to be from about 260[1] to 350.[2] The type species for the genus is Senna alexandrina. About 50 species of Senna are known in cultivation.[3]Contents

1 Description 2 Systematics 3 Ecology 4 Uses

4.1 In medicine 5 Selected species 6 References 7 External linksDescription[edit]

Senna includes herbs, shrubs, and trees. The leaves are pinnate with opposite paired leaflets. The inflorescences are racemes at the ends of branches or emerging from the leaf axils. The flower has five sepals and five usually yellow petals. There are ten straight stamens. The stamens may be different sizes, and some are staminodes. The fruit is a legume pod containing several seeds.[4]Systematics[edit]

Chamaecrista, Cassia, and Senna form a monophyletic group which some authors have called Cassia sensu lato.[5] In 1982, the group was named Cassiinae and classified as a subtribe of the tribe Cassieae.[6] The tribe Cassieae contains 21 genera and is now known to be polyphyletic,[5] but the classification is still accepted because a revision of Fabaceae has yet to be published.[5]The genus Senna has had a complex taxonomic history.[7] What is now known as Senna was included by Linnaeus in his concept of Cassia in Species Plantarum in 1753.[8] Philip Miller segregated Senna from Cassia in 1754 in the fourth edition of The Gardeners Dictionary.[9] Until 1982, many authors, following Linnaeus, did not recognize Senna and Chamaecrista, but included them in a broadly circumscribed Cassia sensu lato. Phylogenetic analyses of DNA have shown that Chamaecrista, Cassia, and Senna are all monophyletic, but the relationships between these three genera have not been resolved.[1] They are therefore shown in phylogenetic trees as a tritomy.

Ecology[edit]

Bark of Senna siameaThe caterpillars of many Lepidoptera species feed on Senna plants. The black witch (Ascalapha odorata), two-barred flasher (Astraptes fulgerator), common emigrant (Catopsilia pomona), and mottled emigrant (C. pyranthe) have all been recorded on candle bush (S. alata), for example.

Senna species are pollinated by a variety of bees, especially large female bees in genera such as Xylocopa.[1] Some species also have extrafloral nectaries on the leaves or flower stalks, which attract ants, but do not benefit pollinators. The ants probably deter herbivores.[1]Uses[edit]

Some Senna species are used as ornamental plants in landscaping. The species are adapted to many climate types.

Cassia gum, an extract of the seeds of Chinese senna (S. obtusifolia), is used as a thickening agent. The leaves and flowers of Siamese cassia (S. siamea) are used in some Southeast Asian cuisines, such as Thai and Lao cuisines. They are known as khi-lek in Thai, and are used in curries.[10]Senna italica ssp. italica (syn. Cassia obovata), often called neutral henna, is used as a hair treatment. It has effects similar to henna, but without the red color, giving hair more of a yellow tinge. The active component is an anthraquinone derivative called chrysophanic acid or chrysophanol (1,8-Dihydroxy-3-methylanthraquinone), which is also found in higher concentrations in rhubarb root. Chrysophanol has been reported to have antimicrobial[11] and anti-inflammatory properties.[12] It is also a component of the pheromone of the beetle Galeruca tanaceti.[13]In medicine[edit]

Sennas have for millennia played a major role in herbalism and folk medicine. Alexandrian senna (S. alexandrina) has long been traded commercially.

Senna glycosides, or sennosides, are used in modern medicine as laxatives.[14] Senna drugs contain the dried leaves of S. alexandrina. The glycosides increase gastric fluid secretion and bowel motility, producing laxative action. Senna preparations are available in powders, granules, tablets, oral infusions, and syrups. It is also available in combination with the dietary fiber psyllium to add bulk to the bowel contents.[15] The products are only recommended for short-term use, and chronic use and abuse of senna has been associated with organ failure.[16]

Resveratrol was first isolated from Senna quinquangulataSeveral Senna species are used as herbal remedies in Nigeria to treat various conditions, including constipation, fungal skin infections, and hemorrhoids.[17]Selected species[edit]

Senna aversiflora

Senna didymobotrya

Senna lindheimeriana

Senna multiglandulosa

Senna surattensis Senna acclinis (F.Muell.) Randell[18] Senna aciphylla (Benth.) Randell Senna aculeata (Benth.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby Senna alata (L.) Roxb. candlebush, Christmas candle, empress candleplant, candlestick tree, ringworm bush, seven-golden-candles

Senna alexandrina Mill. Alexandrian senna, Indian senna, Tinnevelly senna, true senna

Senna angulata (Vogel) H.S.Irwin & Barneby Senna appendiculata (Vogel) Wiersema (syn. S. australis)

Senna armata (S.Watson) H.S.Irwin & Barneby Senna artemisioides (Gaudich. ex DC.) Randell grey cassia, leafless cassia, woody cassia, puntybush, silverbush

Senna auriculata (L.) Roxb. avaram, Matara-tea, tanner's cassia

Senna aversiflora (Herbert) H.S.Irwin & Barneby Senna bacillaris West Indian showertree

Senna barclayana pepper-leaf senna, smooth senna, yellow peabush

Senna bicapsularis rambling senna, Christmas bush, money bush, yellow candlewood

Senna birostris (Vogel) H.S.Irwin & Barneby Senna candolleana (Vogel) H.S.Irwin & Barneby Senna cardiosperma (F.Muell.) Randell[19] Senna caudata (Standl.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby (Costa Rica, Panama)

Senna cobanensis (Britton & Rose) H.S.Irwin & Barneby Senna corymbosa Argentine senna, Argentine wild sensitive plant[20] Senna covesii (A.Gray) H.S.Irwin & Barneby Coues' cassia, Coves' cassia, desert senna[20] Senna cumingii (Hook. & Arn.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby Senna didymobotrya (Fresen.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby candelabra-tree, peanut butter cassia, African senna

Senna domingensis (Spreng.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby (Cuba, Hispaniola)

Senna fruticosa (Mill.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby Senna garrettiana (Craib) H.S.Irwin & Barneby Senna gaudichaudii (Hook. & Arn.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby climbing cassia, heuhiuhi (Pacific Islands, Queensland)[21]

HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senna_(plant)" \l "cite_note-22" [22] Senna hayesiana (Britton & Rose) H.S.Irwin & Barneby Senna hebecarpa American senna, wild senna

Senna hirsuta (L.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby woolly senna, woolly wild sensitive plant

Senna italica Mill. Port Royal senna, dog senna, Italian senna, Spanish senna

Senna ligustrina (L.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby privet senna

Senna lindheimeriana (Scheele) H.S.Irwin & Barneby velvet-leaf senna, showy senna

Senna macranthera (Collad.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby Senna magnifolia (F.Muell.) Randell[23] Senna marilandica (L.) Link Maryland senna

Senna martiana (Benth.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby Senna martiana (Benth.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby Senna meridionalis Du Puy Madagascar senna

Senna mexicana Mexican senna

Senna multiglandulosa (Jacq.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby glandular senna, downy senna

Senna multijuga (Rich.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby false sicklepod

Senna nicaraguensis (Benth.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby Senna nitida (Rich.) H.S. Irwin & Barneby hediondilla Senna notabilis (F.Muell.) Randell[24] Senna obtusifolia (L.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby coffee-weed, java-bean, American sicklepod

Senna occidentalis (L.) Link antbush, coffee-senna, negro-coffee, septicweed, stinkingweed[25] Senna odorata (R. Morris) Randall Senna oligoclada (F.Muell.) Randell[26] Senna orcuttii (Britton & Rose) H.S.Irwin & Barneby Orcutt's senna, Orcutt's wild sensitive plant

Senna pallida (Vahl) H.S.Irwin & Barneby Senna papillosa (Britton & Rose) H.S.Irwin & Barneby Senna pendula (Willd.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby Easter cassia, valamuerto Senna pilosior (B.L.Rob. ex J.F.Macbr.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby Trans-Pecos senna, Trans-Pecos wild sensitive plant

Senna pleurocarpa (F.Muell.) Randell stripe-pod cassia[27] Senna polyphylla (Jacq.) H.S. Irwin & Barneby retama prieta

Senna pumilio dwarf senna

Senna purpusii (Brandegee) H.S.Irwin & Barneby Senna racemosa (Mill.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby limestone senna

Senna reticulata Willd Senna ripleyana H.S.Irwin & Barneby Ripley's senna, Ripley's wild sensitive plant

Senna roemeriana (Scheele) H.S.Irwin & Barneby twoleaf senna, Roemer senna

Senna rostrata (Mart.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby New Mexico wild sensitive plant

Senna rugosa (G.Don.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby Senna scandens Senna septemtrionalis (Viv.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby arsenic-bush, Dooleyweed, laburnum, smooth senna

Senna siamea (Lam.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby kassodtree, Siamese cassia, Thai cassia, Thailand shower

Senna socotrana Senna sophera algarrobilla

Senna spectabilis (DC.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby casia amarilla Senna splendida (Vogel) H.S.Irwin & Barneby Senna surattensis (Burm.f.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby (syn. S. speciosa Roxb.) glossy shower

Senna sulfurea (Collad.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby Senna timoriensis (DC.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby Senna tora L. sickle wild sensitive-plant, sickle senna, foetid cassia

Senna trolliiflora Senna undulata (Vahl) H.S.Irwin & Barneby Senna uniflora Senna venusta (F.Muell.) Randell[18] Senna wislizeni Wislizenus' senna, shrubby senna

References[edit]

1. ^ a b c d Marazzi, B. et al. (2006). "Phylogenetic relationships within Senna (Leguminosae, Cassiinae) based on three chloroplast DNA regions: patterns in the evolution of floral symmetry and extrafloral nectaries". American Journal of Botany 93 (2): 288303. doi:10.3732/ajb.93.2.288. CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. (link)2. ^ Randell, B. R. and B. A. Barlow. 1998. Senna. pp 89-138. In: A. S. George (executive editor). Flora of Australia volume 12. Australian Government Publishing Service: Canberra, Australia.

3. ^ Huxley, A., et al. (1992). The New Royal Horticultural Society Dictionary of Gardening. The Macmillan Press, Limited: London. The Stockton Press: New York. ISBN 978-0-333-47494-5 (set).

4. ^ Senna. Flora of China.

5. ^ a b c Lewis, G., et al. 2005. Legumes of the World. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew: Richmond, England. ISBN 978-1-900347-80-86. ^ Irwin, H. S. and R. C. Barneby. 1982. The American Cassiinae: A synoptical revision of Leguminosae tribe Cassieae subtribe Cassiinae in the New World. Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden 35, 1-119.

7. ^ Singh, V. 2001. Monograph on the Indian Subtribe Cassiinae. Scientific Publishers (India): Jodhpur, India.

8. ^ Linnaeus, C. 1753. Cassia. page 376. In: Species Plantarum volume 1. Cassia (including Senna In:Species Plantarum volume 1 At: Biodiversity Heritage Library9. ^ Miller, P. 1754. The Gardeners Dictionary, Abridged 4th edition.

10. ^ Teangpook, C., et al. (2011). Production and nutrition of Khi Lek (Siamese cassia) curry from central Thailand. Kasetsart. J. (Nat. Sci.) 45, 510-20.

11. ^ Garca-Sosa, K., et al. (2006). Chrysophanol, an antimicrobial anthraquinone from the root extract of Colubrina greggii. J. Mex. Chem. Soc. 50(2), 76-78.

12. ^ Kim, S., et al. (2010). Anti-inflammatory activity of chrysophanol through the suppression of NF-kB/Caspase-1 activation in vitro and in vivo. Molecules 15(9), 6436-51.

13. ^ http://www.pherobase.com/database/compound/compounds-detail-chrysophanol.php14. ^ Spiller, H. et al. (May 2003). "Skin breakdown and blisters from senna-containing laxatives in young children". The Annals of Pharmacotherapy 37 (5): 6369. doi:10.1345/aph.1C439. ISSN1060-0280. PMID12708936. CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. (link)15. ^ Agarwal, V. and M. Bajpai. (2010). Pharmacognostical and biological studies on senna & its products: an overview. International Journal of Pharma and Bio Sciences 1(2) 1-10.

16. ^ Vanderperren, B., et al. (2005). Acute liver failure with renal impairment related to the abuse of senna anthraquinone glycosides. The Annals of Pharmacotherapy 39(7-8), 1353-57.

17. ^ Ogunkunle, A. T. J. and T. A. Ladejobi, T. (2006). Ethnobotanical and phytochemical studies on some species of Senna in Nigeria. African Journal of Biotechnology 5(21), 2020-23.

18. ^ a b GRIN Species Records of Senna. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN).

19. ^ Senna cardiosperma. The Plant List.

20. ^ a b Senna. Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS).

21. ^ "kolomona, kalamona, heuhiuhi, uhiuhi". Hawaiian Ethnobotany Online Database. Bernice P. Bishop Museum. Retrieved 2009-03-10.22. ^ "Senna gaudichaudii". Hawaiian Native Plant Propagation Database. University of Hawaii at Mnoa. Retrieved 2009-03-10.23. ^ Senna magnifolia. The Plant List.

24. ^ Senna notabilis. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN).

25. ^ Senna occidentalis. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN).

26. ^ Senna oligoclada. The Plant List.

27. ^ Senna pleurocarpa. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN).

External links[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Senna.

Wikispecies has information related to: Senna

"Index Nominum Genericorum -- Senna". International Code of Botanical Nomenclature. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Museum of Natural History. Retrieved 2009-03-31. International Legume Database & Information Service (ILDIS) (2005): Genus Senna. Version 10.01, November 2005. Retrieved 2007-DEC-22.

Senna. USDA PLANTS.

v t eHuman hair color

16