Career Counseling Career Counseling TheoriesTheories

Dr. J.N.WilliamsonDr. J.N.Williamson

Social Learning & Social Learning & Cognitive TheoriesCognitive Theories

Social conditioning, social position, & life events Social conditioning, social position, & life events are thought to significantly influence career are thought to significantly influence career choice.choice.

People are thought to be influenced by:People are thought to be influenced by: Genetic endowment & special abilitiesGenetic endowment & special abilities Contextual experiencesContextual experiences Learning experiencesLearning experiences Skills learned in managing tasksSkills learned in managing tasks

Key elements in the career choice process are Key elements in the career choice process are problem solving & decision making skills.problem solving & decision making skills.

Career choice is the interaction of cognitive & Career choice is the interaction of cognitive & affective processes.affective processes.

Key points in Social Learning & Key points in Social Learning & Cognitive TheoriesCognitive Theories

Individuals who resort to personal agency or assume Individuals who resort to personal agency or assume total responsibility for the future model an attitude total responsibility for the future model an attitude others should emulate.others should emulate.

Individuals are encouraged to develop strategies to Individuals are encouraged to develop strategies to overcome barriers that interfere with choice overcome barriers that interfere with choice implementation.implementation.

Learning is a key element in this group of theories. Learning is a key element in this group of theories. (i.e. learning increases range of occupations (i.e. learning increases range of occupations considered)considered)

Indecision might be linked to limited educational Indecision might be linked to limited educational background.background.

This group of theories addresses faulty thinking that This group of theories addresses faulty thinking that can obscure rational decision making. Discovering and can obscure rational decision making. Discovering and unlearning faulty beliefs about career choice and unlearning faulty beliefs about career choice and multiple life roles is a major objective of these multiple life roles is a major objective of these theories.theories.

Krumboltz’s Learning Theory of Krumboltz’s Learning Theory of Career Counseling (LTCC)Career Counseling (LTCC)

First to propose a social learning theory of First to propose a social learning theory of Career CounselingCareer Counseling

Career Development involves four factors:Career Development involves four factors: Genetic endowment & special abilitiesGenetic endowment & special abilities

(primarily a factor that can limit learning (primarily a factor that can limit learning experiences & subsequent career choices)experiences & subsequent career choices)

Environmental conditions & events Environmental conditions & events (note. P39)(note. P39)

Learning experiences Learning experiences

(instrumental & associative)(instrumental & associative) Task approach skillsTask approach skills

Krumboltz’s Learning Theory of Krumboltz’s Learning Theory of Career Counseling (LTCC)Career Counseling (LTCC)

Krumboltz & associates emphatically stress Krumboltz & associates emphatically stress that each individual’s unique learning that each individual’s unique learning experiences over the life span develop the experiences over the life span develop the primary influences that lead to career primary influences that lead to career choice. These influences include:choice. These influences include: Generalization of self derived from experiences Generalization of self derived from experiences

and performance in relation to learned and performance in relation to learned standards.standards.

Sets of developed skills used in coping with the Sets of developed skills used in coping with the environment.environment.

Career-entry behavior such as applying for a job Career-entry behavior such as applying for a job or selecting an educational or training institution. or selecting an educational or training institution.

Krumboltz’s Learning Theory of Krumboltz’s Learning Theory of Career Counseling (LTCC)Career Counseling (LTCC)

The social learning model emphasizes the importance The social learning model emphasizes the importance of learning experiences and their effect on of learning experiences and their effect on occupational selection.occupational selection.

Career decision making is considered to be an Career decision making is considered to be an important skill that can be used over one’s lifespanimportant skill that can be used over one’s lifespan

Factors that influence individual preference in this Factors that influence individual preference in this social-learning model are composed of numerous social-learning model are composed of numerous cognitive processes, interactions in the environment, cognitive processes, interactions in the environment, and inherited personal characteristics and traits. and inherited personal characteristics and traits. Educational and occupational preferences are direct, Educational and occupational preferences are direct,

observable results of actions and of learning experiences observable results of actions and of learning experiences involved with career tasks. (If an individual has been involved with career tasks. (If an individual has been positively reinforced while engaging in the activities of a positively reinforced while engaging in the activities of a course of study or occupation, the individual is more course of study or occupation, the individual is more likely to express a preference for that course of study or likely to express a preference for that course of study or field of work.field of work.

Role of Counselor in LTCCRole of Counselor in LTCC

Identifying content from which certain Identifying content from which certain beliefs and generalizations have beliefs and generalizations have evolved.evolved.

Probe assumptions and presuppositions Probe assumptions and presuppositions of expressed beliefs and use this of expressed beliefs and use this information to explore alternative information to explore alternative beliefs and courses of action.beliefs and courses of action.

Assisting individuals to understand fully Assisting individuals to understand fully the validity of their beliefs is a major the validity of their beliefs is a major component of the social learning model component of the social learning model

(note bullets p. 40).(note bullets p. 40).

Krumboltz’s Learning Theory of Krumboltz’s Learning Theory of Career Counseling (LTCC)Career Counseling (LTCC)

Observations for Career Counseling:Observations for Career Counseling: Career decision making is a learned skillCareer decision making is a learned skill Persons who claim to have made a career choice need help too Persons who claim to have made a career choice need help too

(career choice may have been made from inaccurate information (career choice may have been made from inaccurate information and faulty alternatives)and faulty alternatives)

Success is measured by students’ demonstrated skill in decision Success is measured by students’ demonstrated skill in decision making (evaluation of decision making skills are needed)making (evaluation of decision making skills are needed)

Clients come from a wide array of groupsClients come from a wide array of groups Clients need not feel guilty if they are not sure of which career to Clients need not feel guilty if they are not sure of which career to

enter.enter. No one occupation is seen as best for any one individualNo one occupation is seen as best for any one individual

The client is viewed as one who is exploring and The client is viewed as one who is exploring and experimenting and should be empowered to take actions that experimenting and should be empowered to take actions that help to create a satisfying life. Challenges that involve help to create a satisfying life. Challenges that involve educational opportunities and available work options, should educational opportunities and available work options, should be approach with a positive attitude that promotes positive be approach with a positive attitude that promotes positive outcomes.outcomes.

Happenstance Approach TheoryHappenstance Approach Theory(Mitchell, Levin, & Krumboltz, (Mitchell, Levin, & Krumboltz,

1999)1999) The primary premise suggests that chance The primary premise suggests that chance

events over one’s life span can have both events over one’s life span can have both positive and negative consequences. positive and negative consequences.

Unpredictable social factors, Unpredictable social factors, environmental conditions, & chance environmental conditions, & chance events over the life span are to be events over the life span are to be recognized as important influences in recognized as important influences in client’s lives.client’s lives.

The overarching desirable outcome is to The overarching desirable outcome is to empower and prepare each client for empower and prepare each client for positive actions that take advantage of positive actions that take advantage of unexpected events and help them cope unexpected events and help them cope with negative consequences in the future.with negative consequences in the future.

Happenstance Approach TheoryHappenstance Approach Theory

Happenstance Approach Theory suggests Happenstance Approach Theory suggests that counselors are to assist clients to that counselors are to assist clients to respond to conditions and event in a respond to conditions and event in a positive manner. positive manner.

Clients are to learn to deal with unplanned Clients are to learn to deal with unplanned events, especially in the give-and-take of events, especially in the give-and-take of the life the 21the life the 21stst century workforce. century workforce.

Five critical client skills:Five critical client skills: CuriosityCuriosity PersistencePersistence FlexibilityFlexibility OptimismOptimism Risk-takingRisk-taking

Happenstance Approach TheoryHappenstance Approach TheoryPractical ApplicationsPractical Applications

Clients need to expand their capabilities & Clients need to expand their capabilities & interestsinterests

Clients need to prepare for changing work Clients need to prepare for changing work tasks, not assume that occupations will tasks, not assume that occupations will remain stable.remain stable.

Clients need to play a major role in deal with Clients need to play a major role in deal with all career problems not just with occupational all career problems not just with occupational selection.selection.

Career counselors need to play a major role Career counselors need to play a major role in dealing with all career problems, not just in dealing with all career problems, not just with occupational selection. (many theorists with occupational selection. (many theorists have suggested that career & personal have suggested that career & personal counseling should become integrated.) counseling should become integrated.) note list of other note list of other suggestions p.43suggestions p.43

Cognitive Information Processing Cognitive Information Processing PerspectivePerspective

Cognitive Information Processing is applied Cognitive Information Processing is applied to career development in terms of how to career development in terms of how individuals make a career decision and use individuals make a career decision and use information in career problem solving and information in career problem solving and decision making. decision making.

CIP is based on ten assumptions. CIP is based on ten assumptions. The major strategy of career intervention is The major strategy of career intervention is

to provide learning events that will develop to provide learning events that will develop the individual’s processing abilities. In this the individual’s processing abilities. In this way clients develop capabilities as career way clients develop capabilities as career problem solvers to meet immediate and problem solvers to meet immediate and future problems.future problems.

Cognitive Information Processing Cognitive Information Processing Perspective (chart p.44)Perspective (chart p.44)

1. Career choice results from an 1. Career choice results from an interaction of cognitive and affective interaction of cognitive and affective processesprocesses

2. Making career choices is a problem-2. Making career choices is a problem-solving activitysolving activity

3. The capabilities of career problem 3. The capabilities of career problem solvers depend on the ability of cognitive solvers depend on the ability of cognitive operations as well as knowledge.operations as well as knowledge.

4. Career problem solving is a high-4. Career problem solving is a high-memory-load taskmemory-load task

5. Motivation5. Motivation

Cognitive Information Processing Cognitive Information Processing Perspective (chart p.44-45)Perspective (chart p.44-45)

6. Career development involves continual 6. Career development involves continual growth and change in knowledge structures.growth and change in knowledge structures.

7. Career identity depends on self-knowledge.7. Career identity depends on self-knowledge. 8. Career maturity depends on one’s ability 8. Career maturity depends on one’s ability

to solve career problemsto solve career problems 9. The ultimate goal of career counseling is 9. The ultimate goal of career counseling is

achieved by facilitating the growth of achieved by facilitating the growth of information-processing skills.information-processing skills.

10. The ultimate aim of career counseling is 10. The ultimate aim of career counseling is to enhance the client’s capabilities as a to enhance the client’s capabilities as a career problem solver and a decision maker.career problem solver and a decision maker.

Cognitive Information Processing Cognitive Information Processing Perspective (chart p.44-45)Perspective (chart p.44-45)

Using these assumptions, the major strategy of career Using these assumptions, the major strategy of career intervention is to provide learning events that will intervention is to provide learning events that will develop the individual’s processing abilities. Client’s develop the individual’s processing abilities. Client’s develop capabilities as career problem solvers to develop capabilities as career problem solvers to meet immediate as well as future problems.meet immediate as well as future problems.

The stages of processing information begin with The stages of processing information begin with screening, translating, & encoding input into short-screening, translating, & encoding input into short-term memory; then storing it in long-term memory; term memory; then storing it in long-term memory; and later activating, retrieving and transforming input and later activating, retrieving and transforming input into working memory to arrive at a solution. The into working memory to arrive at a solution. The counselor’s principal function is to identify the client’s counselor’s principal function is to identify the client’s needs and develop interventions to help clients needs and develop interventions to help clients acquire the knowledge and skills to address those acquire the knowledge and skills to address those needs.needs.

Cognitive Information Processing Cognitive Information Processing Perspective (chart p.46)Perspective (chart p.46)

Career problem solving is primarily a cognitive Career problem solving is primarily a cognitive process that can be improved through a process that can be improved through a sequential procedure known as sequential procedure known as CASVECASVE:: CommunicationCommunication (identifying a need)-receiving, (identifying a need)-receiving,

encoding, and sending out queriesencoding, and sending out queries AnalysisAnalysis (interrelating problem components)- identifying (interrelating problem components)- identifying

and placing problems in a conceptual framework)and placing problems in a conceptual framework) SynthesisSynthesis (creating likely alternatives) formulating (creating likely alternatives) formulating

courses of actioncourses of action ValuingValuing (prioritizing alternatives) judging each action as (prioritizing alternatives) judging each action as

to its likelihood of success and failure and its impact on to its likelihood of success and failure and its impact on othersothers

ExecutionExecution (forming means-ends strategies) (forming means-ends strategies) implementing strategies to carry out plans.implementing strategies to carry out plans.

CIP cont. CASVE CIP cont. CASVE This model emphasizes that career information This model emphasizes that career information

counseling is a learning event.counseling is a learning event. This model is unique to other social learning This model is unique to other social learning

theory & cognitive models because the role of theory & cognitive models because the role of cognition is a mediating force that leads cognition is a mediating force that leads individuals to greater power and control in individuals to greater power and control in determining their own destinies. The client is determining their own destinies. The client is viewed as one who has a career problem or a gap viewed as one who has a career problem or a gap exists between the client’s current situation and a exists between the client’s current situation and a future career situation. Counselors are to seek future career situation. Counselors are to seek out the problems and factors involved in this gap.out the problems and factors involved in this gap.

Once the problems are identified the counselor Once the problems are identified the counselor develops problem-solving interventions. Problem develops problem-solving interventions. Problem solving and decision making are valuable skills solving and decision making are valuable skills that can be used throughout the lifespan.that can be used throughout the lifespan.

CIP—CASVE—Problem SolvingCIP—CASVE—Problem Solving Problem Solving is considered to be a series of Problem Solving is considered to be a series of

thought processes that eventually lead to solutions thought processes that eventually lead to solutions of problems and remove the gap between a current of problems and remove the gap between a current situation and a preferred one. situation and a preferred one.

The accomplishment of this goal (problem solving) The accomplishment of this goal (problem solving) involves information processing domains such as: involves information processing domains such as: self-knowledge, self-knowledge, occupational knowledge, and occupational knowledge, and decision making skills.decision making skills.

In the decision making process, the individual uses:In the decision making process, the individual uses: The strength of this theory is in its practical The strength of this theory is in its practical

application to solving career problems. application to solving career problems. Note the seven-step sequence for career delivery Note the seven-step sequence for career delivery

service (p.47)service (p.47)

Social Cognitive Career Theory Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT)(SCCT)

SCCT is embedded in Social Cognitive Theory which SCCT is embedded in Social Cognitive Theory which blends cognitive, self-regulatory, and motivational blends cognitive, self-regulatory, and motivational processes into a lifelong phenomenon. processes into a lifelong phenomenon.

SCCT’s major goals are to find methods of defining SCCT’s major goals are to find methods of defining specific mediators from which learning experiences specific mediators from which learning experiences shape and subsequently influence career behavior. shape and subsequently influence career behavior.

The aim is to explain how all variables such as The aim is to explain how all variables such as interests, abilities, & values interrelate and more interests, abilities, & values interrelate and more important how all variables influence individual important how all variables influence individual growth and the contextual factors (environmental growth and the contextual factors (environmental influences) that lead to career outcomes.influences) that lead to career outcomes.

The term personal agency is also emphasized. This The term personal agency is also emphasized. This term reflects how and why individuals exert power term reflects how and why individuals exert power to either achieve a solution, such as career to either achieve a solution, such as career outcome, or adapt to career changes.outcome, or adapt to career changes.

SCCTSCCTBandura’s model of CasualityBandura’s model of Casuality

The triadic reciprocal (bidirectional model)The triadic reciprocal (bidirectional model) Personal and physical attributesPersonal and physical attributes External environmental factorsExternal environmental factors Overt behaviorOvert behavior

All three interact to the point of affecting All three interact to the point of affecting one another as causal influences of one another as causal influences of individual’s development.individual’s development.

Using this logic, SCCT conceptualizes the Using this logic, SCCT conceptualizes the interacting influences among individuals, interacting influences among individuals, their behavior, & their environments to their behavior, & their environments to describe how individuals influence describe how individuals influence situations that ultimately affect their own situations that ultimately affect their own thoughts & behaviors.thoughts & behaviors.

SCCTSCCTKey theoretical constructsKey theoretical constructs

The personal determinants of career The personal determinants of career development have been conceptualized development have been conceptualized as:as: Self-efficacySelf-efficacy Outcome expectationOutcome expectation Personal GoalsPersonal Goals

The “big three” are considered to be The “big three” are considered to be building blocks within the triadic causal building blocks within the triadic causal system that determine the course of system that determine the course of career development and its outcome.career development and its outcome.

SCCTSCCTSelf-EfficacySelf-Efficacy

Self-efficacySelf-efficacy is not viewed as a unitary or is not viewed as a unitary or fixed trait, but rather as a set of beliefs fixed trait, but rather as a set of beliefs about a specific performance domain. about a specific performance domain.

Self-efficacy is developed through four Self-efficacy is developed through four types of learning experiencestypes of learning experiences Personal performance accomplishmentsPersonal performance accomplishments Vicarious learningVicarious learning Social PersuasionSocial Persuasion Physiological states & reactionsPhysiological states & reactions(Self-efficacy is strengthened with repeated (Self-efficacy is strengthened with repeated

success and weakened with repeated failure.)success and weakened with repeated failure.)

SCCTSCCTOutcome ExpectationsOutcome Expectations

Outcome expectationsOutcome expectations are also are also regarded as personal beliefs about regarded as personal beliefs about expectations or consequences of expectations or consequences of behavioral activities. behavioral activities. Some individuals are motivated by extrinsic Some individuals are motivated by extrinsic

reinforcement (i.e. receiving a reward)reinforcement (i.e. receiving a reward)Some individuals are motivated by self-Some individuals are motivated by self-

directed activites (i.e. pride in oneself)directed activites (i.e. pride in oneself)Some individuals are motivated by the Some individuals are motivated by the

actual process of performing the activity actual process of performing the activity (i.e. reading a book or playing a ballgame).(i.e. reading a book or playing a ballgame).

SCCTSCCTPersonal GoalsPersonal Goals

Personal Goals Personal Goals are considered are considered guides that sustain behavior. guides that sustain behavior.

While processing personal goals, While processing personal goals, individuals generate personal agency individuals generate personal agency that interacts with the three building that interacts with the three building blocs which shape self-directed blocs which shape self-directed behavior.behavior.

SCCTSCCTInterest Development /ValuesInterest Development /Values

Individuals develop interests through Individuals develop interests through activities in which they view themselves as activities in which they view themselves as competent and generally expect valued competent and generally expect valued outcomes.outcomes.

Interests fail to develop when weak and Interests fail to develop when weak and negative outcomes are expected from an negative outcomes are expected from an activity.activity.

Values are subsumed in the concept of Values are subsumed in the concept of outcome expectation.outcome expectation. Values are preferences for particular reinforcers Values are preferences for particular reinforcers

(i.e. money, status, autonomy).(i.e. money, status, autonomy).