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Canada"Dominion of Canada" redirects here. For the steam locomotive, see LNER Class A4 4489 Dominion of Canada.For other uses, see Canada (disambiguation).

Canada

Flag

Motto: "A Mari Usque Ad Mare" (Latin)"From Sea to Sea"

Anthem: "O Canada"Royal anthem: "God Save the Queen"

Capital Ottawa45°24′N 75°40′W [1]

Largest city Toronto

Official languages •• English•• French

Ethnic groups • 76.7% European• 14.2% Asian• 4.3% Aboriginal• 2.9% Black• 1.2% Latin American• 0.5% Multiracial• 0.3% Other

Demonym Canadian

Government Federal parliamentaryconstitutional monarchy

 -  Monarch Elizabeth II

 -  Governor General David Johnston

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 -  Prime Minister Stephen Harper

 -  Chief Justice Beverley McLachlin

Legislature Parliament

 -  Upper house Senate

 -  Lower house House of Commons

Establishment from the United Kingdom

 -  Constitution Act July 1, 1867 

 -  Statute of Westminster December 11, 1931 

 -  Canada Act April 17, 1982 

Area

 -  Total 9,984,670 km2 (2nd)3,854,085 sq mi

 -  Water (%) 8.92 (891,163 km2 / 344,080 mi2)

Population

 -  2014 estimate 35,344,962 (37th)

 -  2011 census 33,476,688

 -  Density 3.41/km2 (228th)8.3/sq mi

GDP (PPP) 2013 estimate

 -  Total $1.518 trillion (13th)

 -  Per capita $43,146 (9th)

GDP (nominal) 2013 estimate

 -  Total $1.825 trillion (10th)

 -  Per capita $51,871 (10th)

Gini (2005) 32.1medium · 103rd

HDI (2013)  0.911very high · 11th

Currency Canadian dollar ($) (CAD)

Time zone (UTC−3.5 to −8)

 -  Summer (DST)  (UTC−2.5 to −7)

Date format •• dd-mm-yyyy•• mm-dd-yyyy• yyyy-mm-dd (CE)

Drives on the right

Calling code +1

ISO 3166 code CA

Internet TLD .ca

Canada i/ˈkænədə/ is a country in North America consisting of 10 provinces and 3 territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic to the Pacific and northward into the Arctic Ocean. At 9.98 million square kilometres in total, Canada is the world's second-largest country by total area, and its common

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border with the United States is the world's longest land border shared by the same two countries.The land that is now Canada has been inhabited for millennia by various Aboriginal peoples. Beginning in the late15th century, British and French colonies established on the region's Atlantic coast. As a consequence of variousconflicts, the United Kingdom gained and lost North American territories until left in the late 18th century with whatmostly comprises Canada today. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1, 1867 three colonies joined toform the autonomous federal dominion of Canada. This began an accretion of provinces and territories to the newself-governing dominion. In 1931 Britain granted Canada full independence in most matters with the Statute ofWestminster 1931. The last ties were dissolved in 1982 with the Canada Act 1982.Canada is a federal parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II as its head ofstate. Canada is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level. Itis one of the world's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration frommany countries, with a population of approximately 35 million as of December 2012. Its advanced economy is oneof the largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources and well-developed trade networks.Canada's long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy andculture.Canada is a developed country and one of the wealthiest in the world, with the eighth highest per capita incomeglobally, and the eleventh highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest ininternational measurements of education, government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, and economicfreedom. Canada's participation in economic international and intergovernmental institutions or groupings includesthe G8 (Group of Eight); the Group of Ten (economic); the Group of Twenty (G-20 major economies); the NorthAmerican Free Trade Agreement; and the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum. Canada's alliances include theNorth Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).

EtymologyMain article: Name of CanadaThe name Canada comes from the St. Lawrence Iroquoian word kanata, meaning "village" or "settlement". In 1535,indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer JacquesCartier to the village of Stadacona. Cartier later used the word Canada to refer not only to that particular village, butthe entire area subject to Donnacona (the chief at Stadacona); by 1545, European books and maps had begunreferring to this region as Canada.In the 17th and early 18th centuries, "Canada" referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. LawrenceRiver. To punish the resistance of the Thirteen Colonies, Canada's territory was vastly expanded by the British in the1774 Quebec Act to include unsettled territory in the Great Lakes region down to the Ohio river. Part of thisarbitrarily added territory was turned over to the new United States in 1783, but all land north of the Great Lakes(making up much of modern Ontario) was retained by British Canada. In 1791 the British designated this regionUpper Canada and the traditional French-speaking portion Lower Canada, they were reunified as the Province ofCanada in 1841.Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the legal name for the new country, and the word Dominionwas conferred as the country's title. However, as Canada asserted its political autonomy from the United Kingdom,the federal government increasingly used simply Canada on state documents and treaties, a change that was reflectedin the renaming of the national holiday from Dominion Day to Canada Day in 1982.

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HistoryMain article: History of CanadaFurther information: List of years in Canada

Aboriginal peoplesArchaeological studies and genetic analyses have indicated a human presence in the northern Yukon region from24,500 BC, and in southern Ontario from 7500 BC. These first settlers entered Canada through Beringia by way ofthe Bering land bridge.[2] The Paleo-Indian archeological sites at Old Crow Flats and Bluefish Caves are two of theoldest sites of human habitation in Canada. The characteristics of Canadian Aboriginal societies included permanentsettlements, agriculture, complex societal hierarchies, and trading networks. Some of these cultures had collapsed bythe time European explorers arrived in the late 15th and early 16th centuries, and have only been discovered througharcheological investigations.The aboriginal population at the time of the first European settlements is estimated to have been between 200,000and two million, with a figure of 500,000 accepted by Canada's Royal Commission on Aboriginal Health. As aconsequence of the European colonization, Canada's aboriginal peoples suffered from repeated outbreaks of newlyintroduced infectious diseases such as influenza, measles, and smallpox (to which they had no natural immunity),resulting in a forty- to eighty-percent population decrease in the centuries after the European arrival. Aboriginalpeoples in present-day Canada include the First Nations, Inuit, and Métis. The Métis are a mixed-blood people whooriginated in the mid-17th century when First Nations and Inuit people married European settlers. In general, theInuit had more limited interaction with European settlers during the colonization period.

European colonization

Benjamin West's The Death of General Wolfe(1771) dramatizes James Wolfe's death during the

Battle of the Plains of Abraham at Quebec in1759.

The first known attempt at European colonization began whenNorsemen settled briefly at L'Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundlandaround 1000 AD. No further European exploration occurred until 1497,when Italian seafarer John Cabot explored Canada's Atlantic coast forEngland. Basque and Portuguese mariners established seasonalwhaling and fishing outposts along the Atlantic coast in the early 16thcentury. In 1534, French explorer Jacques Cartier explored the St.Lawrence River, where on July 24 he planted a 10-metre (33 ft) crossbearing the words "Long Live the King of France", and tookpossession of the territory in the name of King Francis I.

In 1583, Sir Humphrey Gilbert claimed St. John's, Newfoundland, asthe first North American English colony by the royal prerogative of

Queen Elizabeth I. French explorer Samuel de Champlain arrived in 1603, and established the first permanentEuropean settlements at Port Royal in 1605 and Quebec City in 1608. Among the French colonists of New France,Canadiens extensively settled the St. Lawrence River valley and Acadians settled the present-day Maritimes, whilefur traders and Catholic missionaries explored the Great Lakes, Hudson Bay, and the Mississippi watershed toLouisiana. The Beaver Wars broke out in the mid-17th century over control of the North American fur trade.

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Map of British America showing original boundaries of Quebec/Canada and itsannexation of territories, including modern Ontario, following the Quebec Act of 1774.

The English established additionalcolonies in Cupids and Ferryland,Newfoundland, beginning in 1610. TheThirteen Colonies to the south werefounded soon after. A series of fourwars erupted in colonial NorthAmerica between 1689 and 1763; thelater wars of the period constituted theNorth American theatre of the SevenYears' War. Mainland Nova Scotiacame under British rule with the 1713Treaty of Utrecht; the Treaty of Paris(1763) ceded Canada and most of NewFrance to Britain after the Seven Years'War.

The Royal Proclamation of 1763 created the Province of Quebec out of New France, and annexed Cape BretonIsland to Nova Scotia. St. John's Island (now Prince Edward Island) became a separate colony in 1769. To avertconflict in Quebec, the British passed the Quebec Act of 1774, expanding Quebec's territory to the Great Lakes andOhio Valley. It re-established the French language, Catholic faith, and French civil law there. This angered manyresidents of the Thirteen Colonies, fuelling anti-British sentiment in the years prior to the 1775 outbreak of theAmerican Revolution.

The 1783 Treaty of Paris recognized American independence and ceded the newly added territories south (but notnorth) of the Great Lakes to the new United States. New Brunswick was split from Nova Scotia as part of areorganization of Loyalist settlements in the Maritimes. To accommodate English-speaking Loyalists in Quebec, theConstitutional Act of 1791 divided the province into French-speaking Lower Canada (later Quebec) andEnglish-speaking Upper Canada (later Ontario), granting each its own elected legislative assembly.

Robert Harris's Fathers of Confederation (1884),an amalgamation of the Charlottetown and

Quebec conferences of 1864.[3]

The Canadas were the main front in the War of 1812 between theUnited States and Britain. Following the war, large-scale immigrationto Canada from Britain and Ireland began in 1815. Between 1825 and1846, 626,628 European immigrants reportedly landed at Canadianports. These included Irish immigrants escaping the Great Irish Famineas well as Gaelic-speaking Scots displaced by the HighlandClearances. Between one-quarter and one-third of all Europeans whoimmigrated to Canada before 1891 died of infectious diseases.

The desire for responsible government resulted in the abortiveRebellions of 1837. The Durham Report subsequently recommendedresponsible government and the assimilation of French Canadians into English culture. The Act of Union 1840merged the Canadas into a united Province of Canada. Responsible government was established for all British NorthAmerican provinces by 1849. The signing of the Oregon Treaty by Britain and the United States in 1846 ended theOregon boundary dispute, extending the border westward along the 49th parallel. This paved the way for Britishcolonies on Vancouver Island (1849) and in British Columbia (1858).

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Confederation and expansion

An animated map showing the growth and change of Canada's provinces andterritories since Confederation in 1867

Following several constitutionalconferences, the 1867 Constitution Actofficially proclaimed CanadianConfederation on July 1, 1867, initially withfour provinces – Ontario, Quebec, NovaScotia, and New Brunswick. Canadaassumed control of Rupert's Land and theNorth-Western Territory to form theNorthwest Territories, where the Métis'grievances ignited the Red River Rebellionand the creation of the province of Manitobain July 1870. British Columbia andVancouver Island (which had been united in1866) joined the Confederation in 1871,while Prince Edward Island joined in 1873.

Prime Minister John A. Macdonald and hisConservative government established aNational Policy of tariffs to protect the

nascent Canadian manufacturing industries. To open the West, the government sponsored the construction of threetranscontinental railways (including the Canadian Pacific Railway), opened the prairies to settlement with theDominion Lands Act, and established the North-West Mounted Police to assert its authority over this territory. In1898, during the Klondike Gold Rush in the Northwest Territories, the Canadian government created the YukonTerritory. Under the Liberal Prime Minister Wilfrid Laurier, continental European immigrants settled the prairies,and Alberta and Saskatchewan became provinces in 1905.

Early 20th century

Canadian soldiers and a Mark II tank at the Battleof Vimy Ridge in 1917

Because Britain still maintained control of Canada's foreign affairsunder the Confederation Act, its declaration of war in 1914automatically brought Canada into World War I. Volunteers sent to theWestern Front later became part of the Canadian Corps. The Corpsplayed a substantial role in the Battle of Vimy Ridge and other majorengagements of the war. Out of approximately 625,000 Canadians whoserved in World War I, around 60,000 were killed and another 173,000were wounded. The Conscription Crisis of 1917 erupted whenconservative Prime Minister Robert Borden brought in compulsorymilitary service over the vehement objections of French-speakingQuebecers. The Conscription Crisis, coupled with disputes over Frenchlanguage schools outside Quebec, deeply alienated FrancophoneCanadians and temporarily split the Liberal Party. Bordon's Unionist government included many AnglophoneLiberals, and it swept to a landslide victory in the 1917 elections. In 1919, Canada joined the League of Nationsindependently of Britain, the 1931 Statute of Westminster affirmed Canada's independence.

The great depression in Canada during the early 1930s saw an economic downturn, leading to hardship across the country. In response to the downturn, the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) in Saskatchewan introduced many elements of a welfare state (as pioneered by Tommy Douglas) in the 1940s and 1950s. Canada

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declared war on Germany independently during World War II under Liberal Prime Minister William LyonMackenzie King, three days after Britain. The first Canadian Army units arrived in Britain in December 1939.Canadian troops played important roles in many key battles of the war, including the failed 1942 Dieppe Raid, theAllied invasion of Italy, the Normandy landings, the Battle of Normandy, and the Battle of the Scheldt in 1944.Canada provided asylum for the Dutch monarchy while that country was occupied, and is credited by theNetherlands for major contributions to its liberation from Nazi Germany. The Canadian economy boomed during thewar as its industries manufactured military materiel for Canada, Britain, China, and the Soviet Union. Despiteanother Conscription Crisis in Quebec in 1944, Canada finished the war with a large army and strong economy.

Modern times

At Rideau Hall, Governor General the ViscountAlexander of Tunis (centre) receives the bill

finalizing the union of Newfoundland and Canadaon March 31, 1949

The financial crisis of the great depression had led the Dominion ofNewfoundland to relinquish responsible government in 1934 andbecome a crown colony ruled by a British governor. After two bitterreferendums, Newfoundlanders voted to join Canada in 1949 as aprovince.

Canada's post-war economic growth, combined with the policies ofsuccessive Liberal governments, led to the emergence of a newCanadian identity, marked by the adoption of the current Maple LeafFlag in 1965, the implementation of official bilingualism (English andFrench) in 1969, and the institution of official multiculturalism in1971. Socially democratic programs were also instituted, such asMedicare, the Canada Pension Plan, and Canada Student Loans,though provincial governments, particularly Quebec and Alberta,opposed many of these as incursions into their jurisdictions.

Finally, another series of constitutional conferences resulted in the 1982 patriation of Canada's constitution from theUnited Kingdom, concurrent with the creation of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. In 1999, Nunavutbecame Canada's third territory after a series of negotiations with the federal government.

At the same time, Quebec underwent profound social and economic changes through the Quiet Revolution of the1960s, giving birth to a modern nationalist movement. The radical Front de libération du Québec (FLQ) ignited theOctober Crisis with a series of bombings and kidnappings in 1970, and the sovereignist Parti Québécois was electedin 1976, organizing an unsuccessful referendum on sovereignty-association in 1980. Attempts to accommodateQuebec nationalism constitutionally through the Meech Lake Accord failed in 1990. This led to the formation of theBloc Québécois in Quebec and the invigoration of the Reform Party of Canada in the West. A second referendumfollowed in 1995, in which sovereignty was rejected by a slimmer margin of 50.6 to 49.4 percent. In 1997, theSupreme Court ruled that unilateral secession by a province would be unconstitutional, and the Clarity Act waspassed by parliament, outlining the terms of a negotiated departure from Confederation.

In addition to the issues of Quebec sovereignty, a number of crises shook Canadian society in the late 1980s andearly 1990s. These included the explosion of Air India Flight 182 in 1985, the largest mass murder in Canadianhistory; the École Polytechnique massacre in 1989, a university shooting targeting female students; and the OkaCrisis of 1990, the first of a number of violent confrontations between the government and Aboriginal groups.Canada also joined the Gulf War in 1990 as part of a US-led coalition force, and was active in several peacekeepingmissions in the 1990s, including the UNPROFOR mission in the former Yugoslavia. Canada sent troops toAfghanistan in 2001, but declined to join the US-led invasion of Iraq in 2003. In 2009, Canada's economy suffered inthe worldwide Great Recession, but it has since rebounded modestly. In 2011, Canadian forces participated in theNATO-led intervention into the Libyan civil war.

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GeographyMain article: Geography of CanadaCanada occupies a major northern portion of North America, sharing land borders with the contiguous United Statesto the south (the longest border between two countries in the world) and the US state of Alaska to the northwest.Canada stretches from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west; to the north lies the ArcticOcean. Greenland is to the northeast, while Saint Pierre and Miquelon is south of Newfoundland. By total area(including its waters), Canada is the second-largest country in the world, after Russia. By land area alone, Canadaranks fourth. The country lies between latitudes 41° and 84°N, and longitudes 52° and 141°W.

A satellite composite image of Canada. Boreal forests prevail on therocky Canadian Shield, while ice and tundra are prominent in the

Arctic. Glaciers are visible in the Canadian Rockies and CoastMountains. The flat and fertile prairies facilitate agriculture. TheGreat Lakes feed the St. Lawrence River in the southeast, where

lowlands host much of Canada's population.

Since 1925, Canada has claimed the portion of theArctic between 60° and 141°W longitude, but thisclaim is not universally recognized. Canada is home tothe world's northernmost settlement, Canadian ForcesStation Alert, on the northern tip of Ellesmere Island –latitude 82.5°N – which lies 817 kilometres (508 mi)from the North Pole. Much of the Canadian Arctic iscovered by ice and permafrost. Canada has the longestcoastline in the world, with a total length of 202,080kilometres (125,570 mi); additionally, its border withthe United States is the world's longest land border,stretching 8,891 kilometres (5,525 mi).

Since the end of the last glacial period, Canada hasconsisted of eight distinct forest regions, includingextensive boreal forest on the Canadian Shield. Canadahas around 31,700 large lakes,[4] more than any othercountry, containing much of the world's fresh water. There are also fresh-water glaciers in the Canadian Rockies andthe Coast Mountains. Canada is geologically active, having many earthquakes and potentially active volcanoes,notably Mount Meager, Mount Garibaldi, Mount Cayley, and the Mount Edziza volcanic complex. The volcaniceruption of the Tseax Cone in 1775 was among Canada's worst natural disasters, killing 2,000 Nisga'a people anddestroying their village in the Nass River valley of northern British Columbia. The eruption produced a22.5-kilometre (14.0 mi) lava flow, and, according to Nisga'a legend, blocked the flow of the Nass River. Canada'spopulation density, at 3.3 inhabitants per square kilometre (8.5 /sq mi), is among the lowest in the world. The mostdensely populated part of the country is the Quebec City – Windsor Corridor, situated in Southern Quebec andSouthern Ontario along the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River.

Average winter and summer high temperatures across Canada vary from region to region. Winters can be harsh inmany parts of the country, particularly in the interior and Prairie provinces, which experience a continental climate,where daily average temperatures are near −15 °C (5 °F), but can drop below −40 °C (−40 °F) with severe windchills. In noncoastal regions, snow can cover the ground for almost six months of the year, while in parts of the northsnow can persist year-round. Coastal British Columbia has a temperate climate, with a mild and rainy winter. On theeast and west coasts, average high temperatures are generally in the low 20s °C (70s °F), while between the coasts,the average summer high temperature ranges from 25 to 30 °C (77 to 86 °F), with temperatures in some interiorlocations occasionally exceeding 40 °C (104 °F).

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Government and politicsMain articles: Government of Canada and Politics of Canada

Parliament Hill in Canada's capital city, Ottawa

Canada has a parliamentary system within the context of aconstitutional monarchy, the monarchy of Canada being the foundationof the executive, legislative, and judicial branches. The sovereign isQueen Elizabeth II, who also serves as head of state of 15 otherCommonwealth countries and each of Canada's ten provinces. As such,the Queen's representative, the Governor General of Canada (at presentDavid Lloyd Johnston), carries out most of the federal royal duties inCanada.

The direct participation of the royal and viceroyal figures in areas ofgovernance is limited. In practice, their use of the executive powers isdirected by the Cabinet, a committee of ministers of the Crown responsible to the elected House of Commons andchosen and headed by the Prime Minister of Canada (at present Stephen Harper), the head of government. Thegovernor general or monarch may, though, in certain crisis situations exercise their power without ministerial advice.To ensure the stability of government, the governor general will usually appoint as prime minister the person who isthe current leader of the political party that can obtain the confidence of a plurality in the House of Commons. ThePrime Minister's Office (PMO) is thus one of the most powerful institutions in government, initiating mostlegislation for parliamentary approval and selecting for appointment by the Crown, besides the aforementioned, thegovernor general, lieutenant governors, senators, federal court judges, and heads of Crown corporations andgovernment agencies. The leader of the party with the second-most seats usually becomes the Leader of HerMajesty's Loyal Opposition (presently Thomas Mulcair) and is part of an adversarial parliamentary system intendedto keep the government in check.

The Senate chamber within the Centre Block onParliament Hill

Each of the 308 members of parliament in the House of Commons iselected by simple plurality in an electoral district or riding. Generalelections must be called by the governor general, either on the adviceof the prime minister, within four years of the previous election, or ifthe government loses a confidence vote in the House. The 105members of the Senate, whose seats are apportioned on a regionalbasis, serve until age 75. Five parties had representatives elected to thefederal parliament in the 2011 elections: the Conservative Party ofCanada (governing party), the New Democratic Party (the OfficialOpposition), the Liberal Party of Canada, the Bloc Québécois, and theGreen Party of Canada. The list of historical parties with elected

representation is substantial.

Canada's federal structure divides government responsibilities between the federal government and the ten provinces.Provincial legislatures are unicameral and operate in parliamentary fashion similar to the House of Commons.Canada's three territories also have legislatures, but these are not sovereign and have fewer constitutionalresponsibilities than the provinces. The territorial legislatures also differ structurally from their provincialcounterparts.

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LawMain article: Law of CanadaThe Constitution of Canada is the supreme law of the country, and consists of written text and unwrittenconventions. The Constitution Act, 1867 (known as the British North America Act prior to 1982), affirmedgovernance based on parliamentary precedent and divided powers between the federal and provincial governments.The Statute of Westminster 1931 granted full autonomy and the Constitution Act, 1982, ended all legislative ties tothe UK, as well as adding a constitutional amending formula and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. TheCharter guarantees basic rights and freedoms that usually cannot be over-ridden by any government—though anotwithstanding clause allows the federal parliament and provincial legislatures to override certain sections of theCharter for a period of five years.

The Indian Chiefs Medal, presented tocommemorate the Numbered Treaties of

1871–1921

Although not without conflict, European Canadians' early interactionswith First Nations and Inuit populations were relatively peaceful. TheCrown and Aboriginal peoples began interactions during the Europeancolonialization period. The Indian Act, various treaties and case lawswere established to mediate relations between Europeans and nativepeoples. Most notably, a series of eleven treaties known as theNumbered Treaties were signed between Aboriginals in Canada andthe reigning Monarch of Canada between 1871 and 1921. Thesetreaties are agreements with the Canadian Crown-in-Council,administered by Canadian Aboriginal law, and overseen by theMinister of Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development. The role ofthe treaties and the rights they support were reaffirmed by Section Thirty-five of the Constitution Act, 1982. Theserights may include provision of services such as health care, and exemption from taxation. The legal and policyframework within which Canada and First Nations operate was further formalized in 2005, through the FirstNations–Federal Crown Political Accord.

The Supreme Court of Canada in Ottawa, west ofParliament Hill

Canada's judiciary plays an important role in interpreting laws and hasthe power to strike down Acts of Parliament that violate theconstitution. The Supreme Court of Canada is the highest court andfinal arbiter and has been led since 2000 by the Chief Justice BeverleyMcLachlin (the first female Chief Justice). Its nine members areappointed by the governor general on the advice of the prime ministerand minister of justice. All judges at the superior and appellate levelsare appointed after consultation with nongovernmental legal bodies.The federal Cabinet also appoints justices to superior courts in theprovincial and territorial jurisdictions.

Common law prevails everywhere except in Quebec, where civil law predominates. Criminal law is solely a federalresponsibility and is uniform throughout Canada. Law enforcement, including criminal courts, is officially aprovincial responsibility, conducted by provincial and municipal police forces. However, in most rural areas andsome urban areas, policing responsibilities are contracted to the federal Royal Canadian Mounted Police.

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Foreign relations and militaryMain articles: Foreign relations of Canada and Military history of Canada

Prime Minister Stephen Harper meeting Presidentof the United States Barack Obama in 2009

Canada currently employs a professional, volunteer military force of68,250 active personnel and approximately 47,081 reserve personnel.The unified Canadian Forces (CF) comprise the Canadian Army, RoyalCanadian Navy, and Royal Canadian Air Force. In 2011, Canada'smilitary expenditure totalled approximately C$24.5 billion.

Canada and the United States share the world's longest undefendedborder, co-operate on military campaigns and exercises, and are eachother's largest trading partner. Canada nevertheless has an independentforeign policy, most notably maintaining full relations with Cuba anddeclining to officially participate in the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Canada also maintains historic ties to the UnitedKingdom and France and to other former British and French colonies through Canada's membership in theCommonwealth of Nations and the Francophonie. Canada is noted for having a positive relationship with theNetherlands, owing, in part, to its contribution to the Dutch liberation during World War II.

Canada's strong attachment to the British Empire and Commonwealth led to major participation in British militaryefforts in the Second Boer War, World War I and World War II. Since then, Canada has been an advocate formultilateralism, making efforts to resolve global issues in collaboration with other nations. Canada was a foundingmember of the United Nations in 1945 and of NATO in 1949. During the Cold War, Canada was a major contributorto UN forces in the Korean War and founded the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) inco-operation with the United States to defend against potential aerial attacks from the Soviet Union.

Canadian Army soldiers from the Royal 22ndRegiment deploying during UNITAS exercises in

April 2009

During the Suez Crisis of 1956, future Prime Minister Lester B.Pearson eased tensions by proposing the inception of the UnitedNations Peacekeeping Force, for which he was awarded the 1957Nobel Peace Prize. As this was the first UN peacekeeping mission,Pearson is often credited as the inventor of the concept. Canada hassince served in 50 peacekeeping missions, including every UNpeacekeeping effort until 1989, and has since maintained forces ininternational missions in Rwanda, the former Yugoslavia, andelsewhere; Canada has sometimes faced controversy over itsinvolvement in foreign countries, notably in the 1993 Somalia Affair.

Canada joined the Organization of American States (OAS) in 1990 andhosted the OAS General Assembly in Windsor, Ontario, in June 2000 and the third Summit of the Americas inQuebec City in April 2001. Canada seeks to expand its ties to Pacific Rim economies through membership in theAsia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum (APEC).

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The Halifax-class frigate HMCS Regina, awarship of the Royal Canadian Navy, nearHawaii during the 2004 RIMPAC exercises

In 2001, Canada deployed troops to Afghanistan as part of the USstabilization force and the UN-authorized, NATO-led InternationalSecurity Assistance Force. In all, Canada lost 158 soldiers, onediplomat, two aid workers, and one journalist during the ten yearmission, which cost approximately C$11.3 billion.

In February 2007, Canada, Italy, the United Kingdom, Norway, andRussia announced their joint commitment to a $1.5-billion project tohelp develop vaccines for developing nations, and called on othercountries to join them. In August 2007, Canada's territorial claims inthe Arctic were challenged after a Russian underwater expedition tothe North Pole; Canada has considered that area to be sovereignterritory since 1925. Between March and October 2011, Canadian forces participated in a UN-mandated NATOintervention into the 2011 Libyan civil war.

International organizations

Canada is recognized as a middle power for its role in international affairs with a tendency to pursue multilateralsolutions. As well as its membership of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization and the Organisation forEconomic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Canada is a member of regional and other internationalorganizations and forums for economic and culltural affairs. Canada acceded to the International Covenant on Civiland Political Rights in 1976.

Provinces and territoriesMain article: Provinces and territories of CanadaSee also: Canadian federalismCanada is a federation composed of ten provinces and three territories. In turn, these may be grouped into four mainregions: Western Canada, Central Canada, Atlantic Canada, and Northern Canada ("Eastern Canada" refers toCentral Canada and Atlantic Canada together). Provinces have more autonomy than territories, having responsibilityfor social programs such as health care, education, and welfare. Together, the provinces collect more revenue thanthe federal government, an almost unique structure among federations in the world. Using its spending powers, thefederal government can initiate national policies in provincial areas, such as the Canada Health Act; the provincescan opt out of these, but rarely do so in practice. Equalization payments are made by the federal government toensure that reasonably uniform standards of services and taxation are kept between the richer and poorer provinces.A clickable map of Canada exhibiting its ten provinces and three territories, and their capitals.

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EconomyMain article: Economy of Canada

Nations that have Free Trade Agreements with Canada as of 2009 are in dark blue, whilenations in negotiations are in cyan. Canada is green.

The Bank of Canada is the central bankof the country and governed byStephen Poloz. In addition, theMinister of Finance and Ministry ofIndustry utilize the Statistics Canadasystem for financial planning. TheToronto Stock Exchange is the seventhlargest exchange in the world having1,577 companies listed in 2012.Canada is the world's eleventh-largesteconomy, with a 2012 nominal GDP ofapproximately US$1.82 trillion. It is amember of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the Group of Eight (G8),and is one of the world's top ten trading nations, with a highly globalized economy. Canada is a mixed economy,ranking above the US and most western European nations on the Heritage Foundation's index of economic freedom,and experiencing a relatively low level of income disparity. In 2008, Canada's imported goods were worth over$442.9 billion, of which $280.8 billion originated from the United States, $11.7 billion from Japan, and $11.3 billionfrom the United Kingdom. The country's 2009 trade deficit totalled C$4.8 billion, compared with a C$46.9 billionsurplus in 2008.

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Since the early 20th century, the growth of Canada's manufacturing, mining, and service sectors has transformed thenation from a largely rural economy to an urbanized, industrial one. Like many other developed nations, theCanadian economy is dominated by the service industry, which employs about three-quarters of the country'sworkforce. However, Canada is unusual among developed countries in the importance of its primary sector, in whichthe logging and petroleum industries are two of the most prominent components.Canada is one of the few developed nations that are net exporters of energy. Atlantic Canada possesses vast offshoredeposits of natural gas, and Alberta also hosts large oil and gas resources. The vastness of the Athabasca oil sandsand other assets results in Canada having 13% of the global oil reserves, the world's third-largest, after Venezuelaand Saudi Arabia. Canada is additionally one of the world's largest suppliers of agricultural products; the CanadianPrairies are one of the most important global producers of wheat, canola, and other grains. The Ministry of NaturalResources in Canada provides statistics regarding their major exports, zinc and uranium, and is a leading exporter ofmany other minerals, such as gold, nickel, aluminum, steel, iron ore, Coking Coal, and lead.[5] Many towns innorthern Canada, where agriculture is difficult, are sustainable because of nearby mines or sources of timber. Canadaalso has a sizeable manufacturing sector centred in southern Ontario and Quebec, with automobiles and aeronauticsrepresenting particularly important industries.

Representatives of the governments of Canada,Mexico, and the United States sign the NorthAmerican Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) in

1992.

Canada's economic integration with the United States has increasedsignificantly since World War II. The Automotive Products TradeAgreement of 1965 opened Canada's borders to trade in the automobilemanufacturing industry. In the 1970s, concerns over energyself-sufficiency and foreign ownership in the manufacturing sectorsprompted Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau's Liberal government to enactthe National Energy Program (NEP) and the Foreign InvestmentReview Agency (FIRA). In the 1980s, Prime Minister BrianMulroney's Progressive Conservatives abolished the NEP and changedthe name of FIRA to "Investment Canada", to encourage foreigninvestment. The Canada – United States Free Trade Agreement (FTA)of 1988 eliminated tariffs between the two countries, while the North

American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) expanded the free-trade zone to include Mexico in 1994. In themid-1990s, Jean Chrétien's Liberal government began to post annual budgetary surpluses, and steadily paid down thenational debt.

The global financial crisis of 2008 caused a major recession, which led to a significant rise in unemployment inCanada. By October 2009, Canada's national unemployment rate had reached 8.6 percent, with provincialunemployment rates varying from a low of 5.8 percent in Manitoba to a high of 17 percent in Newfoundland andLabrador. Between October 2008 and October 2010, the Canadian labour market lost 162,000 full-time jobs and atotal of 224,000 permanent jobs. Canada's federal debt was estimated to total $566.7 billion for the fiscal year2010–11, up from $463.7 billion in 2008–09. In addition, Canada's net foreign debt rose by $41 billion to $194billion in the first quarter of 2010. However, Canada's regulated banking sector (comparatively conservative amongG8 nations), the federal government's pre-crisis budgetary surpluses, and its long-term policies of lowering thenational debt, resulted in a less severe recession compared to other G8 nations. As of 2013, the majority of theCanadian economy has stabilized, although the country remains troubled by slow growth, sensitivity to the Eurozonecrisis and higher-than-normal unemployment rates. The federal government and many Canadian industries have alsostarted to expand trade with emerging Asian markets, in an attempt to diversify exports; in 2011, Asia was Canada'ssecond-largest export market, after the United States. Widely debated oil pipeline proposals, in particular, are hopedto increase exports of Canadian oil reserves to China.

Canada 15

Science and technologyMain articles: Science and technology in Canada and Telecommunications in Canada

The Canadarm robotic manipulator in action onSpace Shuttle Discovery during the STS-116

mission in 2006.

In 2011, Canada spent approximately C$29.9 billion on domesticresearch and development. As of 2012, the country has producedfourteen Nobel laureates in physics, chemistry and medicine, and wasranked fourth worldwide for scientific research quality in a major 2012survey of international scientists. It is additionally home to a number ofglobal technology firms. Canada ranks seventeenth in the world forInternet users as a proportion of the population, with over 28.4 millionusers, equivalent to around 83 percent of its total 2012 population.

The Canadian Space Agency operates a highly active space program,conducting deep-space, planetary, and aviation research, anddeveloping rockets and satellites. Canada was the third country tolaunch a satellite into space after the USSR and the United States, with the 1962 Alouette 1 launch. In 1984, MarcGarneau became Canada's first astronaut. As of 2013, nine Canadians have flown into space, over the course offifteen manned missions.

Canada is a participant in the International Space Station (ISS), and is a pioneer in space robotics, having constructedthe Canadarm, Canadarm2 and Dextre robotic manipulators for the ISS and NASA's Space Shuttle. Since the 1960s,Canada's aerospace industry has designed and built numerous marques of satellite, including Radarsat-1 and 2, ISISand MOST. Canada has also produced a successful and widely used sounding rocket, the Black Brant; over 1,000Black Brants have been launched since the rocket's introduction in 1961.

DemographicsMain articles: Canadians and Demographics of Canada

Ethnic origins of people in Canada (self-reported 2011 Census)[6]

  European (76.7%)  Asian (14.2%)  Aboriginal (4.3%)  Black (2.9%)  Latin American (1.2%)  Multiracial (0.5%)  Other (0.3%)The 2011 Canadian census counted a total population of 33,476,688, an increase of around 5.9 percent over the 2006 figure. By December 2012, Statistics Canada reported a population of over 35 million, signifying the fastest growth

Canada 16

rate of any G8 nation. Between 1990 and 2008, the population increased by 5.6 million, equivalent to 20.4 percentoverall growth. The main drivers of population growth are immigration and, to a lesser extent, natural growth.About four-fifths of the population lives within 150 kilometres (93 mi) of the United States border. Approximately80 percent of Canadians live in urban areas concentrated in the Quebec City–Windsor Corridor, the BritishColumbia Lower Mainland, and the Calgary–Edmonton Corridor in Alberta. Canada spans latitudinally from the83rd parallel north to the 41st parallel north, and approximately 95% of the population is found below the 55thparallel north. In common with many other developed countries, Canada is experiencing a demographic shift towardsan older population, with more retirees and fewer people of working age. In 2006, the average age was 39.5 years; by2011, it had risen to approximately 39.9 years. As of 2013, the average life expectancy for Canadians is 81 years.According to the 2006 census, the country's largest self-reported ethnic origin is Canadian (accounting for 32% ofthe population), followed by English (21%), French (15.8%), Scottish (15.1%), Irish (13.9%), German (10.2%),Italian (4.6%), Chinese (4.3%), First Nations (4.0%), Ukrainian (3.9%), and Dutch (3.3%). There are 600 recognizedFirst Nations governments or bands, encompassing a total of 1,172,790 people.Canada's aboriginal population is growing at almost twice the national rate, and four percent of Canada's populationclaimed aboriginal identity in 2006. Another 16.2 percent of the population belonged to a non-aboriginal visibleminority. In 2006, the largest visible minority groups were South Asian (4.0%), Chinese (3.9%) and Black (2.5%).Between 2001 and 2006, the visible minority population rose by 27.2 percent. In 1961, less than two percent ofCanada's population (about 300,000 people) could be classified as belonging to a visible minority group, and lessthan one percent as aboriginal. By 2007, almost one in five (19.8%) were foreign-born, with nearly 60 percent ofnew immigrants coming from Asia (including the Middle East). The leading sources of immigrants to Canada wereChina, the Philippines and India. According to Statistics Canada, visible minority groups could account for a third ofthe Canadian population by 2031.Canada has one of the highest per-capita immigration rates in the world, driven by economic policy and familyreunification. In 2010, a record 280,636 people immigrated to Canada. The Canadian government anticipatedbetween 240,000 and 265,000 new permanent residents in 2013, a similar number of immigrants as in recent years.New immigrants settle mostly in major urban areas like Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Canada also acceptslarge numbers of refugees, accounting for over 10 percent of annual global refugee resettlements.Canada is religiously diverse, encompassing a wide range of beliefs and customs. According to the 2011 census, 67.3percent of Canadians identify as Christian; of these, Catholics make up the largest group, accounting for 38.7 percentof the population. The largest Protestant denomination is the United Church of Canada (accounting for 6.1% ofCanadians), followed by Anglicans (5.0%), and Baptists (1.9%). In 2011, about 23.9 percent declared no religiousaffiliation, compared to 16.5% in 2001. The remaining 8.8 percent are affiliated with non-Christian religions, thelargest of which are Islam (3.2%) and Hinduism (1.5%).Canadian provinces and territories are responsible for education. The mandatory school age ranges between 5–7 to16–18 years, contributing to an adult literacy rate of 99 percent. As of 2011, 88 percent of adults aged 25 to 64 haveearned the equivalent of a high-school degree, compared to an OECD average of 74 percent.[7] In 2002, 43 percent ofCanadians aged 25 to 64 possessed a post-secondary education; for those aged 25 to 34, the rate of post-secondaryeducation reached 51 percent. According to a 2012 NBC report, Canada is the most educated country in the world.The Programme for International Student Assessment indicates that Canadian students perform well above theOECD average, particularly in mathematics, science, and reading.

Canada 17

Largest metropolitan areas in Canada by population (2011 Census)

•• view•• talk• edit [8]

Name Province Population Name Province Population

Toronto Ontario 5,583,064 London Ontario 474,786

Montreal Quebec 3,824,221 St.Catharines–Niagara

Ontario 392,184

Vancouver BritishColumbia

2,313,328 Halifax Nova Scotia 390,328

Ottawa–Gatineau Ontario–Quebec 1,236,324 Oshawa Ontario 356,177

Calgary Alberta 1,214,839 Victoria British Columbia 344,615

Edmonton Alberta 1,159,869 Windsor Ontario 319,246

Quebec Quebec 765,706 Saskatoon Saskatchewan 260,600

Winnipeg Manitoba 730,018 Regina Saskatchewan 210,556

Hamilton Ontario 721,053 Sherbrooke Quebec 201,890

Kitchener–Cambridge–Waterloo Ontario 477,160 St. John's Newfoundland andLabrador

196,966

LanguageMain article: Languages of CanadaSee also: List of endangered languages in CanadaCanada's two official languages are English and French, pursuant to Section 16 of the Canadian Charter of Rightsand Freedoms and the Federal Official Languages Act. Canada's federal government practices official bilingualism,which is applied by the Commissioner of Official Languages. English and French have equal status in federal courts,Parliament, and in all federal institutions. Citizens have the right, where there is sufficient demand, to receive federalgovernment services in either English or French, and official-language minorities are guaranteed their own schoolsin all provinces and territories.

Canada 18

Approximately 98% of Canadians can speak English and/orFrench. English – 56.9% English and French (Bilingual) – 16.1% French – 21.3% Sparsely populated area ( < 0.4 persons per km2)

English and French are the first languages of 59.7 and23.2 percent of the population respectively.Approximately 98 percent of Canadians speak Englishor French: 57.8 percent speak English only, 22.1percent speak French only, and 17.4 percent speakboth. The English and French official-languagecommunities, defined by the first official languagespoken, constitute 73.0 and 23.6 percent of thepopulation respectively.

The 1977 Charter of the French Language establishedFrench as the official language of Quebec. Althoughmore than 85 percent of French-speaking Canadianslive in Quebec, there are substantial Francophonepopulations in Ontario, Alberta, and southernManitoba; Ontario has the largest French-speakingpopulation outside Quebec. New Brunswick, the onlyofficially bilingual province, has a French-speaking

Acadian minority constituting 33 percent of the population. There are also clusters of Acadians in southwesternNova Scotia, on Cape Breton Island, and through central and western Prince Edward Island.

Other provinces have no official languages as such, but French is used as a language of instruction, in courts, and forother government services, in addition to English. Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec allow for both English and Frenchto be spoken in the provincial legislatures, and laws are enacted in both languages. In Ontario, French has some legalstatus, but is not fully co-official. There are 11 Aboriginal language groups, composed of more than 65 distinctdialects. Of these, only the Cree, Inuktitut and Ojibway languages have a large enough population of fluent speakersto be considered viable to survive in the long term. Several aboriginal languages have official status in the NorthwestTerritories. Inuktitut is the majority language in Nunavut, and is one of three official languages in the territory.

In 2011, nearly 6.8 million Canadians listed a non-official language as their mother tongue. Some of the mostcommon non-official first languages include Chinese (mainly Cantonese; 1,072,555 first-language speakers), Punjabi(430,705), Spanish (410,670), German (409,200), and Italian (407,490).

CultureMain article: Culture of Canada

Bill Reid's 1980 sculpture Raven and The FirstMen. The Raven is a figure common to many of

Canada's Aboriginal mythologies.

Canada's culture draws influences from its broad range of constituentnationalities, and policies that promote multiculturalism areconstitutionally protected. In Quebec, cultural identity is strong, andmany French-speaking commentators speak of a culture of Quebec thatis distinct from English Canadian culture. However, as a whole,Canada is in theory a cultural mosaic – a collection of several regional,aboriginal, and ethnic subcultures. Government policies such aspublicly funded health care, higher taxation to redistribute wealth, theoutlawing of capital punishment, strong efforts to eliminate poverty,strict gun control, and the legalization of same-sex marriage are furthersocial indicators of Canada's political and cultural values.

Canada 19

Historically, Canada has been influenced by British, French, and aboriginal cultures and traditions. Through theirlanguage, art and music, aboriginal peoples continue to influence the Canadian identity. Many Canadians valuemulticulturalism and see Canada as being inherently multicultural. American media and entertainment are popular, ifnot dominant, in English Canada; conversely, many Canadian cultural products and entertainers are successful in theUnited States and worldwide. The preservation of a distinctly Canadian culture is supported by federal governmentprograms, laws, and institutions such as the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC), the National Film Board ofCanada (NFB), and the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC).

The Jack Pine by Tom Thomson. Oil on canvas,1916, in the collection of the National Gallery of

Canada.

Canadian visual art has been dominated by figures such as TomThomson – the country's most famous painter – and by the Group ofSeven. Thomson's career painting Canadian landscapes spanned adecade up to his death in 1917 at age 39. The Group were painters witha nationalistic and idealistic focus, who first exhibited their distinctiveworks in May 1920. Though referred to as having seven members, fiveartists – Lawren Harris, A. Y. Jackson, Arthur Lismer, J. E. H.MacDonald, and Frederick Varley – were responsible for articulatingthe Group's ideas. They were joined briefly by Frank Johnston, and bycommercial artist Franklin Carmichael. A. J. Casson became part of theGroup in 1926. Associated with the Group was another prominentCanadian artist, Emily Carr, known for her landscapes and portrayalsof the indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast. Since the1950s, works of Inuit art have been given as gifts to foreign dignitaries

by the Canadian government.

The Canadian music industry has produced internationally renowned composers, musicians and ensembles. Musicbroadcasting in the country is regulated by the CRTC. The Canadian Academy of Recording Arts and Sciencespresents Canada's music industry awards, the Juno Awards, which were first awarded in 1970. Patriotic music inCanada dates back over 200 years as a distinct category from British patriotism, preceding the first legal steps toindependence by over 50 years. The earliest, The Bold Canadian, was written in 1812. The national anthem ofCanada, "O Canada", was originally commissioned by the Lieutenant Governor of Quebec, the HonourableThéodore Robitaille, for the 1880 St. Jean-Baptiste Day ceremony, and was officially adopted in 1980. CalixaLavallée wrote the music, which was a setting of a patriotic poem composed by the poet and judge SirAdolphe-Basile Routhier. The text was originally only in French, before it was translated to English in 1906.

Canada's ice hockey victory at the 2010 WinterOlympics in Vancouver

The roots of organized sports in Canada date back to the 1770s.[9]

Canada's official national sports are ice hockey and lacrosse. Seven ofCanada's eight largest metropolitan areas – Toronto, Montreal,Vancouver, Ottawa, Calgary, Edmonton and Winnipeg – havefranchises in the National Hockey League (NHL). Other popularspectator sports in Canada include curling and Canadian football; thelatter is played professionally in the Canadian Football League (CFL).Golf, tennis, baseball, skiing, cricket, volleyball, rugby union, soccerand basketball are widely played at youth and amateur levels, butprofessional leagues and franchises are not widespread. Canada doeshave one professional baseball team, the Toronto Blue Jays, and oneprofessional basketball team, the Toronto Raptors. Canada has participated in almost every Olympic Games since itsOlympic debut in 1900, and has hosted several high-profile international sporting events, including the 1976Summer Olympics in Montreal, the 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary, the 1994 Basketball World Championship,the 2007 FIFA U-20 World Cup, and the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver and Whistler, British Columbia.

Canada 20

Canada's national symbols are influenced by natural, historical, and Aboriginal sources. The use of the maple leaf asa Canadian symbol dates to the early 18th century. The maple leaf is depicted on Canada's current and previousflags, on the penny, and on the Arms of Canada. Other prominent symbols include the beaver, Canada Goose,Common Loon, the Crown, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, and more recently, the totem pole and Inuksuk.

References[1] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Canada& params=45_24_N_75_40_W_type:country[2] Kudeba, N. (2014, February 28). Chapter 1 – The First Big Steppe – Aboriginal Canadian History. Retrieved from The History of Canada:

http:/ / www. thehistoryofcanadapodcast. com/ chapter-1-first-big-steppe/[3][3] This is an 1885 photograph of the now-destroyed 1884 painting.[4][4] I.e., lakes over in area.[5] Mineral Trade | Natural Resources Canada (http:/ / www. nrcan. gc. ca/ minerals-metals/ publications-reports/ 3264)[6] Ancestry in Canada (http:/ / www12. statcan. gc. ca/ nhs-enm/ 2011/ dp-pd/ prof/ details/ page. cfm?Lang=E& Geo1=PR& Code1=01&

Data=Count& SearchText=Canada& SearchType=Begins& SearchPR=01& A1=All& B1=All& Custom=& TABID=1)[7] Canada – OECD Better Life Index. Oecdbetterlifeindex.org. Retrieved on January 1, 2013.[8] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Template:Largest_Metropolitan_Areas_of_Canada& action=edit[9] Henry Roxborough, "The Beginning of Organized Sport in Canada," Canada (1975) 2#3 pp 30–43

Canada 21

Further readingMain article: Bibliography of Canada

History

• Francis, RD; Jones, Richard; Smith, Donald B(2009). Journeys: A History of Canada (http:/ /books. google. com/books?id=GbbZRIOKclsC& pg=PP1). NelsonEducation. ISBN 978-0-17-644244-6.

• Taylor, Martin Brook; Owram, Doug (1994).Canadian History. 1 (http:/ / books. google.com/ books?id=FamJrJEvymIC& pg=PP1) & 2(http:/ / books. google. com/books?id=HKmAjZJCJFoC& pg=PP1).University of Toronto Press. ISBN978-0-8020-5016-8, ISBN 978-0-8020-2801-3

Geography and climate

• Stanford, Quentin H, ed. (2008). CanadianOxford World Atlas (6th ed.). Oxford UniversityPress (Canada). ISBN 978-0-19-542928-2.

Government and law

• Malcolmson, Patrick; Myers, Richard (2009).The Canadian Regime: An Introduction toParliamentary Government in Canada (http:/ /books. google. com/books?id=-jpXFH_ZhY8C& pg=PP1) (4th ed.).University of Toronto Press.ISBN 978-1-4426-0047-8.

• Morton, Frederick Lee (2002). Law, politics,and the judicial process in Canada (http:/ /books. google. com/books?id=dj_4_H35nmYC& pg=PP1).Frederick Lee. ISBN 978-1-55238-046-8.

Military

• Granatstein, JL (2011). Canada's Army: WagingWar and Keeping the Peace (http:/ / books.google. com/ books?id=z7E-j1UWuOMC&pg=PP1) (2nd ed.). University of Toronto Press.ISBN 978-1-4426-1178-8.

Economy

• 2012 Economic Survey (http:/ / www. keepeek. com/ Digital-Asset-Management/ oecd/economics/ oecd-economic-surveys-canada-2012_eco_surveys-can-2012-en#page1)(PDF). OECD Economic Surveys. 2013. ( List of Economic Surveys (http:/ / www. oecd.org/ eco/ surveys/ listofeconomicsurveysofcanada. htm))

• Council of Canadian Academies (2012). The State of Science and Technology in Canada,2012 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=p_LBUhAQHTEC& pg=PP1). Council ofCanadian Academies. ISBN 978-1-926558-47-9.

Demography and statistics

• Statistics Canada (2008). Canada Year Book (CYB) annual 1867–1967 (http:/ / www5.statcan. gc. ca/ bsolc/ olc-cel/ olc-cel?catno=11-402-X& chropg=1& lang=eng). FederalPublications (Queen of Canada).

• Statistics Canada (December 2012). Canada Year Book (http:/ / www. statcan. gc. ca/pub/ 11-402-x/ 11-402-x2012000-eng. htm). Federal Publications (Queen of Canada).ISSN  0068-8142 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ issn/ 0068-8142). Catalogue no11-402-XWE (.

Culture

• Andrew Cohen (2007). The Unfinished Canadian: The People We Are (http:/ / books.google. com/ books?id=mlqG66wAEfoC& pg=PP1). McClelland & Stewart.ISBN 978-0-7710-2181-7.

• Magocsi, Paul R (1999). Encyclopedia of Canada's peoples (http:/ / books. google. com/books?id=dbUuX0mnvQMC). Society of Ontario, University of Toronto Press.ISBN 978-0-8020-2938-6.

External linksOverviews• Canada (http:/ / ucblibraries. colorado. edu/ govpubs/ for/ canada. htm) from UCB Libraries GovPubs• Canada (http:/ / www. dmoz. org/ Regional/ North_America/ Canada) at DMOZ• Canada (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ news/ world-us-canada-16841111) from BBC News• Canada (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ geos/ ca. html) from CIA World

Factbook• Canada profile (http:/ / www. oecd. org/ canada/ ) from the OECD• Canadiana: The National Bibliography of Canada (http:/ / www. collectionscanada. gc. ca/ canadiana/ index-e.

html)

Canada 22

• Key Development Forecasts for Canada (http:/ / www. ifs. du. edu/ ifs/ frm_CountryProfile. aspx?Country=CA)from International Futures

Government• Official website of the Government of Canada (http:/ / www. gc. ca/ )• Official website of the Governor General of Canada (http:/ / www. gg. ca/ )Travel• Canada's Official Tourism Website (http:/ / us. canada. travel/ )Studies• A Guide to the Sources (http:/ / www. iccs-ciec. ca/ blackwell. html) from International Council for Canadian

Studies

Article Sources and Contributors 23

Article Sources and ContributorsCanada  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=607340692  Contributors: $nn00ŦI-I, $yD!, *hollywood*, -- April, ---adam---, -Edwin-, ...adam..., 01011000 (usurped), 0zymandias, 10qwerty, 11.105, 198.103.96.xxx, 1qazxs, 200.191.188.xxx, 23skidoo, 24.70.30.xxx, 2601andrew, 2812, 2Xtreme21, 3193th, 334a, 411junkie, 420eryday, 4mehwuzn, 790, 7heesub, 8ung3st, 9.253, A State Of Trance, A bit iffy, A the 0th, A. 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Wales, JimboV1, Jimderkaisser, Jimp, Jimpartame, JinJian, Jiy, Jjhcap99, Jjjsixsix, Jkaplan, Jkelly, Jklin, Jlfeuerbach, Jnb845, Jnuss, JoJaEpp, JoSePh, JoanneB, Joel27, Joeldl, Joelf, Joelr31, Joeo c8787, Johann Wolfgang, John Fader, John FitzGerald, John Frink, John Price, John Quincy Adding Machine, John Reaves, John Smith M.D., Ph.D, John254, JohnGoodName, JohnOwens, JohnSankey, Johnleemk, Johnnybriggs, Johnycanal, Joho104, Jokersmoker, Jon.minnette, JonathanDS, Jonesey95, Jose77, Joseph B, Joseph Solis in Australia, Josephprymak, Josh.f., Josh619112345267, Joshbuddy, Joshmaul, Joshpascoe, Joshua Scott, Jossi, Joy, Joyous!, Jpdionne, Jpg, Jrbibeau, Jrcrin001, Jreb01, Jringer, Jrv 257, Jtalledo, Jtkiefer, Judge Nutmeg, Judgement, Juhuyuta, Jules991, Julialovesyou, Junggoo, Juppiter, Jurisprudent, Jusjih, JustN5:12, JustinTSampson, Justinmeister, Justinrleung, Jwc4jwc4, Jweiss11, Jwrosenzweig, K. 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Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:Flag of Canada.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Canada.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AnomieFile:Canada (orthographic projection).svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Canada_(orthographic_projection).svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: SsolbergjFile:Increase2.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Increase2.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Sarangfile:speakerlink-new.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Speakerlink-new.svg  License: Creative Commons Zero  Contributors: User:KelvinsongFile:Benjamin West 005.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Benjamin_West_005.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Adam Cuerden, Alexander Shatulin,Arctic.gnome, Emijrp, Gilbertus, Hsarrazin, Jkelly, Mattes, Mutter Erde, Nonenmac, Rebel Redcoat, Shakko, Skeezix1000, 4 anonymous editsFile:British colonies 1763-76 shepherd1923.PNG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:British_colonies_1763-76_shepherd1923.PNG  License: Public Domain  Contributors:Avron, Jappalang, Nikkimaria, PxMa, Skeezix1000, 1 anonymous editsFile:Fathers of Confederation LAC c001855.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fathers_of_Confederation_LAC_c001855.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:Photographer: James AshfieldFile:Canada provinces evolution 2.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Canada_provinces_evolution_2.gif  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: GolbezFile:Canadian tank and soldiers Vimy 1917.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Canadian_tank_and_soldiers_Vimy_1917.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors:Canada. Dept. of National DefenceFile:Alexander-NFLD.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Alexander-NFLD.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: National Film Board of CanadaFile:Canada-satellite.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Canada-satellite.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Anchjo, DrKiernan, 1 anonymous editsFile:Canadian parliament MAM.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Canadian_parliament_MAM.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:Maria Azzurra MugnaiFile:Cansenate.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cansenate.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: MightydrakeFile:Medal-Viki.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Medal-Viki.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Albertomos, Magog the Ogre, Nyctc7, Themightyquill, WarsFile:Ottawa - ON - Oberster Gerichtshof von Kanada.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ottawa_-_ON_-_Oberster_Gerichtshof_von_Kanada.jpg  License: GNU FreeDocumentation License  Contributors: WladyslawFile:Barack Obama meets Stephen Harper.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Barack_Obama_meets_Stephen_Harper.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:White House photo by Pete SouzaFile:US Navy 090425-M-9917S-314 Canadian Army soldiers assigned to Alpha Company, 3d Battalion, 22d Regiment of Special Purpose Marine Air Ground Task Force-24 depart aU.S. Navy landing craft air cushion (LCAC) and deploy onto Mayp.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:US_Navy_090425-M-9917S-314_Canadian_Army_soldiers_assigned_to_Alpha_Company,_3d_Battalion,_22d_Regiment_of_Special_Purpose_Marine_Air_Ground_Task_Force-24_depart_a_U.S._Navy_landing_craft_air_cushion_(LCAC)_and_deploy_onto_Mayp.jpg License: Public Domain  Contributors: 1 anonymous editsFile:HMCS Regina (FFH 334).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:HMCS_Regina_(FFH_334).jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Balcer, Dual Freq,Makthorpe, Shipguy, TabercilFile:Political map of Canada.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Political_map_of_Canada.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: E Pluribus Anthony, transferredto Wikimedia Commons by Kaveh (log), optimized by Andrew pmk.File:Canada FTAs.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Canada_FTAs.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Canationalist at en.wikipediaFile:Nafta.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nafta.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Complex01, Edward, Frank C. Müller, Jkelly, Mattes, Myself488, Riba,Shizhao, Soerfm, WikedKentaur, 9 anonymous editsFile:STS-116 Payload (NASA S116-E-05364).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:STS-116_Payload_(NASA_S116-E-05364).jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA photoFile:Bilinguisme au Canada-fr.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bilinguisme_au_Canada-fr.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike  Contributors:User:Ewan ar BornFile:Raven-and-the-first-men.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Raven-and-the-first-men.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Michel Teitenhttp://www.mablehome.comFile:Jackpine.jpeg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jackpine.jpeg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Boo-Boo Baroo, Hekerui, Hgrobe, Llorando, Rlevse, Shizhao,Wst, 1 anonymous editsFile:Canada2010WinterOlympicsOTcelebration.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Canada2010WinterOlympicsOTcelebration.jpg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution 2.0  Contributors: s.yume

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