Cambridge Unive rsity Pre ss 978-0-521-77056-9 - A History...

INDEX

AAbacha, General, 751Abadan, 94, 137, 478‘Abbas, Amir, 747‘Abbas, Farhat, 591, 593–4‘Abbas I (Shah, 1588–1629), 235, 237–42, 244, 246‘Abbas II (Shah, 1642–66), 240, 243‘Abbas (uncle of Muhammad), 53‘Abbasid empire

administration, 58–66, 105–6, 108, 110–11, 122, 185,192, 217, 286

collapse of, 94, 103–12, 117, 119–20, 123–5, 131, 133,135, 187, 290, 292, 356

in Egypt and North Africa, 283, 285–7, 302–3, 308

history, 45, 51–66, 88, 151, 184–6, 253, 567and Islamic culture, 67–82, 99–102, 114, 126–7, 142,

186, 216, 260, 285, 311, 313, 358, 381; andMuslim theology, 78, 88, 136

legitimation, 68, 102, 104, 108, 186, 216military organization, 58–9, 103–4, 217relation to tribes, 53–4religious policy, 65, 99–103, 142, 816and Shi‘a, 53–4, 65–6, 81, 95–8, 107–8, 133–4

‘Abbud, Ibrahim, General, 766–7‘Abd al-‘Aziz, Shah, 464, 622‘Abd al-‘Aziz, Sultan of Morocco, 332‘Abd al-‘Aziz b. Sa‘ud (Ibn Saud), 464, 569, 572, 848‘Abd al-Hafiz (Sultan of Morocco), 333‘Abd al-Hamid II (Sultan, 1876–1908), 251, 460, 496–8,

500‘Abd al-Karim, 609‘Abd al-Malik, Caliph, 50–1, 69‘Abd al-Mu’min, 307‘Abd al-Nasser, Jamal see Nasser, Jamal ‘Abd al-‘Abd al-Qadir (1776–1806), 419‘Abd al-Qadir (fl.1832), 587–8‘Abd al-Rahman I (756–88), 311‘Abd al-Rahman II (822–52), 311, 313‘Abd al-Rahman III (912–61), 300, 311‘Abd al-Rahman, Sayyid, 765‘Abd al-Rahman, Tunku, 677‘Abd al-Rahman al-Rashid, 432‘Abd al-Rahman b. Rustam, 302‘Abd al-Raziq, ‘Ali, 521‘Abd al-Wadids, 300‘Abdallah, Amir, 545‘Abdallah, Faruq, 649‘Abdallah, King of Jordan (1999–), 545‘Abdallah, Shaykh Muhammad, 649‘Abdallah al-‘Ahmar, 571

‘Abdallah Mahmud, al-Hajj, 755‘Abdallah b. Muhammad, 763‘Abdallah b. Salim, 435‘Abdallah b. Yasid, 306‘Abdallah b. al-Zubayr, 49‘Abduh, Muhammad, 464, 466, 516–18, 581, 592, 603,

609, 664, 820‘Abdur Rahman, Amir, 720–2, 848Abdulrahim, Imaduddin, 673Abraham, in Islam, 24, 69Abu al-‘Abbas, 54Abu al-‘Ala al-Ma‘arri, 126Abu ‘Amir b. Garcia, 313Abu Bakr (Almoravid, d.1087), 402Abu Bakr (Caliph, 632–34), 21, 32, 45, 95, 685Abu Burda, 143Abu Dhabi, 577–8, 580Abu Hafs ‘Umar, 307Abu Hanifa, 176Abu Hashim, 53Abu Jummayza, 763Abu Maydan (al-Andalusi), 140, 309Abu Muslim, 53–4, 65Abu Sa‘id b. Abi Khayr (967–1049), 138Abu Talib, 20, 22Abu’l Kalam Azad, 631, 640Abyssinia. see EthiopiaAchaemenid empire, 6Acheh

kingdom of, 253, 385–8, 392, 397, 464, 660in modern Indonesia, 669, 672–4

Acrazas, battle of, 54activists, Muslim. see revivalism, Islamicadab literature, 76–7, 80, 101, 185Adal, kingdom of, 436adat (law), 657, 664Aden, 254, 570–1, 576, 830administration. see also under the names of countries and

regionsArab conquests, 41, 44post-imperial era, 114, 116–17, 119–25, 127, 143–4,

148, 151, 154–5, 187–9, 192–3, 206pre-Islamic, 3–5, 8‘ulama’, 207, 217

Adhruh, 47al-Afdal, 287Afework, Isayas, 772al-Afghani, Jamal al-Din (1839–97), 460, 474, 516–18, 603,

632Afghanistan

and Caliphate, 92

941

www.cambridge.org© in this web service Cambridge University Press

Cambridge University Press978-0-521-77056-9 - A History of Islamic Societies: Second EditionIra M. LapidusIndexMore information

http://www.cambridge.org/9780521770569

http://www.cambridge.org


Afghanistan (cont.)and Europeans, 354–5, 471, 722Islamization, 198in modern era, 574, 648–9, 679–80, 712–14, 718–25,

792, 806, 812, 826–7, 830, 835, 837, 844, 847–8,867

post-‘Abbasid era, 109, 112, 114, 116, 127, 135, 137,140, 356–7

Safavids in, 235women in, 725, 824, 863

Afghansin India, 202–3, 447in Iran, 218, 244–5in Pakistan, 648

Aflaq, Michel, 540–1, 543African Americans, 785, 806–8Afshars, in Iran, 244–5Aga Khan, 779Aga Khan I, Hasan ‘Ali Shah, 375agha (chief), 325–6, 587Aghlabid dynasty, 285, 300, 302–3, 308, 334, 401agriculture

in ‘Abbasid era, 62, 110Algeria, 598–9, 616Arab conquests, 34, 44in Caliphate, 54, 76, 99, 184China, 730and diffusion of Islam, 22, 200, 202East Africa, 433, 766, 775Egypt, 513, 516, 525–7feudalism, 123India, 357, 362, 624in Inner Asia, 345, 350, 686–8, 700–2, 704–5Iran, 39, 111, 114, 226, 228, 231–2, 235, 480–1Iraq, 38–9, 110, 114, 543, 552Islamic community, 209Java, 382, 652–4, 656Morocco, 327, 335, 607–8Oman, 576Ottoman empire, 248, 269, 457, 494in post-‘Abbasid era, 148, 151, 192pre-Islamic, 3, 8, 10, 13, 17, 22Southeast Asia, 388, 390, 656, 664sub-Saharan Africa, 400–1, 406, 410, 418Sumatra, 654Syria, 39–40, 549Tunisia, 304, 602, 604Turkey, 500–2, 506West Africa, 733–4, 744

Ahl-i Hadith, 643, 825, 851Ahmad Baba (1556–1627), 409Ahmad Bamba, 742Ahmad b. Hanbal, 102Ahmad al-Jazzar, 297Ahmad Khatib, Shaykh, 664Ahmad b. Taymiya (Ibn Taymiya), 149Ahmad al-Tayyib b. al-Bashir, Shaykh, 762Ahmad b. Tulun (868–84), 107Ahmadiya school, 295, 437, 749, 759, 768–9, 779–80, 797,

806–7Ahmed III (1703–30), 282Ahrar, ‘Ubaydallah (khavaja, 1404–90), 347Ahwaz, 33, 58‘A’isha (wife of Muhammad), 47Ait Ahmed, 595Ajnadayn, battle of, 32Akaev, Askar, 713Akbar (1556–1605), 357–8, 365, 367–8, 371–2, 377–9akhbari school, 246akhi (youth fraternity), 249Alash Orda, 692, 694, 697‘Alawi dynasty (Morocco), 214, 301, 327, 330–1, 335‘Alawis (Syria), 541, 543, 548–50, 583, 773Albanians

in modern era, 510, 785–9, 803, 806and Ottoman empire, 250, 252–3, 264, 267, 273–4,

276–7, 279–80, 498–9Aleksander, king of Yugoslavia, 787

Aleppo, 39, 109, 253–4, 265, 274, 287, 289–91, 296–7,535–6, 550, 715women in, 854

Alevis, 798Alexander the Great, 6, 128, 130, 229, 263, 293Alexandria, 33, 58, 77–8, 139, 178, 254, 513, 515

women in, 857Alfonso VI, King, 313Alfonso X, 316Algeria. see also under agriculture; industrialization;

reformismadministration, 218, 325–6, 587–8, 590–1, 596, 616Caliphal era, 302, 304, 307–8, 319, 325–6, 328–9,

333–6chronology, 300–1diffusion of Islam, 201, 302economy, 588, 590, 592and Europe, 301, 326, 460, 467, 586–97, 602, 616,

790, 793–4, 797, 803, 841independent, 597–600Islamic community, 214legitimacy, 326, 334–5, 599and Libya, 613military organization, 326, 334, 818in modern era, 460, 467–8, 535, 584, 586–600,

615–18, 820, 824, 826and Morocco, 606–12nationalism, 820and Ottoman empire, 325–6, 334, 446political parties, 594–5, 597pre-modern era, 319–21relation to tribes, 326, 334, 444, 586–90, 818state and religion, 334, 599–600, 740, 830, 840–2,

871war of independence, 595–6women in, 592, 598, 859, 863

Algiers, battle of, 255Alhambra, 309, 316–17‘Ali (Caliph), 21, 45–7, 49, 87, 138–9, 178, 233–4, 243,

246, 267, 304, 349, 374, 685and Shi‘a, 53, 65, 95–7, 102, 134, 176, 180–1

‘Ali b. Daud (Sultan of Harar), 436‘Ali b. Dunama (1476–1503), 405‘Ali Mughayat Shah, 385‘Ali Pasha (1759–82), 324‘Ali Pasha of Janina (1788–1822), 280‘Ali al-Rida, 102, 134Alia, Ramiz, 788‘Alid dynasty, 53, 178, 180–1, 285–6, 485Aligarh modernism, 459–60, 517, 621, 628, 631–2, 820,

846‘alim. see ‘ulama’ (religious scholars)aliran (social units), 666, 669Aliyev, Haidar, 717Allah’s Nation of the Five Percenters, 808‘Allami, Abu’l-Fazl, 372almami, 414, 416, 418–19, 426Almohad dynasty, 191, 214, 216, 283, 300, 306–9, 314–15,

319, 321, 327, 333, 335, 613, 815Almoravid dynasty, 191, 214, 216, 283, 300, 304–7, 309,

314–15, 327, 334–5, 401–2, 416, 815almsgiving. see zakat (almsgiving)Alphonsi, Petrus, 316Alptigin, slave governor, 114Altynsarin, Ibragim, 692Amalric (king of Jerusalem), 290Amanullah, 722American Muslim Mission, 807Amin, Idi, 778Amin, Qasim, 856al-Amin, son of Harun al-Rashid, 103Amir (rulers)

Bukhara, 696Nigeria, 733, 737, 745–7, 751Transjordan, 540

Amir Khosraw, 263amir al-mu’uminin (Commander of the Faithful), 311,

322, 416, 421, 424

942 Index






amir ul-umara’ (general-in-chief), 108Amirid dynasty, 313‘Amr bin al-‘As, 33analogy. see qiyasAnatolia

and Arab conquests, 33, 38–40and Caliphate, 54, 58, 287diffusion of Islam, 197–8, 201–2, 444in Ottoman empire, 250–3, 259–60, 265–9, 272–4,

282, 323, 325–6, 446, 457, 492–3, 498–500in post-‘Abbasid era, 112, 117in pre-Islamic era, 6–7social change in, 278–80Turkish and Mongol settlement, 214, 226, 229, 231–4,

248–50, 258in Turkish Republic, 508, 786

al-Andalusi (Abu Maydan), 139, 309Andalusians, 313

in North Africa, 306–7, 319, 321, 324, 329–30, 335animism, 15, 200, 205, 584, 715, 738, 766anjumans (religious associations), 627, 632ansar (Medinian helpers of the Prophet), 45, 763, 765Ansar Party, 763, 765–6Ansar ud-deen, 749Antioch, 78, 287, 289Anvari (1116–89), 128Aoun, Michel, 557‘Aqaba, 39, 539al-‘Aqaba (pledge), 23‘aql (rational judgment), 29, 93, 162, 167al-Aqraba, battle of, 32Arab League. see League of Arab StatesArab Middle East. see also Arabia

and Afghanistan, 848and Africa, 755–6, 782conservative regimes, 526–7, 548, 583–4, 848Gulf War, 528Islam in, 737Islamic reformism, 518Islamic revival, 532, 835in modern era, 535–85, 848–9, 871in Ottoman empire, 489and Turkey, 510women in, 853–7, 859–62, 864–5

Arab nationalism. see also Arabism; pan-Arabismin Arabian peninsula, 567, 570–1, 573–4, 579colonial period, 540–6in East Africa, 766in Egypt, 512and Islam, 580–2, 584–5in modern Middle East, 547–8, 551–6, 820and notables, 535–40and Palestinians, 562, 588

Arab revolt (1936–39), 559Arabia. see also Arab Middle East

and Arab nationalism, 538–40and Caliphate, 285, 313and diffusion of Islam, 203early history, 10–30, 45–7, 49, 67, 97, 107–8, 110,

183–4, 186, 197–200and Egypt, 512, 527–8, 567, 570, 573–574, 576, 578Islamic community, 211, 213–14, 444modern states, 565–80in Ottoman empire, 269, 283, 294, 296, 447, 492reformism, 211, 462regimes, 568–9Shi‘a in, 242, 555and Southeast Asia, 658women in, 852–3

Arabian Nights, 76Arabic language

development of, 42–4, 50–1, 58, 67–9, 74–8, 81, 93,117, 127

early, 13, 16, 21East Africa, 429, 432, 751, 767, 771Europe, 787, 794, 797influence of, 416Inner Asia, 690–1, 702, 707

Iran, 126–8, 130Middle Eastern societies, 136, 184, 186, 205, 283, 285,

541, 583North Africa, 321, 333, 586, 591, 593–5, 600, 603–4,

607, 617in Ottoman empire, 261, 265, 502–3, 509in post-‘Abbasid era, 114, 122, 151, 188revival of, 537, 580, 744–5, 824Southeast Asia, 662–3, 676Spain, 309–13, 318–19West Africa, 408–9, 740, 742, 746, 751, 755–6, 758–9

Arabic literatureclassical, 67–8, 73–6, 80, 100–1, 183, 185–6in Ottoman empire, 267revival in, 537, 539, 603, 662in Spain, 311–13, 315–16, 318–19

Arabism, 538–40, 567, 578, 580, 593, 598, 614–15, 756,758, 767, 778. see also Arab nationalism; pan-Arabism

Arabs. see also Palestiniansin Africa, 781, 784and Caliphate, 56, 58–9, 61, 64–5, 68, 74–6, 81, 104,

191, 216in Caucasus, 714in China, 725–6conquests, 8, 31–44, 48, 50, 67, 74, 99, 184, 193, 565,

576, 852and diffusion of Islam, 197–8, 200, 202in East Africa, 204–5, 768, 772–4, 776–9, 827in Europe and United States, 785, 795–6, 799, 806in India, 356in Iran, 127, 228, 337, 481migrations, 10, 12, 15, 184–5, 191, 205military techniques, 10in North Africa, 29–30, 48, 283, 299–300, 302, 304,

307, 309, 321, 333–4, 401, 459, 599, 613, 839in Ottoman empire, 252–4, 261, 264, 268, 274, 276,

280, 294–8, 492, 499in post-‘Abbasid era, 142–3, 189, 191, 216, 283–94in Southeast Asia, 662in Spain, 299–300, 302, 309–10, 313–14in Sudan, 429, 850in West Africa, 416, 733, 740, 747–8, 840

Arafat, Yassir, 560, 563–5, 585Aramaic language, 44, 74Arameans, 14, 36, 41architecture

‘Abbasid, 216in Caliphate, 67–71, 99Fatimid, 285–6Hafsid, 322Iran, 131, 445Mamluk, 293Mongol, 228–9Mughal, 372, 376, 447Ottoman, 216, 263, 282post-‘Abbasid, 114, 121, 125–6, 188, 306pre-Islamic, 3states and, 218Umayyad, 51, 185, 312, 316

Ardabil, 54, 233, 241Arifi (d.1561–62), 263Aristotle, 77–9, 88, 147, 152, 167–8, 178, 243, 312, 316Arkoun, Muhammad, 823–4Armenia, 7, 33, 54, 59, 61, 104, 108, 117, 120, 245, 248,

292, 471, 493, 499, 693, 717Armenians, 235, 237, 242–3, 248–9, 251, 264, 268–9,

272–3, 275–6, 297–8, 324, 485, 495, 498–9, 501–2,584

Army of Allah, Indonesia, 675, 827Arslan, Shakib, 591art. see also architecture; painting

in Caliphate, 67–71, 99–101, 183, 185Islamic attitudes to, 131–2, 206in post-‘Abbasid era, 114, 125, 130–2, 188pre-Islamic, 3

Arusha Declaration, 775‘asabiya (group solidarity), 12al-Asad, Bashar, 551

Index 943






al-Asad, Hafiz, 549–51, 565, 585asceticism, 90–2, 94, 101, 137, 158, 163, 184, 186, 210,

308–9. see also mysticism; SufismAshanti, 406, 413, 438, 441, 759al-Ash‘ari (d.935), 89–90, 178, 306Ash‘ari school, 135–7, 141, 149, 166–7, 177–8, 189, 308ashraf (sayyid, noble status), 215, 348–9, 355, 357, 380,

567, 570, 620, 627, 685ashraf (sayyid, sada’, noble status), 208–10al-Askar, 64Askiya Muhammad Ture, 404Assassins. see Isma‘ili Shi‘ismassimilation

of Arabs, 40, 43–4, 51, 100, 184–5of Muslims under Chinese control, 725–7, 729–31of Muslims in Soviet Union, 705–6, 708–9of Muslims in United States, 805, 808–9, 811–12of non-Arabs into Islam, 81, 189, 202

associations, religious. see also anjumansin Caliphate, 7–8, 42, 49, 99, 177–84, 186–7, 189–91Iran, 226in Islamic society, 205–6, 211relation to states, 815–18, 820–2in West Africa, 755–6

Assyria, empire, 6, 56Assyrians, 264Astarabad, 235, 245Astarabadi, Fadlallah (d.1394), 233Astrakhan, 255, 339–40, 342, 344Astrakhanid dynasty, 340, 348Aswan dam, 516, 524, 526Atabeg (regent), 119, 123, 289Ataturk, Mustafa Kemal, 497, 499, 502–11, 667, 837–8,

856–7Athens, 77–8‘Attar, Farid al-Din (1142–1221), 130, 263Attila, 692Auliya, Nizam al-Din, Shaykh, 365, 368Aurangzeb (1658–1707), 357, 378–80Austria, 199, 224, 254–5, 489–93, 501, 538, 692, 786, 789,

792, 803Averroes. see Ibn RushdAvers, 698Avicenna. see Ibn SinaAws, people, 22–3al-Awza‘i, law scholar, 312a‘yan (Ottoman notables), 278–80Ayatollahs, 215, 482–6, 488Aybeg (Mamluk Sultan), 292‘Ayn Jalut, battle of, 292Ayodhya, 644‘ayyarun (gangs), 144, 146Ayyub Khan, General, 645–6Ayyubid dynasty, 109, 122, 176, 283, 291–3, 319, 567Azalis, 473Azarbayjan. see also Baku

and Arab conquest, 33, 40, 714and Iran, 476, 479Ottomans in, 245in post-‘Abbasid era, 117, 120, 130–1in post-Soviet era, 710, 717–18Russian control, 692–4, 697–8, 706, 717Safavids in, 235

Azariqa, Khariji faction, 178al-Azhar University, Cairo, 211, 286, 295, 514–15, 517,

523, 529, 682, 755, 762–3al-Azhar University, Gaza, 564‘Azm family, 297Azoury, Negib, 537

BBaalbek, 32Baba Farid (Farid al-Din Ganj-i Shakr, d.1245), 362–3Babrak Karmal, 723Babur, 358, 368, 371, 644Babylon. see MesopotamiaBadawiya order, 140Badr, battle of, 27

Badr al-Jamali, 287Baghdad

as ‘Abbasid capital, 38, 56–60, 62, 64, 66, 68, 73, 78,99, 103–6, 108, 110, 126, 184, 311–13, 315–16,567

in modern era, 535, 541, 544, 614in Ottoman empire, 254, 269, 274, 280, 296–7in post-‘Abbasid era, 117, 121, 127, 133–6, 139–41,

143, 160, 176, 291, 306, 308Shi‘i community, 97, 133–4Sufism, 92–3, 143, 178

Baghdad Pact, 480, 482, 524, 547, 551Baha’ism, 473, 475, 485, 584Bahmanid dynasty, 357, 361Bahrain, 32, 49, 98, 107, 242, 254, 568, 577–80, 583, 827Baki (1526-1600), 261al-Bakka’i, Sidi Ahmad, Shaykh, 410, 425al-Bakr, Ahmad Hassan, 552Bakr tribe, 32Bakri lineage, 515Baksar, battle of, 380Baku, 691, 693, 702, 705–6, 717Baldwin, king of Jerusalem, 289Balfour Declaration, 493, 539, 544–5, 557Balim Sultan, 266Balkans

Arab conquests, 33diffusion of Islam, 197–8, 201–2, 204, 214, 252–3in modern era, 505, 509–11, 524, 640, 785–9and Ottoman empire, 222, 250, 252–5, 258–9, 263–9,

272–4, 276–82, 324–5, 444, 446, 489–90, 492–3,497–9

pre-Islamic, 6–7slaves, 217, 259

Balkh, 40, 60, 128, 230Baluchis, 576, 636, 644, 718, 847–8Bamako, 755, 758Bambaras, 405, 425, 736Bamidele movement, 737Bandar ‘Abbas, 237Bandung Conference, 524Bangladesh, 641, 646, 649–51, 799, 806, 826, 837, 847Banjermasin war, 660al-Banna, Hasan, 522Banten, Java, 392, 462, 659Banu Furat, 105Banu Hashim, 20, 22, 53Banu Jarrah, 105Banu Khalid, 578Banu Ma‘qil, 307, 327–8, 416Banu Naghrila, 313Banu Nawbakht, 95Banu ‘Utub, 578baqa’ (persistence in one’s own identity), 92, 167al-Baqillani (d.1013), 166, 176Barak, Ehud, 565baraka (power of blessing), 208, 210, 329, 335, 363, 747,

769Barani (d. c.1360), 360Barelwi, Sayyid Ahmad, 622Barelwi movement, 464–5, 621–2, 626, 648, 799, 803Barghwata peoples, 304Barmakid family, 60Basayev, Shamil, 717Bashar al-Asad. see al-Asad, Basharal-Bashir, ‘Umar, 767–8Bashir II (1788–1840), 536Bashkirs, 694, 698, 706basmachi groups (rural bandits), 695–6, 703Basra, 33–4, 38–41, 47, 50, 56, 66, 74–5, 85, 91, 107, 135,

254, 269, 280, 297, 312, 572, 576Ba‘thism

Arabia, 575Iraq, 548, 551–3, 555, 582Libya, 614Syria, 540, 543, 547–9, 582

Batu (Mongol leader), 338Batyr Srym, 344

944 Index






Bawa Muhaiyadeen, 806Bayar, Jelal, 505Bayazid I (1389–1402), 250–1, 259Baybars (Sultan, 1260–77), 294Bayt al-Hikma (academy), 68, 78Baytursun, Ahmad, 697Bazargan, Mehdi, 482bedouins. see also tribes

in Arabia, 12–16, 22, 27–9, 32, 184, 214, 543, 613–14,616

in Caliphate, 64–6, 68, 74–5, 81, 108, 110conversion, 43, 107migration, 33–4, 36, 40–1, 335and Ottoman empire, 296–7in post-‘Abbasid era, 142, 192

Bedreddin (d.1416), 266Begin, Menahim, 563Bektash, Hajji (d. c.1297), 249, 266Bektashiya, 249, 252, 266–7, 494, 788, 806Belgium, 744, 791, 793, 803Belhadj, ‘Ali, 599–600, 617Belig, Mehmed Emin, 282Bello, Ahmadu, 748, 752Bello, Muhammad, 421, 424, 747Ben ‘Ali, Zine Labidine, 604–6Ben Badis (‘Abd al-Hamid b. Badis, d.1940), 464, 592–4,

598Ben Bella, Ahmad, 595–7Ben Jadid, Chadli, 597, 599–600Ben Jellul, Dr, 591Bengal. see also Bangladesh; India; Pakistan

and British control, 223, 380–1, 465, 620–1Islam in, 202, 357, 361–3, 379, 818–19, 847in modern era, 636–7, 644, 650partition, 630–1reformism, 211, 622–3, 627

Berbersdahir, 607, 609Kitama, 285Masmuda, 299in Mauritania, 208, 401, 416in North Africa, 191, 201, 214, 286, 299, 302, 304,

306–9, 321, 329, 332–3, 586, 593, 600, 607,609–10

Sanjaha, 299, 304, 306, 740in Spain, 309–11, 313in sub-Saharan Africa, 204, 400–2, 425, 443, 781, 784and Umayyad Caliphate, 54Zenata, 299, 304, 306, 327

Berlin, Congress of, 325, 351, 490, 492, 614, 632Berri, Nabih, 556Bessarabia, 490Beys (rulers), 301, 323–5, 601, 603–4Bhutto, Benazir, 647Bhutto, Zulfiqar ‘Ali, 646–7, 826, 847Biafra, republic of, 750al-Bid, ‘Ali Salim, 571Bihafarid (rebel leader), 65Bihzad (painter), 231, 240bin Laden, Usama, 571, 725, 797, 830, 835, 848Biruni (scientist, geographer), 128al-Bistami, Abu Yazid (d.873), 92, 175Bitar, Salah al-Din, 543Bitikchi, Muhammad Salih, 235Bloc Démocratique Sénégalais (BDS), 735Bofo Abba Gomol, 437Bohra (Shi‘i sect), 375, 377, 781, 784, 805Bokar Salif Tall, 738Bonneval, Claude de, 282Bornu, kingdom of, 401, 405, 408, 411, 420, 423, 427,

443, 748Bosnia, 250, 253, 276–7, 490, 492, 510, 785–8, 806, 821,

828, 830, 867Boumedienne, Houari, 595, 597Bourguiba, Habib, 603–5, 617, 839Boutiflicka, Abdelaziz, 600Brazzaville Conference, 734–5Brezhnev, Leonid, 705

Britishand Afghanistan, 720in Arabian peninsula, 567, 570–1, 574, 576, 578, 580and diffusion of Islam, 199in East Africa, 439, 441–2, 763, 765–6, 768–70, 772–9and Egypt, 441–2, 457–458, 492–493, 512, 515–516,

519–524, 526, 534, 840in India (see India (British control))in Iran, 237–8, 461, 471–3, 476–9, 482–3, 844in Iraq, 492, 539–40, 544, 551–4in Middle East, 502, 540, 542, 544–5, 547Muslims in Britain, 789–91, 793, 799–801, 803–4in North Africa, 325–6, 329, 331–2, 587, 613–14and Ottoman empire, 275, 297, 457, 489–90, 492–3,

496, 500–1, 536, 538–9, 544in Palestine, 547, 557–60, 582society, 221in South Africa, 760in Southeast Asia, 396–8, 652–3, 662, 668, 675–7, 683in sub-Saharan Africa, 416trade and naval power, 222–4in West Africa, 416, 426, 428, 438–41, 444, 732–6,

738, 745–50, 850Bu Sa‘id dynasty, 568, 576Buddhism, 351

and Caliphate, 60and Islam, 203, 233–4, 356–7, 362, 381, 623, 725in post-‘Abbasid era, 116, 139in Southeast Asia, 384, 448, 660, 672

Budi Utomo (Noble Endeavour), 660–1Buganda, 435, 777–8Bugeaud, Thomas-Robert, 587Bukhara

and Caliphate, 33, 38–9Islamic community, 206–8, 217, 230–1post-‘Abbasid era, 114, 117, 126, 131, 143, 146, 169in pre-modern era, 345, 347–8, 350, 355, 444Russian control, 684–5, 687–8, 690–1, 696–8, 700,

702, 706al-Bukhari, 84Bulgaria, 250, 252–3, 266, 273, 276, 280, 338–9, 490–2,

495, 498, 785–6, 789Bundu, 418–19, 427, 443Burhan family, 143Burkina Faso (Upper Volta), 411, 414, 426, 441, 732,

735–6, 738, 755–6, 759, 780, 825Bursa, 250, 253, 265, 269, 272, 276Burujirdi, Ayatollah, 482Burundi, 441, 774, 779Bush, George, 563Bustani, Butrus, 537Buwayhid dynasty, 108–10, 112, 114, 116–17, 120–2, 140,

187, 287Byzantine empire

Arab conquests, 31–4and Caliphate, 36, 38, 48, 51, 59, 68–9, 71, 73–4, 85,

99–100, 183, 217, 285, 289–90, 299and diffusion of Islam, 183–5, 200, 202and North Africa, 303, 305and Ottoman dynasty, 248–53, 255, 258, 260–1, 263,

266, 446in post-‘Abbasid era, 112, 117, 137–8, 287–9pre-Islamic, 6, 8, 10, 13–14, 16and Spain, 310women in, 852

CCaesarea, 32Cairo

early history, 110, 126, 176in modern era, 462, 519–20, 522, 530–1, 547, 662,

664, 676, 747, 755, 771in pre-modern era, 211, 253, 265, 268, 274, 286, 316,

405women in, 854, 856

calendar, 23Caliphate. see also elites; Fatimid dynasty; Shi‘a; state and

religion

Index 945






Caliphate (cont.)‘Abbasid, 53–66, 71, 73, 94–5, 102–3, 184–6administration, 34–8, 50–3, 59–64, 66, 73, 76, 85, 99,

102, 105–6, 185Almohad, 306–7authority and concepts of, 45, 47–51, 66, 69, 71,

73–5, 80–2, 87, 92, 95, 101–3, 108, 814–15changes during, 45–66, 100early, 9, 21, 31, 34–47, 184–5in Egypt and Syria, 283–90ideology, 67–71and India, 358, 360, 377–8, 631–2, 634and Inner Asia, 334–5in North Africa, 308–9, 319, 322, 327, 606in Ottoman empire, 253, 263, 500, 502, 631–2, 634in post-‘Abbasid era, 114, 116–21, 125–6, 133–4, 136,

139–41, 147–55, 178, 180, 185–90, 293, 446, 820religion and state, 99–100, 176–7, 193, 208, 214–15,

242restoration of, 531, 537–9, 581, 634, 638, 717, 797,

825, 828, 839, 868in Spain, 309–19Umayyad, 45–51, 68–71, 95in West Africa, 419–20

Camel, battle of the, 47Cameroons, 421, 427, 441, 737–8Camp David accords (1979), 527, 562Canada, 804capitalism

Dutch in Indonesia, 652–8, 664European, 221, 223

Carter, Jimmy, 527Catherine the Great, 344, 685Caucasus

Arab conquests, 33and Caliphate, 54and Iran, 254Islamic community, 213, 714–18and Ottoman empire, 494, 499in post-Soviet era, 714–18Russian occupation, 255, 494, 694, 698, 706–9,

714–17slaves, 217, 235and Turkey, 510

Cayor, 419, 425, 440Central Asia. see Inner AsiaCentral Treaty Organization, 480ceramics, 130, 228, 237, 286Chad, 416, 427, 615, 732, 737, 782, 827Chaghatay, 201, 226–7, 229, 231, 245, 340, 345, 350–2,

371, 446, 690–1Chagri Beg, 117Chaldiran, battle of, 242, 253Chamoun, Camille, 555change, social

and colonialism, 733, 746and diffusion of Islam, 203and Islamic societies, 22–6, 31, 42–4, 50, 108, 110,

184–5, 581Charles “Pudding” 13X, 808Chaudhari, Rahmat ‘Ali, 637Chechnya, 510, 574, 698, 715–17, 825, 827–8, 830, 867chiefs. see shaykhChina

in Caliphal era, 41, 56, 69, 313diffusion of Islam, 198, 337–8and Inner Asia, 219, 223, 341, 352–5, 453–4, 465,

684, 689, 699, 701, 726–7, 730–1, 827Mongols in, 226, 228–9Muslims in, 213, 337–8, 443, 485, 725–31, 818, 850–1in post-‘Abbasid era, 116, 120women in, 729

Chinesein Iran, 237in Southeast Asia, 203, 655, 660, 663, 675–81, 683,

843–4Ch’ing dynasty (Manchus), 352–4

Chinggis Khan, 226, 228, 339–40, 351, 692Chist, Mu‘in al-Din Hasan, 365Chistiya (Sufi order), 217, 362, 364–6, 372, 374–5, 622,

626, 635Christianity. see also Copts; Crusades; Greek Orthodox

Church; Monophysites; Nestoriansand Arab conquests, 31, 33–4, 36, 40–1, 43and Caliphate, 51, 56, 58–9, 64–5, 68–9, 71, 77–8, 85,

87–8, 90, 99–101, 287–90and diffusion of Islam, 200–3, 242–3, 313early history, 4, 6–8, 14in East Africa, 429, 435–6, 441, 761, 766, 768–72,

776–7in Egypt, 513, 518, 531–2, 584, 841in Europe and United States, 219–21, 786, 788–90,

800–1, 802, 806–7, 822in India, 624, 630in Inner Asia, 344in Iraq, 584and Islamic institutions, 142–3, 183–5and Islamic revelation, 16, 20–1, 23–4, 28in Lebanon, 535–7, 546, 555–7, 827 (see also

Maronites)in modern era, 457, 581, 828, 830, 851in North Africa, 299, 302, 306, 309, 321, 323–4, 331,

333–4, 592, 602, 607and Ottoman empire, 250–3, 255, 258–61, 263–7,

272–4, 279–80, 282, 297–8, 461, 490, 493, 495–9,511, 516, 535–8

and Palestinians, 558–9, 562, 820in post-‘Abbasid era, 116, 137, 149, 166, 190, 248–9,

291–3Safavids and, 233–4, 237Southeast Asia, 657–8, 663, 667, 671–2, 674–5, 681,

683, 827, 843in Spain, 310–16, 318–19, 324in Sudan, 584in Syria, 541, 548–9, 583–4and Turkey, 510–11in West Africa, 438, 440, 733–4, 736, 738, 746, 749,

752–3, 758, 827Circassians, 235, 266, 277, 292–3, 513, 545city-states, 3–4, 37clans. see also lineage; tribes

and Arab conquests, 36, 41–2, 44and Caliphate, 45–6, 49and diffusion of Islam, 205in Inner Asia, 338–9, 342in Iran, 226Islamic community, 29, 213–14poetry, 15–17in post-‘Abbasid era, 155, 189–91pre-Islamic society, 3–5, 12–17, 21–6religion, 15–17

class structure. see also elitesin Caliphate, 64, 68, 110, 184–5and diffusion of Islam, 204Iran, 474Islamic community, 41–3, 145, 207, 456, 459in post-‘Abbasid era, 151, 154, 192pre-Islamic, 17

clientagein early Middle East, 3, 8, 15, 27, 39–44, 49–52, 54,

58–9, 64, 81, 104–5, 122, 124, 145, 185, 188, 190in Morocco, 611in pre-modern era, 205, 207, 213–14, 217in West Africa, 402

Clinton, Bill, 565colonialism. see also British; Dutch; French; Germans;

Italians; Portuguese; Russia, Tsaristconfrontation with Islam, 211, 222–5, 457, 818–19in East Africa, 439, 441–2, 761, 763, 772–8, 780–1in Egypt, 515–16in North Africa, 332in Southeast Asia, 397–9in West Africa, 205, 423, 438–41, 732–8, 780–1

commerce. see economic conditions

946 Index






Committee for Union and Progress, Turkey, 497–8, 538Communism

in Afghanistan, 723–4, 848in Algeria, 460, 591, 596in Azarbayjan, 717in China, 727, 729–30in East Africa, 766, 771in Egypt, 522, 531in Europe, 508, 786–7, 789in Inner Asia, 692–700, 704, 707, 710, 712–14in Iran, 476–7, 481in Iraq, 551in Palestine, 560in Southeast Asia, 652, 661, 666, 668–71, 677, 682–3,

842–3in Yemen, 571

community. see umma (community)companions of the Prophet. see Muhammad, companions

ofCongo, 772–3, 779, 782Congress Party. see Indian National CongressConstantinople, 33, 56, 71, 250, 252–3, 255, 265, 272. see

also Istanbulconversion. see also diffusion of Islam

in Caliphate, 52–3, 58, 64, 81–2, 87, 99, 105, 107–8early, 21–3, 27, 40–4forcible, 36, 198, 252, 426Middle East and North Africa, 197–201in post-‘Abbasid era, 114, 116–17, 120, 133, 138–40,

142, 146in Southeast Asia, 203–4in sub-Saharan Africa, 203–5and Turkish conquests, 201–3in United States, 806–9

Copts, 7, 34, 36, 40, 43–4, 142in modern Egypt, 513, 531–2, 584, 841

Cordova, 126, 309–14Cornwallis, Governor-General in India, 381Cossacks, 245, 277, 476, 686Crimea

khans of, 342, 714in Ottoman empire, 259, 269, 281, 498Russian control, 281, 338–9, 489, 685, 690–1, 693–4,

698, 700, 716Crimean war (1853–56), 490, 495Croatians, 264, 268, 785–7Crusades, 109, 112, 201, 250, 287–93, 297, 316. see also

ChristianityCtesiphon, 33, 56Cuba, 770–1culture

European, 219–21, 225Hellenistic, 13, 67–8Iranian, 381, 444–5Islamic, 183, 814

Delhi Sultanate, 358, 360–1, 366, 381and diffusion of Islam, 197–206, 309–12, 814–15imperial, 67–80, 99–102, 184–7, 285–6post-imperial, 112–20, 125–32, 140, 142, 191–3pre-modern, 8–9, 31, 34, 815–17state and, 216–18urban, 187, 216, 218

non-Islamic, 214Ottoman, 216, 218, 261–3, 281–2pre-Islamic, 3–9, 15

culture system. see Java, economyCUP. see Committee for Union and Progress, TurkeyCyprus, 255, 268, 325, 492, 789, 799Cyrenaica, 612–16

DDaghestan, 698, 706, 715–17Dagomba kingdom, 411, 413Dahlan, Hajji Ahmad, 662Dahomey, 732–3, 735, 759da‘i. see missionariesdakwah. see missionaries

DamascusArab nationalism in, 537–9, 547and Caliphate, 32, 39, 51, 68, 78, 137, 216, 287early history, 13, 32irrigation, 310in modern era, 535, 550, 820in Ottoman empire, 253, 265, 268, 274, 280, 296–8,

497, 536, 572, 715in post-‘Abbasid era, 109, 135, 139, 149, 172, 290–1,

293–4, 306Umayyad Mosque, 70–1, 312

Daqiqi, poet, 127dar al-hadith (college), 141, 291Dar ul-Islam, 669, 808–9, 810Darfur, 205, 432, 442, 762–3, 766Dari language, 127–8Darqawa order, 326, 331Darul Arqam, 679Da‘ud, Prince, 722–3Da‘wa al-Islamiya (Islamic Call Society), 755, 828–9da‘wah. see missionariesDaylam, 61, 64, 107–8, 114Dayr Qunna, 105de Gaulle, Charles, 596, 735de Reuter, Baron, 471, 473, 484Delhi, 211, 634–5, 642Delhi Sultanates (1206–1526), 202, 356–61, 367–8, 371–2,

374, 381Demirel, Suleyman, 507, 798Democritus, 88Deobandi reform movement, 464–5, 626–7, 631–2, 634–5,

640, 648, 799, 803, 817devshirme, 258–9, 277, 279Deys (rulers), 301, 323, 325Dhahabiya order, 242dhikr (repetition of the name of God), 91, 93, 162–3, 328,

685, 747dhimmi (protected communities), 265diffusion of Islam, 9, 23, 42–4, 52–3, 58, 100, 133, 142–3,

197–206, 814–15. see also conversion; missionaries;and under the names of countries and regions

Dihlawi, ‘Abd al-Haqq, Shaykh, 367Dioscorides, 312Diouf, Abdu, 744Dipanegara, Prince, 395, 464, 659Ditch, battle of the, 27divorce, 25–6, 82, 149, 481, 503. see also womendiwan, 42, 59–60, 105. see also administrationDiyala, 38, 56, 543Djibouti, 769–70Dogomba, 204Dome of the Rock, 51–2, 69, 71, 263, 290, 293Don Fodio, ‘Uthman, 419–24, 427, 444, 462, 465, 747–8Dost Muhammad, 720Druze, 287, 297–8, 536, 541, 543, 546, 548, 556, 583Dubai, 577, 580Dudayev, General, 716Dudu Mian, 623Dulles, John Foster, 524Durkheim, Emile, 870Durogba, ‘Ali Maye, 769Durrani, Ahmad Shah, 380Durranis, 720Dutch

in Africa, 438, 760and Iraq, 552Islam in Southeast Asia, 203, 394–5, 459–60, 462,

467, 652–68, 671, 821, 842–3Muslims in Netherlands, 791, 802and Ottoman empire, 275, 296Southeast Asian colonialism, 199, 219, 223–4, 385,

387–8, 392, 396–8, 453–4, 652–4, 656–8, 663, 683

trade and naval power, 219, 222–4, 237, 329, 331Dyula people, 204, 207, 213–14, 413–15, 426–7, 443, 745,

758, 781, 784Dzungarian Confederation, 352

Index 947






EEast Africa

Arabs in, 576coastal cities, 432–5diffusion of Islam, 198, 204, 429–38, 770, 772–3,

780–4and Europe and United States, 225, 438–9, 441–2,

453, 762, 772–8, 799, 802, 806, 809Islamic community, 211, 213, 443nationalism, 763, 765, 769, 772–3, 775, 777, 780–1and Ottoman empire, 254, 269slaves from, 39women in, 779

East Africa Company, British, 441–2, 776East India Company, Dutch, 385, 652, 760East India Company, English, 237, 276, 380–1, 398, 620,

624East India Company, French, 237East Timor, 674, 682Eastern Europe, Muslims in, 785–9Ecevit, Bulent, 507economic conditions

Arab conquests, 39–41, 44Caliphate, 50–4, 58, 60, 67, 99–100, 110–11, 183–6and diffusion of Islam, 198, 200, 205European societies, 219–20, 222–3, 225Islamic society, 214, 217in post-‘Abbasid era, 116, 119, 154–5, 190, 192–3pre-Islamic, 3–5, 8, 13, 17, 22

Edessa, 78education

in Islamic community, 206–7, 209, 217in post-‘Abbasid era, 116, 151, 155, 188–92, 197, 201pre-Islamic, 8

Egypt. see also under agriculture; elites; industrialization;intelligentsia; modernization; nationalism; revivalism;secularization; socialism; taxationadministration, 51, 513, 515, 523–30, 533–4, 618, 818Arab conquest, 34, 37, 39–40, 43–4, 50and Arab nationalism, 523–4, 547–8and Arabian peninsula, 512, 527–8, 567, 570, 573–4,

576, 578and Britain, 441–2, 457–8, 492–3, 512, 515–16,

519–24, 526, 534, 840and Caliphate, 56, 59–61, 64, 107–11, 185, 283–90early history, 6–7, 13, 33and East Africa, 429economic development, 513–16, 518–30, 533European influence, 225, 441–2, 457–9, 492–3,

512–17, 519–24, 526, 534, 840Islam in, 207–8, 211, 521–3, 527–34, 550, 581, 584–5,

618–19, 818, 820, 822–7, 830, 840–2Islamization, 201–2land ownership, 514, 525liberal era, 519–23in Mamluk era, 512–15, 537, 541in modern era, 516–34, 539, 545–6, 551–4, 582–5,

773, 820, 871modernism, 457–60nationalism, 458–9, 512, 516–26, 529, 531and North Africa, 302, 304, 313, 319, 322–3, 325, 327,

596, 601–3, 605–6, 609, 614–15and Ottoman empire, 253–4, 258, 264–5, 269, 272,

275, 280, 294–9, 444, 446, 489–90, 494, 535, 565and Palestine, 559–60pan-Arabism, 582in post-imperial era, 112, 120, 122, 126, 135, 140,

142, 172, 176and Saljuk dynasty, 290–4and Southeast Asia, 682state and religion, 515, 521–3, 527–34, 837, 840–2and Sudan, 205, 429, 431–2, 512, 516, 519–20, 761–3,

765–6and Syria, 290–1, 513, 515, 536, 538, 548and tribal societies, 512, 818and West Africa, 755women in, 530–3, 854–61, 863–4

elites. see also intelligentsiaAfrica, 781and Arab conquests, 31, 36, 38, 40–5in Arab Middle East, 546–50and Arab nationalism, 541, 543, 547–8, 582Arabian states, 9, 12, 34, 570–1, 580, 818in Caliphate, 45–6, 49–50, 58–60, 63–6, 75, 77, 99,

101, 104, 108, 110–11, 184–5, 187, 200Caucasus, 717–18cosmopolitan culture, 67–80, 90and diffusion of Islam, 202–5, 815East Africa, 204, 432, 762, 765–6, 770, 773Egypt, 512–16, 519, 522, 525–8India, 217, 358, 364, 378, 380, 460, 620–2, 624–5,

627–33, 635–9Inner Asia, 347, 349–50, 688, 691–2, 696, 701–3,

708–9, 712–14, 729–30Iran, 226, 228, 242, 470, 477, 479, 483–4, 816Iraq, 540, 544, 552, 554, 582, 818Jordan, 545, 582Lebanon, 536–7and modernization, 494, 496, 540and nationalism, 818–19North Africa, 307–8, 319, 590–1, 595, 597, 600, 603,

605–7, 609–11, 616, 618, 818Ottoman empire, 263–4, 267–8, 277, 279–80, 493–8,

500Pakistan, 646, 648Palestine, 558post-‘Abbasid era, 114, 116–17, 121–2, 126, 133,

142–6, 155, 188–9, 192pre-Islamic, 4–5, 13religious, 81–98, 143–4, 184, 187, 206–15, 308, 444–5,

817response to West, 817rural, 213–15Southeast Asia, 203–4, 459, 462, 656, 660–2, 670–1,

676–7, 679, 818sub-Saharan Africa, 204–5, 409–11Syria, 538, 540–1, 543, 550, 582Turkey, 493, 499, 502–4, 506–7, 511, 519urban, 9, 213West Africa, 204, 734–7, 740–1, 745–8, 751, 754, 818

emirates. see Amir (rulers)Empedocles, 88empires

Arab-Muslim (see Caliphate)early, 3–6, 8–10, 12

Enver Pasha, 695Erbakan, Necmettin, 508, 838Eritrea, 770–2Ershad, General, 650Ertugrul, warrior, 250Ethiopia

and Caliphate, 69conquests, 15–16Islam in, 22, 204, 434–8, 443, 737–8, 782–3, 827in modern era, 761, 770–2and Ottoman empire, 294and Somalia, 442, 769–71

ethnicityArab conquests, 44in Caliphate, 45, 50, 52–3, 81and diffusion of Islam, 201, 206Islamic community, 28, 213–14, 216–17in post-‘Abbasid era, 121, 189, 192pre-Islamic, 3, 8, 10, 16

Eulogius, priest, 313Europe. see also Christianity; colonialism; and under the

names of countries and regionsanti-semitism, 557, 559and Arab nationalism, 535–9, 575conflict with Muslim world, 216, 218, 222–5, 287–91,

299, 304, 314–15, 428, 449 (see also Crusades)conquests and colonialism, 223–5, 438–42, 469, 471,

817, 871and diffusion of Islam, 197–9, 211, 223, 387

948 Index






economic impact, 453, 455–9educational influence, 536feudalism, 123–4, 219–21Hellenism, 101, 310imperialism, 453–6international trade, 221–5, 324–5, 329–31, 438, 440–1,

455Islam and, 453–68, 823, 868Islamic culture in, 315–16, 532and modernization, 455, 471–2, 485Mongols in, 226and Muslim women, 795, 798, 801–2, 855–8, 861–3,

865Muslims in, 785–805, 823, 828, 830, 872nationalism, 280, 441and Ottoman empire, 222, 225, 250–61, 263–4, 269,

272, 275–82, 296–8, 457–8, 489–501, 511, 536,538–41, 586–97, 600, 613–14, 785–6, 788–9

pre-Islamic, 6society and culture, 219–21, 867state and religion, 219–20

European Union, 510evliadi (holy lineage), 208, 210, 685Evliya Chelebi (1614-82), 263

Fface. see wajh (face)factionalism, religious, 136–7, 140–2, 144–6. see also

Shi‘a; Sufism; SunniFadiliya order, 742Fadlallah, Muhammad Husayn, 556Faidherbe, Louis, French military governor, 440Fakhr al-Din, 298falasifa. see philosophyfamily. see also divorce; women

and Arab conquests, 41–2and Caliphate, 64, 95, 100, 105, 108and diffusion of Islam, 205European societies, 219–20Iran, 481–2Islamic community, 29, 207, 213–14Mongols, 226nomads, 125in post-‘Abbasid era, 114, 119–20, 143–4, 154–5,

183–5, 189, 192pre-Islamic, 3, 8, 12, 16, 22–3Quranic concept, 24–6, 30Soviet law on, 704in West Africa, 204

fana’ (union with God), 92, 167Faqariya (Mamluk faction), 296faqi (holy men), 215, 431–2, 762–3al-Farabi, 79, 152–3, 169, 178, 316Farad, Wallace D., 807Fara’idi (reformist movement), 464–5, 623, 627Farangi Mahall, 622, 626, 631–2, 634Farghana, 61, 64, 117, 350, 358, 687–8, 709, 713Farid al-Din ‘Attar (1142-1221), 130, 263Farid al-Din Ganj-i Shakr (Baba Farid, d.1245), 362–3Farrakhan, Louis, 808Fars, 33, 65, 78, 114, 120, 235Faruqi, Isma‘il, 809al-Fasi, Ahmad b. Idris, 762, 769fasting. see Ramadanal-Fatah, 560, 562Fath ‘Ali Shah, 470–1Fatima (daughter of Muhammad), 866Fatimid dynasty

in Arabian peninsula, 567culture, 126, 815in Egypt and North Africa, 108–10, 112, 214, 283–7,

290–1, 300, 304–5, 307–8, 311, 334, 401and Islam, 140–1, 176, 178, 191, 293, 375legitimation, 216, 285–6in Syria, 112

Fatma Aliye Hanem, 857fatwa (judicial opinion), 473, 622, 632, 706, 800–1

fay (conquered property), 36Faysal, king of Iraq, 539–40, 544–5, 547Feda’iyan-i Khalq, 481, 484feudalism

and diffusion of Islam, 206Europe, 123–4, 219–21Islamic regimes, 114, 122–5, 128, 185, 218 (see also

iqta‘)pre-Islamic, 4

feuds, 22, 25, 29, 114Fez, 126, 300, 302, 304, 306, 326–7, 329–33, 607, 609–11,

613Fezzan, 405, 612fief, compared with iqta‘, 123–5Fiqh Council of America, 812fiqh (understanding, law), 157Firdausi, poet, 128firman (decrees), 261Fitrat, ‘Abd al-Rauf, 691, 697fityan (gangs), 144Five Percenters, 808FLN. see Front de Libération NationaleFrance

Crusaders, 289and East Africa, 438, 442, 763, 776and Egypt, 513–16, 518, 524, 526, 529, 560feudalism, 123–4and Iran, 237, 477–8and Iraq, 553and Middle East, 493, 540, 542–3, 546–7, 550Muslims in, 54, 310, 785, 789–96, 803, 823and North Africa, 302, 322–6, 336, 453–4, 458–61,

586–98, 602–17, 839, 841, 849 (see also Algeria;Morocco; Tunisia)

and Ottoman empire, 254, 264, 275–6, 282, 297, 490,492, 497, 499, 536, 539–40, 586–97, 600, 613–14

society, 221and Southeast Asia, 397–8, 652and Spain, 310–11, 316and sub-Saharan Africa, 410, 416, 419trade, 222–3and West Africa, 425–6, 428, 440–1, 444, 453–4,

732–8, 740–4, 755–6, 839–40 (see also Mauritania;Senegal)

Frederick II, 291Free Officers

Egypt, 523–4, 526, 547, 840Libya, 614, 616

Freetown, 414French West Africa, 331, 733Front de Libération Nationale (FLN), 595–600Fruit of Islam, 807Fulani, 214, 418, 421, 423, 427, 462, 746–8, 754, 783fundamentalism. see revivalism, IslamicFunj Sultanate, 205, 429–32, 436, 762Fur people, 432Fustat, 34, 44, 46, 64, 135Futa Jallon, 410, 414, 418–19, 424, 426–7, 441, 444, 782Futa Toro, 410, 414, 419, 427, 444, 839

GGailani, Sayyid Ahmad, 724Galen, 77–8, 312Galiev, Mir Said Sultan, 697–8Galla people, 436–7, 443, 771, 780Gambia, 414, 441, 732, 736–7, 755, 825Gandhi, Mahatma, 634, 636, 643Gao, 401, 404garrison cities. see misrGasprinskii, Isma‘il, 464, 690–1, 693al-Gaylani, Rashid ‘Ali, 544Gaza, 32Gemayl, Pierre, 555Georgia, 248, 281, 698, 715–17Georgians, 120, 217, 233, 235, 249, 251, 266, 277Germans

in Africa, 332, 441, 453, 609, 772–4, 779

Index 949






Germans (cont.)and Egypt, 520in Iran, 478and Iraq, 544, 552Muslims in Germany, 785, 790–3, 796–9, 803and Ottoman empire, 276–7, 457, 492–3and Palestine, 557, 559society, 221–2in Spain, 311and Turks, 510, 785, 793, 796–9

Ghalzai, 245al-Ghamba, Muhammad, 413Ghana

British colonialism, 732, 735, 759Islam in, 204, 304, 401–2, 404–5, 408, 414, 438, 441,

443, 736–7, 775, 780, 825al-Ghannouchi, Rashid, 605–6, 617, 839Ghassanids, 14–15ghazal (lyric), 126, 128, 261. see also poetry, post-

‘AbbasidGhazan (1295–1304), 228, 231ghazi (frontier soldiers), 107, 117, 140, 144, 146, 248,

253, 258–60Ghaznavid dynasty, 109, 112, 114–17, 120–3, 136, 146,

187, 217, 356–7, 720and Islamic culture, 126, 128, 192

al-Ghazzali (1058–1111), 148, 151–2, 160–8, 176, 189,211, 267, 315, 388, 410

ghilman. see slave soldiersGhilzais, 720Ghujdavani, ‘Abd al-Khaliq, 347Ghulam ‘Ali, Shah, 375Ghurid family, 126, 356–7, 720Ghuzz, 112, 120Glawi, 607–8al-Glawi, Thami, 610gnosticism, 76–7, 134, 158, 171–4, 180, 193, 210, 243,

285, 814Gokalp, Ziya, 499, 503, 856Gold Coast, 438, 440, 733, 759Golden Horde, 201, 226, 338–40, 342, 344–5, 714Gonja kingdom, 411, 413Gorbachev, Mikhail, 709Gordon, George Charles, General, 763governors

‘Abbasid Caliphate, 60–1, 64, 81, 103–4, 107–8in post-‘Abbasid era, 119, 123–4, 143, 145, 187pre-Islamic, 4

Gowon, Colonel, 750–1Granada, 300, 309, 313–19, 324Greece, 250, 268–9, 276, 280, 490–4, 498, 505, 512–13,

785–6, 789Greek culture

in Caliphate, 50–1, 67–8, 71, 76–80, 85, 87–90, 93,99–101

in early Arab Middle East, 13in Europe, 219, 310in post-‘Abbasid era, 140, 152–3, 169–72, 178–9,

185–6, 188, 243Greek Orthodox church, 7, 202, 243, 250–2, 260, 264–5,

274, 280, 289, 495, 556, 559, 786, 788Greeks

in Africa, 733and Arab conquests, 36and Caliphate, 54, 76–80in Ottoman empire, 253, 255, 260–1, 264, 269, 272–4,

276, 280–2, 298, 495, 499, 501–2in post-‘Abbasid era, 120, 248–9, 251in Turkey, 584

Gregory VII, Pope, 314guilds, 272–3, 280, 349–50, 355, 514Guinea

French colonialism, 732–3, 735Islam in, 205, 410, 414, 419, 426–7, 441, 443, 736–7,

780–2, 825in modern era, 755–6

Gujarat, 253, 357, 361, 367–8, 380, 644, 779, 799

Gulf states, 527–8, 548, 554, 565–6, 571, 576–80, 582–5,648, 712, 788, 825, 835women in, 579

Gulf War (1991), 509–10, 528, 551, 553–5, 563, 574, 579,582, 801, 812

Gulistan, treaty of, 471Gumbad-i Qabus, 131Gumi, Abubakar, 752Gypsies (Roma), 41, 788–9

HHabash, George, 560, 570–1Habibie, 674Habibullah, 722Habsburg dynasty, 222, 254–5, 275, 281, 321, 329, 385Hadhramaut, 32, 49, 434, 662. see also Yemenal-Hadi, Caliph, 73al-Hadi, Sayyid Shaykh, 664hadith (sayings of the Prophet)

authority of, 18, 82, 84–7, 90, 93, 95, 100, 134–7,156–8, 173–4, 177–8, 186, 206–7, 210–11, 626,663, 867

in India, 367Islamic culture, 77, 102, 141–2in North Africa, 312, 322and reason, 88–9, 166, 517–18and state, 148–9, 193

al-Hadrami, Imam, 402Hafizullah Amin, 723Hafsid dynasty (1228-1574), 283, 300, 320–5, 327, 334,

444Haile Selassie, 770–1hajib (vizier in Spain), 311hajj (pilgrimage), 15–16, 24, 27, 73, 82, 108, 172, 181,

200, 242, 244, 268, 306, 416, 419–20, 573, 688, 712,747, 750, 755, 762, 807from Southeast Asia, 658–9, 662, 664

al-Hajj ‘Umar, 211, 421, 440–441, 444, 465, 747, 840al-Hajjaj, governor of Iraq, 50hakam (arbitrator), 23al-Hakim (d.1021), 286–7hal (grace), 91al-Hallaj (d.923), 92, 178Hama, 32, 298, 550Hamadhan, 33, 36, 39, 169Hamadhani, Yusuf, 347Hamallah, Shaykh, 737–8Hamalliya brotherhood, 737–8HAMAS, 563–4, 584–5, 600, 797, 820, 824, 827Hamdanid family, 108–11, 140, 287al-Hamdi, Ibrahim Muhammad, 570Hammadid family, 300, 302, 304–5, 334Hammuda Pasha, 324Hammurapi, 4, 6Hamza Fansuri, 387–8Hanafi (school of law)

in East Africa, 762in Egypt, 291in India, 623in Inner Asia, 211, 337, 354in North Africa, 308, 323, 602origins and social structure, 135–7, 141, 157, 176–8,

189, 206, 211–12in Syria, 291in United States, 808and women, 855

Hanbali (school of law), 135–6, 140–1, 148, 157, 166,177–8, 186, 190, 206–7, 210, 572

hanif (Arabian monotheists), 16, 18, 24. see alsomonotheism

Hapsburgs. see Habsburg dynastyhaqiqa (truth of Quran), 91, 267, 391haram (common sanctuary), 13, 15Harar, 435, 437, 442, 768Hari Singh, Maharaja, 649al-Hariri (d.1122), 126al-Harith al-Muhasabi, 92

950 Index






Harran, 35, 58, 78, 149, 770Harun al-Rashid, 60, 73, 103al-Hasan, Mahmud, 632Hasan al-Basri, 90–1, 158, 178, 244Hasan Pasha, 297Hasan (Sultan of Morocco, 1873–95), 332Hashimite family, 545, 547Hassan (Sultan of Morocco, 1961–99), 611–12Hassani, 416Hastings, Warren, 380Hattin, battle of, 290Hausa, 213, 736–7, 746–54, 759, 781, 783–4Hausaland, 204, 405–8, 411, 416, 420–3, 427, 444, 748,

759Hawatmah, Nayyif, 560al-Hawrani, Akram, 543Haykal, Muhammad, 522Hazaras, 718, 724, 848Hazrat Inayat Khan, 806Heliopolis, 33Hellenism. see Greek cultureHerat, 61, 65, 230–1, 240, 263, 471Hermetic philosophy, 77, 172–3Herzegovina, 250, 253, 490, 492, 785–6Herzl, Theodore, 557Hezbollah. see HizballahHijaz, the, 13–14, 33, 539hijra (migration), 23, 419–20, 531hikma (wisdom), 171Hikmatyar, Gulbuddin, 724Hilali migration, 300, 304, 321, 327–8hilm (self-control), 29, 49Himyarite kingdom, 14Hindi, 630, 640Hinduism

in Afghanistan, 725in India, 629–31, 633–4, 636–40, 643–5and Islam, 203, 218, 356–8, 360–4, 366, 378–81, 390,

623–4, 627, 629–31, 637, 640, 643–4, 649, 847,851

and Mughal dynasty, 369, 371–2, 377, 447–8, 620–2in Southeast Asia, 382–4, 392, 394–5, 448, 660, 663,

672Hippocrates, 78al-Hira, 14, 32, 34Hisham, Caliph, 50, 53, 76, 311historical chronologies, 9, 46historical writing, 74, 77, 96–7, 126, 128, 185–6, 188,

228–9, 261, 263Hittites, 6Hizb-i-Islami (Afghanistan), 724, 848Hizballah, 487, 556, 563, 585, 797, 824, 827Hizbullah (Indonesia), 669Hoja Dehhani, Ottoman poet, 261holy war. see jihadHoms, 32, 135, 298, 543Houphouet-Boigny, Félix, 735, 758Hoxha, Enver, 786Hrawi, Ilyas, 557al-Hudaybiya, 27Hui, 353, 725–7, 729, 731, 851al-Hujwiri (d.1071), 159Humayun, son of Babur, 358Hunayn b. Ishaq, 78, 178Hungary, 250, 254, 264, 276, 278, 281, 489, 538, 786Hurgronje, Christiaan Snouck, 660Hurmuz, 237, 384Hurufiya school, 233, 266Husayn b. ‘Ali (ruler of Tunis, 1705), 323Husayn (king of Jordan, 1952–99), 545, 585Husayn (Shah, 1688–1726), 243Husayn (Sharif of Mecca), 492, 538–9, 544Husayn (son of ‘Ali), 49, 53, 134, 176, 181, 243–4, 286,

470, 483, 484, 623Husayn (Sultan, 1469–1506), 231al-Husayni, al-Hajj Muhammad Amin, 558–9Husaynid dynasty, 323

Husayniyah Irshad, 483al-Husri, Sati, 540Hussein. see Husayn

IIbadan, 737, 748–9, 781‘ibadat (ritual regulations), 85, 163, 167Ibadis, 178, 214, 302, 433, 565, 568, 576Ibn ‘Abd al-Rabbih, writer, 312Ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad, 572Ibn ‘Ali, Zayd, 53, 572Ibn al-‘Arabi, 171–4, 176, 210–11, 243, 296, 315, 365–6,

377, 388, 410Ibn al-‘Arif, Abu al-‘Abbas, 315Ibn al-‘As, ‘Amr, 33Ibn Batta, theologian, 148Ibn Battuta, 384, 434Ibn Hazm, philosopher, 315Ibn Hisham, 18, 20Ibn Ishaq, 18, 20Ibn Karram (Muhammad b. Karram), 137Ibn Khaldun, historian, 168–9Ibn al-Muqaffa‘, 74Ibn Qutayba, 77, 126Ibn Quzman, poet, 315Ibn Rushd (Averroes), 152–3, 178, 267, 307, 315–16Ibn Saud (‘Abd al-‘Aziz b. Sa‘ud), 464, 569, 572, 848Ibn Sina (Avicenna), 152, 169–72, 178, 316Ibn al-Tabban, scholar, 308Ibn Taymiya (Ahmad b. Taymiya), 149Ibn Tumart, Muhammad b. ‘Abdallah, 306–7Ibn al-Walid (Khalid b. al-Walid), 32Ibn Yasid, ‘Abdallah, 306Ibn al-Zubayr, ‘Abdallah, 49Ibo, 735, 750Ibra Fall, Shaykh, 742–3Ibrahim, Anwar, 679–81Ibrahim Musa. see Karamoko Alfa (Ibrahim Musa)Ibrahim Pasha, son of Muhammad ‘Ali, 538‘Id, 181, 350, 611, 806identity, Islamic, 142–6, 177, 183–5, 189–93, 197, 213–14ideology

Caliphate, 50–1, 74, 105, 185of modern states, 818in post-‘Abbasid era, 192

Idris I (Morocco), 304Idris II (Morocco), 304, 327Idris, Amir (Libya), 614Idris b. ‘Ali (Sudan, 1570-1602), 405Idris Shah, 806Idrisid dynasty, 300, 303–4, 307Idrisiya order, 465Ifat, Muslim kingdom, 436ijaza (license to teach), 138ijma‘ (consensus), 86, 157ijtihad (judgment), 133, 157, 424, 662, 692Ikhshidid dynasty, 109, 285Ikhwan al-Muslimin, 829Ilkhanid dynasty, 126, 226–9, 231–2, 469‘ilm (knowledge), 157Il’minskii, Nicholas, 689, 692Ilorin, 736, 748Ilyas, Maulana Muhammad, 464, 635imam

in Arabia, 570–1, 576in Caucasus, 715in Inner Asia, 308in Islamic community, 204, 214–15in North Africa, 335, 348in post-‘Abbasid era, 178–9, 181Shi‘i view, 65, 95–8, 100, 102, 133–4, 180–1, 208, 375,

377, 487, 814in Southeast Asia, 391, 669in West Africa, 406, 413–14, 416, 420–1, 423–4, 749

al-Imam, newspaper, 664imama (theory of collective organization), 85iman (faith), 168–9

Index 951






imaret (buildings), 269IMF. see International Monetary Fundimperialism. see colonialismImru al-Qays b. ‘Amr, 13India. see also Delhi Sultanates; Mughal empire; and

under agriculture; elites; industrialization;intelligentsia; modernization; reformism;secularization; taxation; trade, internationaland Afghanistan, 720, 723Arab conquests, 38, 41and Arabia, 576British control, 223–4, 354–5, 357, 380–1, 453–4,

459–60, 467, 515, 544, 620–40, 645, 648, 675,737, 846–7

British education, 621, 625–7and Caliphate, 56, 59, 68, 76–7, 80, 107, 313diffusion of Islam, 197–8, 201–4, 356–9economy, 624, 630, 675and Europe, 322, 331history, 172, 228independence movement, 629–32, 660and Inner Asia, 688, 692Islamic community, 207, 209–11, 213, 444, 446,

448–9, 452, 462, 467, 517, 572, 803, 825, 827in modern era, 460, 467, 629–46, 648–51Muslim minority, 635–6, 639–40, 642–4, 651, 850–1nationalism, 630–40and Ottoman empire, 268–9, 276, 294, 297, 490partition, 639–40, 644–5in post-‘Abbasid era, 116–17, 127, 140state and religion, 364, 367–8, 620states and religion, 216–18Timurids in, 229women, 644

Indian National Congress, 628, 630, 632, 634, 636, 638,640, 643–5

Indiansin Africa, 733, 749, 759–60, 772–3, 777, 779–80in Europe and United States, 785, 789–90, 805, 809in Southeast Asia, 662, 677, 681, 683, 843–4

Indonesia. see also Java; Sumatraadministration, 656–8, 671, 683and Africa, 760diffusion of Islam, 198, 203, 219economy, 670–1, 673education, 656–8, 666, 672European colonialism, 219, 222–3, 396–9, 459–61,

652–68as independent state, 668–75, 806, 818, 820–2Islam in colonial era, 127, 206–7, 211, 382–8, 446,

448, 453, 461–2, 467, 518, 572Islam in modern state, 668–75, 683, 737, 818, 820–1,

825–7, 830, 837, 842–3, 871–2Islamic parties, 670–2Japanese occupation, 667–9legal systems, 657nationalism, 460, 467, 658, 660–2, 665–8and Ottoman empire, 276resistance to Dutch rule, 460, 665–6, 669states in, 216–17

Indonesian National Party (PNI), 661, 666–71, 821industrialization

Algeria, 598–600Egypt, 513, 516, 525–6Europe, 453India, 624Inner Asia, 687, 701–2, 704–5, 708Iran, 478, 481Morocco, 608Ottoman dynasty, 494, 501Turkey, 506–7

Inner Asiaand Afghanistan, 720, 723, 725Arab conquests, 38, 67and Caliphate, 61, 64, 68, 185and China, 219, 223, 341, 352–5, 453–4, 465, 648,

689, 699, 701, 726–7, 730–1, 827

diffusion of Islam, 197–8, 201–3, 205–6, 337–9, 342,344–5

early history, 33education, 689–91, 702–3, 705ethnic population, 719and Europe, 690–2, 698, 705–7, 709–10industrialization, 687, 701–2, 704–5, 708intelligentsia, 689–93, 695–7, 708Islamic community, 211, 213–14, 217, 443, 684–6,

706–9, 825language reform, 702–3Mongols and Turks in, 226, 228–9, 232, 234, 249and Mughal empire, 447Muslim congresses, 694Muslim publications, 707nationalism, 689–90, 692–4, 696–700, 705–6and Ottoman empire, 253, 255, 489, 498and Pakistan, 648in post-‘Abbasid era, 112, 116–17, 120–2, 127, 130,

140, 143in post-Soviet era, 709–14Russian control, 219, 223–4, 453, 684–714, 731states, 444–5and Turkey, 509–10women in, 688, 696, 703–4

Inonu, Ismet, 504–5insilimen (lineages), 210, 409Institute for Muslim Minority Affairs, 829institutions

Islamic, 3, 9, 29–30, 100, 114, 121–5, 183–5, 187–8,191, 205–6, 215–18

in post-‘Abbasid era, 120, 133–46pre-Islamic, 3–10, 16, 21pre-modern, 154–5, 197, 815–17

intelligentsia. see also elitesand Arab nationalism, 540–1, 543, 547, 580East Africa, 765Egypt, 457–8, 460, 512, 516–19, 521–2India, 459–60Inner Asia, 689–93, 695–7, 708Iran, 473–6, 479, 481Jordan, 545Lebanon, 536–7and modernization, 457–68and nationalism, 818, 822North Africa, 591, 605, 607, 611Ottoman empire, 496–9response to West, 817Southeast Asia, 658–9, 661, 667, 670–1, 676–7Syria, 543, 550Turkey, 460, 497–500West Africa, 734, 754

International Monetary Fund (IMF), 506, 612, 713Iqbal, Muhammad, 636–7iqta‘ (timar, tuyul, jagir, land concession)

in Caliphate, 62–3, 106, 108, 110Egypt and North Africa, 287, 291–2in India, 369, 371, 380Inner Asia, 345Iran, 226, 237, 246in Ottoman empire, 249, 258–60, 277, 279in post-‘Abbasid era, 114, 116, 120, 122–5, 187–8, 217

Iran. see also under agriculture; elites; intelligentsia;reformism; secularization; Shi‘aadministration, 226and Afghanistan, 723–5and Africa, 754–5Arab conquest, 33–4, 36, 38–9, 41, 44, 337and Caliphate, 47–8, 56, 60–3, 65, 67–9, 76–7, 97,

104, 106–7, 109, 111, 185–6, 285, 287, 313and Caucasus, 715, 717chronology, 230constitutional revolution, 473–6, 484, 691, 844early history, 6economy, 231–2, 235, 237–8, 478–85and Europe, 237–8, 288, 461, 471–3, 476–9, 482–3,

788, 796, 844

952 Index






and Gulf states, 576and Inner Asia, 685, 688–9, 710, 714and Iraq, 480, 482, 486–7, 553–5, 845Islamic society, 444–8, 461–2, 823–5as Islamic state, 844–8, 850Islamization, 197, 200, 203, 206Kharijism, 178in modern era, 457, 461–2, 469–88, 505, 509, 524,

547, 563–4, 574, 584–5, 605, 618, 648, 680, 812,821, 826, 837–8, 871

modernization of the state, 471–2, 477–82Mongols and Timurids in, 207, 226–34, 246, 248, 338,

345nationalism, 461–2, 467, 476, 479–80, 691and Ottoman empire, 234–47, 253–4, 258, 266,

268–9, 276, 278, 296–7, 489, 844, 846post-‘Abbasid era, 135–9, 142–4, 171–2, 176, 193,

213–14, 225, 293, 324Safavid, 196, 216, 232–47, 345–6, 394, 443–5, 447–8,

469, 844and Saljuk era, 291, 294, 299state and religion, 469–88, 816, 818and tribal societies, 471–2, 475–7, 484–5, 818‘ulama’, 207women in, 481–3, 486–7, 857–63, 865–6

Iranians, in Europe and United States, 283, 806Iraq. see also under agriculture; elites; irrigation;

socialismadministration, 51, 543, 551–3Arab conquest, 32–4, 37–41, 43–4, 46British influence in, 492, 539–40, 543–4, 551–4and Caliphate, 49–50, 56–64, 97, 103, 105–10, 185,

287, 312diffusion of Islam, 200early history, 3–4, 6–7, 10, 14–15and Iran, 480, 483, 485–8, 553–555, 845Islam in, 211, 552–4, 581, 827in modern era, 509–10, 524, 528, 545, 547–8, 551–5,

563–4, 572, 574, 581–5, 741, 830and Ottoman empire, 254, 296, 334, 446, 492–3,

543–4post-imperial era, 112–32, 135, 139, 142–6, 176, 193Saljuks in, 248, 299Shi‘a in, 178, 242, 445, 470, 544, 552–5state and religion, 618women in, 859–61

Iraqis, in Europe and United States, 785, 805–6Ironsi, General, 750irrigation

in Caliphate, 48, 106China, 730Egypt, 458, 512–13, 516Inner Asia, 349–50, 687, 701, 704–5Iran, 39, 228Iraq, 38, 110, 552Morocco, 608North Africa, 324Oman, 576in Ottoman empire, 294, 296Persian, 76in post-‘Abbasid era, 143Southeast Asia, 382, 653–4, 656, 673Spain, 309–11

al-Iryani, Qadi ‘Abd al-Rahman, 570Isfahan, 33, 36, 39–40, 126, 169, 237–41, 245ishan (Sufi holy men), 210, 685Ishmael, 69Iskandar (ruler of Srivijaya), 384Iskandar Muda (Sultan), 385islah (reform). see reformismislam (submission to Allah), 29, 167Islamic Call Society (Da‘wa al-Islamiyya), 828–9Islamic Development Bank, 829Islamic Jihad, 563, 827Islamic law. see Shari‘a lawIslamist movements. see revivalism, IslamicIslamization. see diffusion of Islam

Isly, battle of, 587Isma‘il, ‘Abd al-Fattah, 571Isma‘il, Maulay, 330–1Isma‘il Pasha, Egyptian ruler, 513, 762, 857Isma‘il (Shah), 233, 235, 241–2, 266Isma‘il (son of Ja‘far), 95–7, 133Isma‘ili Shi‘ism. see also Bohra (Shi‘i sect); Nizari Shi‘a

in Afghanistan, 724in Caliphate, 66, 95–8, 107–8in East Africa, 779, 781, 784in Egypt and North Africa, 284–7, 293, 302in Islamic community, 134, 137, 140–1, 213, 215opposition to, 136, 293in post-‘Abbasid era, 149, 172–3, 178, 180–1in Syria, 541, 548–9, 583in United States, 809

isnad (chains of authority), 86, 156, 413Israel

ancient, 6and Egypt, 522, 524–9establishment of, 546–7, 557, 560and Iran, 480, 482, 486and Jordan, 545Muslims in, 860nationalism, 565opposition to, 548, 550–1, 554, 556–65, 574, 582,

584–5, 615, 618, 708, 752, 821, 827, 841, 860and Turkey, 510women in, 860

Istanbul. see also Constantinoplein modern Turkey, 508as Ottoman capital, 207, 211, 253, 255, 258–9, 263–5,

267, 270–9, 281–2, 294–6, 323, 325, 334, 492–3,498, 516, 544, 690–1

urban development, 56, 272women in, 856, 858

Italianscolonialism, 453–4, 493, 542and early Middle East, 287, 291in East Africa, 442, 763, 768, 770–1and Egypt, 513, 520Muslims in Italy, 792in North Africa, 301, 304, 322, 324–5, 327, 331–2and Ottoman empire, 222, 250, 255, 261, 268, 276,

281, 492, 586, 613–14, 616ithna ‘ashari (“twelver” Shi‘a community), 96, 133–134,

178, 181, 186, 215, 241–243, 245–246, 366–367, 375in East Africa, 779–80in United States, 805–6

Ivory Coast, 410, 414, 426–7, 441, 732–3, 735–7, 755–8,780, 825

Izetbegovic, Alija, 787

JJacobite church. see Monophysitesjadid movement, 464, 466, 689–93, 695–7, 702, 712, 718Ja‘far al-Sadiq, 91, 95–6, 133, 267Ja‘fari (Shi‘i school of law), 245jagir (land concession). see iqta‘al-Jahiz, 77jahl (ignorance, thoughtlessness), 29Jakhanke lineage, 208, 414–15, 443, 754Jalili family, 297Jama‘at-i Islami (India), 640, 645–6, 648, 724, 824, 826,

829, 847–8Jama‘at al-Islamiya (Egypt), 619, 825Jama‘at al-Muslimin, 531jamat (religious communities), 414jamatbandi (Isma‘ili collective association), 213, 772, 781James I of Aragon, 316, 318James II of Aragon, 318Jami‘at al-‘ulama’-i Hind, 632, 634, 638–40janissaries

in North Africa, 323, 325–6, 446, 586in Ottoman empire, 258–60, 267, 273, 277–9, 294,

296–8weakening of, 494, 496, 500

Index 953






Japan, 575, 660, 667–9, 677Jassy, peace of, 281Java. see also agriculture; reformism

administration, 653, 669British control, 397, 652–3contemporary, 670–3Dutch control, 223, 385, 387, 652–4, 656, 658–65economy, 652–4Ethical Policy, 656, 661, 667Islam in, 658, 661–5, 669, 683, 816in modern era, 463, 467in pre-modern era, 203, 219, 383–7, 392–8, 448

Jawi Peranakan, 662al-Jazira (TV channel), 579al-Jazuli, Abu ‘Abdallah, 328–9Jelal, preacher, 266Jelali rebellions, 279Jelutong Press, 664Jerusalem, 24, 32, 51, 69, 71, 112, 175, 263, 288–91, 293,

490, 527, 558, 560, 563–5, 574, 582, 770Jevdet, ‘Abdallah, 499Jewish National Home, 493, 522, 545, 557–60Jews. see JudaismJibril b. ‘Umar, 419–20jihad (holy war)

Afghanistan, 725, 848Africa, 202, 205, 211, 214, 216, 400, 402, 732, 818Arabia, 574in Caliphate, 91Caucasus, 715, 717Egypt, 531–2, 841Europe, 787, 805Inner Asia, 695in Iran, 233Libya, 615modern movements, 823, 827, 829–30, 835, 847–8North Africa, 334in Ottoman empire, 263, 447in post-‘Abbasid era, 117, 138, 188, 190in Sudan, 765West Africa, 416–28, 741

Jilan, 61, 235, 245, 476al-Jilani, ‘Abd al-Qadir, 139, 420Jimma-Kakka, Galla kingdom, 437jinn (demons), 15Jinnah, Muhammad ‘Ali, 636jizya (poll tax), 37, 53, 217, 421Jochi, 277Jordan. see also Transjordan

early history, 13, 31, 36, 41in modern era, 493, 524, 532, 545, 547, 551, 554–5,

561–2, 565, 572, 578, 582–5, 818, 825–6women in, 862

Judaism, 183–5in Africa, 752and Caliphate, 56, 59, 69, 85, 99, 287and diffusion of Islam, 200–1, 242early history, 6, 16in Egypt, 514, 516, 518in Europe, 800and impact of modernization, 457in Inner Asia, 705in Iran, 485, 584in Iraq, 584and Islamic revelation, 18, 20–1, 23–4, 27–8and Islamic revivalism, 828, 830in North Africa, 302, 309, 324, 326, 331in Ottoman empire, 252, 264, 268–9, 272–3, 275–6,

297, 495, 501, 538–9and Palestine, 547in post-‘Abbasid era, 138, 166, 293in Spain, 313, 316, 318–19in United States, 790, 807–8

Jumblatt family, 556al-Junayd (mystic, d.911), 92–3, 158, 160, 178, 189, 388al-Junayd (Shaykh, 1447-60), 233–4Jundishapur, 58, 78

Jurjan, 61al-Juvaini, historian, 228al-Juwayni, theologian, 161, 166–7

KKa‘ba, 2, 14–16, 24, 27–8, 108Kabardes, 698Kabul, 61, 64, 380, 718, 722, 724–5Kaduna, 747–8, 751, 753Kai Ka’us, 151Kalila wa-Dimna, 76, 128al-Kamil, 291Kamil, Mustafa, 518–19kand tax. see kharajKanem, 204, 405, 411al-Kanemi, Bornu chieftain, 423Kano, 406–8, 421, 746–8, 751–4, 781, 825Kano, Aminu, 748Kanpur mosque, 633–4kanun (law codes), 261Kanuri nation. see KanemKaplan, Metin, 797Karakalpaks, 698al-Karaki, ‘Ali, 242karamoko. see ‘ulama’, in West AfricaKaramoko Alfa (Ibrahim Musa), 418Karbala, 49, 134, 176, 244, 483Karim Khan, 245Karimov, Islam, 713Karlowitz, treaty of, 282Karrami school, 135, 137, 143Kartosuwirjo, 669Kashan, 130Kashani, Ayatollah, 482Kashgar, 208, 216, 337–8, 340, 350–1, 353–5, 730Kashgaria, 117Kashmir, 357, 364, 574, 640, 644–5, 648–9, 720, 723, 799,

827, 830, 845, 847Kassites, 6Katip Chelebi, 281Katsina, 406, 421, 746–7Kaum Muda (Young Group), 464, 664–5, 676al-Kawakibi, reformer, 537Kawkaw, kingdom of, 401, 443Kazakhs, 201, 223, 338–45, 350, 352–3, 355, 818

and Chinese, 726–7, 729–30under Russian rule, 686–90, 692–4, 697–8, 701, 706

Kazakhstan, 694, 698, 700–2, 704–6, 708–10, 712–13, 716

Kazan, 255, 339–40, 342, 344, 689–94al-Kazaruni, Shaykh Abu Ishaq Ibrahim, 138, 142Kazaruniya (Sufi order), 364Kebatinan groups, 672Keira state, 432Keita, Modibo, 756Keita dynasty, 402Kemal, Mustafa. see Ataturk, Mustafa KemalKenesary Kasomov, Khan, 344Kenya, 442, 761, 772–3, 776–7, 830Kenyatta, Jomo, 776–7Kermani, Mirza Aqa Khan, 474Khadija, wife of Muhammad, 20–2, 852Khalduniya school, 602Khalid b. al-Walid (Ibn al-Walid), 32khalifa (delegates), 138, 210, 215, 365, 424, 587, 715,

747, 763al-Khalifa family, 578–9, 583Khalji, ‘Ala al-Din, 357–8, 360, 368Khalji dynasty, 357–8, 368Khalq faction, 723, 848Khalwatiya (Sufi order), 210, 242, 267, 295, 464Khamene’i, Ayatollah, 485, 488, 845Khan, Sayyid Ahmad, 459–60, 627–9, 631, 692Khan Berke, 339khanaqa (religious retreats)

in India, 361–2, 364–7, 375in Inner Asia, 349

954 Index






in Middle East, 94, 137–8, 140–2, 162, 189, 192, 210,213, 291, 293–4

KhansInner Asia, 117, 685Iran, 469–70, 477, 479

kharaj (land tax), 37, 53, 62, 217, 421Kharijis

in Caliphate, 47, 49–50, 53–4, 65, 81, 87, 133, 178,185–6

in North Africa, 191, 201, 214, 302–3, 306, 308–9, 325in sub-Saharan Africa, 401, 405

Kharraz, Abu Sa‘id, 91Khatami, Muhammad, 488, 845Khatmiya order, 762, 765–6, 781Khayr al-Din (fl.1873–77), 601–2Khayr al-Din Barbarossa (fl.1529–33), 255, 325Khazars, 33, 54Khazraj, 22–3, 31–2Khidr, 234Khilafat movement, 632, 634–5, 637–8Khirbat al-Mafjar, 69khirqa (cloak), 138, 210, 323, 365Khiva, 340, 348, 350, 684–5, 696, 698, 700Khoiaev, Fayzullah, 697Khokand, 348, 350, 352–4, 688, 695, 702Khomayni, Ayatollah, 483–6, 792, 801, 845, 866Khrushchev, Nikita, 705, 707Khufiya order, 726Khurasan

and Arab conquests, 33, 37, 41, 43–4and Caliphate, 49–50, 53–4, 56, 58–61, 64–5, 78,

103–4, 107, 109post-imperial era, 109, 112, 116–17, 120, 122, 127,

135, 139–41, 146Sufism, 92–3, 178

Khusraw Parviz, emperor, 130Khuzistan, 33, 58, 60, 114, 120, 554Khwaja Ahrar, 230khwaja (holy men in Transoxania), 208, 214, 216, 340,

349, 352, 353–5, 464, 685Khwarizm, 39, 114, 116, 139, 337–9, 350, 698Kilwa, 433–5Kinda confederation, 14al-Kindi, philosopher, 79, 178, 316kingship. see also empires

in early Middle East, 4–5, 12–15, 44, 69, 121, 123,128, 131, 149–55

in East Africa, 429, 431–2in India, 360, 372in pre-modern era, 204, 218, 228, 231–2in Southeast Asia, 393

kinship. see familyKirgiz, 350, 353–5, 689, 698, 700, 706, 708–10, 713, 726Kirman, 40, 65, 107, 114, 120Kitama. see BerbersKitchener, Lord, 763kiyayi. see ‘ulama’ (in Southeast Asia)Kochu Bey, Mustafa, 281Koja Sinan, 263Konya, 172, 248, 250, 265, 272Koprolu, Mehmed, 279al-Korau, Muhammad, 406Kosovo, 250, 574, 785–6, 788Kubra, Najm al-Din, 139, 233Kubrawiya (Sufi order), 139, 233, 349Kuchuk Kaynarca, treaty of, 281Kuder, Lawrence, 681Kufa, 34, 39–41, 47, 49–50, 53, 66, 74–5, 85, 107, 130al-Kulayni, 134Kumasi, 413, 441, 759Kunta family, 409–10al-Kunti, Sidi al-Mukhtar, 410, 740Kurds

in the Caliphate, 65, 120in Europe and United States, 796, 803, 806, 809in modern Iran, 479, 482in modern Iraq, 544, 548, 552–5, 583

in modern Turkey, 505, 509–11, 838–9national identity, 584, 826in pre-modern era, 233–4, 259, 277, 290–1, 296, 298,

307, 321, 446, 493, 499, 513al-Kursavi, Abu Nasr, 690Kuwait, 528, 553–5, 560, 568, 574, 577–80, 582–3, 680,

710, 748, 756, 805women in, 859

Kyrgyzstan, 710, 713

LLaden, Usama bin. see Usama bin LadenLagos, 424, 440, 735–6, 748–9, 752, 784Lahore, 116, 380Lakhm kingdom, 14–15, 32Lamu, 772land tax. see kharajLaskar Jihad, 675Lat Dior, 426, 742Lausanne, treaty of, 499law. see also law, schools of; Shari‘a law

Arab conquests, 43in Caliphate, 59, 89–90, 92, 95, 99–100, 102, 105and diffusion of Islam, 201, 206–7Muslim states, 215–16, 220in post-‘Abbasid era, 114, 128, 133–7, 140–6, 152–3,

156–8, 160, 165–6, 174, 176–82, 189, 193, 197pre-Islamic, 5–6, 8Quranic, 24–6, 30

law, schools of. see also Hanafi (school of law); Hanbali(school of law); Maliki (school of law); Shafi‘i(school of law)in early Middle East, 85–6, 114, 133–7, 140–6, 157,

177–9, 181–2, 184, 186, 189, 192–3India, 374in pre-modern era, 201, 205–7, 209–13, 215, 226, 816

Lawrence, T.E., 539Le Pen, Jean-Marie, 794League of Arab States, 557, 559, 610League of Nations, 520, 533, 539, 553, 774Lebanon. see also Druze

in Caliphate, 287Christians in, 316 (see also Maronites)civil war (1975–91), 487, 551, 555–7, 582, 827and Europe, 457–8, 524, 536–7, 539, 543, 545–6, 805,

830in modern era, 540, 546–7, 550, 555–7, 561–3, 582–5,

679, 805, 827nationalism, 461, 535–7in Ottoman empire, 296–8, 492–3, 535–7in post-‘Abbasid era, 149state and religion, 556women in, 859–60, 862

Lenin, V.I., 697Lepanto, battle of, 255Levant Company, British, 275–6Lezghins, 698liberal Islam, 823–4Libya, 300–1, 309, 465, 556, 586, 612–16, 618, 680, 682,

740, 755, 781, 793, 818, 820, 829, 837Limmu-Innarya, Galla kingdom, 437lineage. see also clans; tribes

Africa, 781–2and Arab conquests, 40, 42in early Middle East, 137, 183–4, 190–1, 815–16East Africa, 433–4in European societies, 219Inner Asia, 338Islamic community, 29, 204–5, 208, 214North Africa, 325, 614in post-‘Abbasid era, 155, 187pre-Islamic societies, 3, 8–9Southeast Asia, 388West Africa, 409

literature. see also Arabic literature; Persian literatureIndian, 361, 447in Inner Asia, 690, 702–3, 705–6Muslim, 156

Index 955






literature (cont.) Ottoman empire, 261, 263in post-‘Abbasid era, 125–30, 140, 142state elites, 216, 218Turkish, 117, 337–8

Lithuanians, 806Lobbo, Ahmad, 424Lucknow, 379, 626, 631, 634Lugard, Frederick, 441Luri, 234Lyautey, Marshal, 606–7

MMa Ba, teacher, 425, 465, 742, 839Ma Hua-lung (Tsung-ta A-hung), 354Ma Ming-hsin, 353Macedonia, 250, 253, 266–7, 492, 785–6, 788–9MacMahon, Henry, 539Madali, Ishan (Ishan Muhammad al-Khalifa Kabir), 688Madani, ‘Abassi, 599–600, 617madrasa (colleges)

East Africa, 434Egypt, 291, 293India, 364, 372, 628in Islamic society, 135–7, 141–2, 156, 177, 192, 206,

215North Africa, 323, 327, 405, 589Ottoman empire, 265Southeast Asia, 664West Africa, 751, 756

al-Maghili (d.1504), 404, 406, 408, 416, 420Mahathir b. Muhammad, 680–1, 844Mahdawi movement, 366al-Mahdi (Caliph, 775–85), 60, 73, 101mahdi (savior), concept of, 50, 53–4, 65, 73, 95–8, 134,

181, 186, 190, 416, 419–20, 588Mahdi (of the Sudan), 762–4Mahdist states, 737, 762–6, 815Mahfouz, Naguib, 532Mahgrib. see North AfricaMahmud II (Sultan, 1807–39), 494, 496, 500Mahmud of Ghazna (988–1030), 128Maimonides, 316Majapahit kingdom, 383–5, 392al-Majdhub, Muhammad, 762Majdhubiya, 431, 762Majid, Nurcholis, 673–4majlis (council), 573Majlis Ugama, 676al-Majlisi, Muhammad Baqir, 242Majnun, 130Makhdum-i A‘zam, 351al-Makki (d.989), 159mala (council of clans), 17Malacca, 223, 383–6, 397–8, 677Malamatiya (wandering dervishes), 266, 364, 368Malawi, 760, 779Malay Muslim Youth League (ABIM), 679, 825Malay States, Federation of, 398Malaya. see also Malaysia

European colonialism, 219, 223, 453, 654, 656, 658,664, 675–7

Islam in, 198, 203, 216, 382–8, 390, 392, 396–8, 448,661–2, 675–7

nationalism, 460, 677women in, 664

Malays, 41, 658, 662, 676, 760, 793, 799, 821, 826, 844Malaysia. see also Malaya

Islam in, 678–81, 683, 788, 818, 822, 825–6, 830, 837,842–4, 871

nationalism, 676–80women in, 680–1

Malcolm X, 807Mali, 204, 327, 402, 404–5, 408–9, 414, 443, 736–8, 741,

755–8, 780–1, 793, 825, 837Malik Dauda Sy, 418Malik Shah (d.1092), 120Maliki (school of law), 135, 156, 178, 206–7, 211–12,

306–9, 312, 322–3, 333–4, 602, 755, 762

and women, 855Malkum Khan (1833-1908), 474mallam. see ‘ulama’, West AfricaMalta, 255Mamluk regime

administration, 292, 294, 299, 444, 514, 816concept of ruler, 292–3and East Africa, 429in Egypt, 109, 122, 125, 280, 283, 292–6, 298,

512–15legitimation, 216, 292–4military organization, 217, 258, 292, 294and North Africa, 319, 322, 613and Ottoman empire, 253–4, 263and women, 854

al-Ma’mun, Caliph, 61, 64, 68, 101–4, 136Ma‘n family, 298Manchu dynasty. see Ch’ing dynastyMangit dynasty, 341, 348, 355Mangkurax, Sultan, 385Manichaeanism, 6, 73, 76, 87, 116, 166Mansa Musa (1307-32), 402, 408al-Mansur, Caliph, 73al-Mansur (Sa‘dian Sultan, 1578-1603), 329Mansur, Shaykh (c.1760–91), 715al-Mansur Qala’un (1280–90), 293Manzikert, battle of, 117, 248Mao Zedong, 727, 730Maoism, 507Marathas, 369–70, 379–81Marcos, Ferdinand, 682Mardawij b. Ziyar, 108Marei, Sayyid, 525al-Marghinani (d.1169), 157ma‘rifa (direct knowledge), 165, 167, 267Marinid dynasty, 283, 300, 320, 327–8, 335marja‘i-taqlid (spiritual leaders), 215, 473Marjani, Shihab al-Din, 690Maronites, 264, 297–8, 535–7, 546, 555–7Marrakesh, 300, 306, 309, 314, 328–9, 608marriage. see divorce; womenMartel, Charles, 310Ma‘ruf, Muhammad, 772Marw, 36, 39–41, 54, 78, 126, 128Marwanid dynasty, 287Mashhad, tomb, 134, 176, 244Masjumi, 667–71, 673Masmuda. see Berbersmasnavi (rhyming couplet), 128, 261. see also poetry,

post-‘AbbasidMas‘ud, Ahmad Shah, 724–5Mataram empire (Java), 219, 385–7, 392–3, 398, 658,

816Materi, Mahmud, 603Maturidi (school of theology), 166, 177, 189, 337Mau Mau revolt, 776Maulay Rashid, 329Mauritania

and French, 732, 737–41, 793independent, 612, 735, 740–1, 745, 768Islam in, 204–5, 208, 409–10, 414, 416, 419, 426, 444,

737–8, 761, 780–1, 784, 826, 837Mausillu (Iranian regional rulers), 235mawali. see clientageAl-Mawardi (d.1058), 148Mawdudi, Abul ‘Ala, 645mawla. see clientagemawlid (birthday of the Prophet), 176, 181, 295, 322,

329, 350, 391, 414, 515, 623, 747Mazandaran, 235, 245Mazdaism, 6, 65Mazhar, Shaykh Mirza, 374–5mazkhzan (coalition), 335Mecca

and Caliphate, 45–6, 49, 66, 74, 85, 108, 286early history, 3, 15–17, 26–8, 34, 67, 184in modern era, 492, 512, 574–5, 738, 769–70, 849Muhammad in, 19–23in Ottoman empire, 235, 295, 572, 613, 715

956 Index






pilgrimage to (see hajj (pilgrimage))in post-‘Abbasid era, 131, 293reformism, 211, 213, 662

Meccans, exiled. see muhajirunMedina

and Arab conquests, 36and Caliphate, 45–7, 49, 51, 66, 85, 286in modern era, 512, 770, 849Mosque, 71Muhammad in, 19, 22–7, 31–2, 67, 184, 531, 809in Ottoman empire, 253, 265, 295, 572, 715pilgrimage to (see hajj (pilgrimage))in post-‘Abbasid era, 135, 293reformism, 211, 213

Megawati Sukarnoputri, 674Mehmed Fuad Pasha, 496Mehmed I, 251, 260Mehmed II the Conqueror, 250–1, 253, 255, 260–1Mehmet ‘Ali Pasha, 496Menderes, Adnan, 505–6, 547Mendès-France, Pierre, 610Menelik II, king of Ethiopia, 770Mengistu Haile Mariam, 771–2merchants

in Caliphate, 41–2, 52, 64, 81, 95, 110, 184–5and diffusion of Islam, 197–8, 200–1, 203–7, 337,

344, 382–4, 409–11, 433–5, 732, 780in Islamic community, 209, 211, 213Morocco, 331in Ottoman empire, 272–3in post-‘Abbasid era, 116, 145, 179, 189, 192pre-Islamic, 5–6, 10, 16–17

Mesopotamiaand Arab conquests, 33–4, 37, 39–40, 43and Caliphate, 50, 60, 65–6, 78, 85, 107–10heritage, 553in Ottoman empire, 253in post-‘Abbasid era, 110, 114, 117, 120, 123, 142–4,

149, 176, 287, 289–91, 293pre-Islamic, 3–6Sufis in, 232and Syria, 290

Messali Hajj, 591, 594messiah. see mahdi (savior), concept ofMevleviya (Sufi order), 217, 249, 252, 267Middle East, Arab. see Arab Middle Eastmigration. see hijra (migration)migrations. see Arabs; TurksMikali family, 143millet system, 265, 495, 691–2Milli Firqa party, 693–4Milosevic, Slobodan, 786, 788Minangkabau, 211, 213, 385, 387, 390–2, 448, 657, 660,

662, 664–5, 669Ming dynasty, 353minorities, Muslims as

Africa, 781–2China, 353, 725–31East Africa, 770in India, 640, 642–4Inner Asia, 684, 700, 705in modern era, 850–1South Africa, 760Spain, 316, 318–19West Africa, 413, 758

Mir ‘Ali Shir Nava’i, 231Mir Damad, 243mir (holy men in Transoxania), 208, 349, 355mi‘raj (ascension of the Prophet), 175, 181, 316Mirdasid dynasty, 109, 287al-Mirghani, Muhammad ‘Uthman, 762Mirghaniya (reform order), 437mirrors, for princes, 147, 149–55misr (pl. amsar, garrison city), 34, 36, 40–1, 43–4, 49–50,

81, 184, 200missionaries

and diffusion of Islam, 28, 97–8, 107, 198, 201–5,215, 342, 377, 383–5, 390, 435, 671, 673, 679–83,732, 809

post-‘Abbasid era, 134, 138, 140–3pre-Islamic, 6

modernism, Islamic, 457–61, 817, 820, 822. see alsomodernizationin Africa, 782in colonial era, 581in East Africa, 767in Egypt, 460, 516–19, 521–2, 822in India, 459–60, 628–9in Iran, 472–4in Ottoman empire, 496, 500and reformism, 466in Southeast Asia, 460–1, 663, 672, 677in Tunisia, 458–61in Turkey, 460in United States, 810in West Africa, 745, 749, 754–6, 759

modernization. see also modernism, Islamicin Arab Middle East, 548in Arabian peninsula, 567, 570, 573–4, 580in East Africa, 761–2, 779–80in Egypt, 457–8, 474, 512–17, 521–2, 530, 533in Europe, 455–6in India, 624–5in Inner Asia, 689–91, 695, 700–9, 731in Iran, 471–2, 477–82in Lebanon, 537in North Africa, 592–3, 601–3, 605, 617in Ottoman empire, 457–8, 460–1, 467, 474, 493–501,

692, 819, 837in Southeast Asia, 664–5, 671, 680in Tunisia, 457–9, 601–3, 617in Turkey, 498–504, 511in West Africa, 736–7, 752

Mogadishu, 433–4, 437Moi, Daniel arap, 777Mojahedin, 486Mojahedin-i Khalq, 482, 485Mongol dynasty, 109, 112, 120, 293, 358

administration, 217, 228–9, 232in Afghanistan, 720and Anatolia, 249in China, 338concept of monarchy, 228, 232, 246, 446and diffusion of Islam, 198in Inner Asia, 201, 232, 338, 345, 350–2invasions, 226–9, 231–2, 292–3in Iran, 207, 226–9, 246, 248, 338legitimation, 228–9state, 445women in, 853

Mongolians, 226, 232, 725, 728Monophysites, 7, 34, 264, 436monotheism. see also Christianity; hanif (Arabian

monotheists); Judaismand diffusion of Islam, 200–1, 205, 363, 810and Islam, 20–1, 23–4, 26, 28, 69, 87–9, 99, 183, 186pre-Islamic, 3, 6–7, 9–10, 16–17, 183

Montenegro, 253, 274, 490–2, 498, 786Moorish Science Temple of America, 807Mori-Ule Sise, 426Morocco. see also under agriculture; reformism; trade,

internationaladministration, 327, 330, 332, 335, 607–8, 610–11,

616and Algeria, 587, 595–7Caliphal era, 283, 304–9, 319chronology, 300colonization, 606–11diffusion of Islam, 201, 299, 302, 306economy, 606–7, 612and Europe, 301, 313–14, 331–3, 586, 606–11,

615–16, 793–4, 799, 802, 803, 849invasion of Sudan, 404–5Islamic community, 208, 211, 214as Islamic state, 327–36, 409, 444, 612, 618, 818, 844,

849–50legitimation, 327, 332, 335, 616in modern era, 606–12, 615–18, 740–1, 826, 871

Index 957






Morocco (cont.) and Ottoman empire, 325, 606in post-‘Abbasid era, 139pre-modern era, 319–22, 326–36relation to tribes, 444, 606–11state and religion, 216, 218, 818, 820–1, 837, 848women in, 612, 860–1, 863

Mosaddeq, Muhammad, 479, 482, 554Moscow, and Golden Horde, 339, 342mosques, construction, 131, 135, 200, 263Mosul, 33, 39, 54, 108–9, 280, 289–91, 296–7, 535

women in, 854Mozambique, 774mu‘amalat (rules of social relations), 85, 167Mu‘awiya, 47–50, 87, 134, 136Mubarak, Husni, 527–8, 533, 859Mudar faction, 49mufti (jurisconsults)

East Africa, 772Egypt, 517India, 374Inner Asia, 344, 348, 685, 706in Islamic communities, 207, 215North Africa, 323Ottoman empire, 266, 294in post-‘Abbasid era, 157Southeast Asia, 676

Mughal empireadministration, 207, 216–17, 236, 369, 371, 374,

379–80, 444, 447–8and Afghanistan, 720chronology, 357decline of, 218, 378–81, 465, 620–5and diffusion of Islam, 198, 644foundation, 358and Islam, 368–78legitimation, 217–18, 650patronage of culture, 371–2, 447religious policy, 372, 374–8, 816, 846and Southeast Asia, 387

muhajirun (exiled Meccans), 27, 31Muhammad

authority of, 90, 97, 173, 179, 210, 814, 868–9companions of, 21, 45–7, 90, 138–9, 158–9, 176, 186,

208, 210life of, 18–32, 183–4, 866and Mecca, 17, 20–3, 26–8and Quran, 18–26, 28–30, 67, 88, 181successors to, 32, 47–9, 53, 65, 81, 90, 134, 214–15,

233–4, 246, 286, 294, 307, 588, 685, 715veneration of, 79, 174–6, 267, 290, 329, 801

Muhammad, Elijah (Elijah Poole), 807Muhammad, Maulay, 329Muhammad, Shaykh, 776Muhammad, Warith Deen, 808Muhammad b. ‘Abd al-Wahhab, 572Muhammad b. ‘Abdallah (Abdille Hassan), 769Muhammad Ahmad, Shaykh, 762Muhammad ‘Ali (Egypt, 1805–48), 458, 490, 494, 512–15,

519, 538, 572, 761Muhammad ‘Ali (India), 631–2, 634Muhammad Bello, 421, 424, 747Muhammad b. Karram (Ibn Karram), 137Muhammad al-Mahdi, 329Muhammad b. Masarra, 312Muhammad Omar, Mullah, 725Muhammad Rahim I (1806–25), 350Muhammad Reza Shah, 479–84, 487–8, 554, 845Muhammad Sa‘id, 762Muhammad b. Salih, 769Muhammad Shah (1834–48), 472Muhammad (son of Isma‘il), 97Muhammad Tahir, Shaykh, 664Muhammad b. Tughluq, 358, 368Muhammad V, Sultan of Morocco, 610–11Muhammad VI, Sultan of Morocco, 612Muhammad Yunus, Hajji, 663Muhammadiya movement

Indonesia, 464, 662–3, 666–7, 669, 672–5, 818, 822,825, 843

in Inner Asia, 692Muhammadzai dynasty, 720, 848Muharram, festival, 244Mujaddadiya order, 374mujaddid (renewer of Islam), 377, 419–20, 424Mujaddidi, Sibghatullah, 724mujahid (warrior), concept of, 553, 559Mujahidin (Afghanistan), 725, 830mujtahid (chief religious scholars), 157, 215, 246, 335,

445, 470, 485Mukhtar ould Daddah, 740–1Mulla Sadra, 243mullah. see ‘ulama’Multan, 98, 720Munsif Bey, 604al-Muqanna, prophet, 65muqarna, 131Muqatil b. Sulayman, 91al-Muqrani, 589al-Murabitun. see Almoravid dynastyMurad Bey (d.1640), 323Murad I (1360–89), 251, 258Murad (Mangit ruler, fl.1785), 348Muridiya brotherhood, 742–4, 781, 840Murji’a (theological school), 87, 178murshid (head of order), 210, 215, 233, 241, 414Murtada Ansari, Shaykh, 473Musa al-Kazim, 95–7, 133, 366Muscat. see OmanMuseveni, Yoweri Kaguta, 779Musharaff, Pervez, 648, 847Mushatta, 68music, 216, 218, 447Muslim activists. see revivalism, IslamicMuslim Brothers

Afghanistan, 724Algeria, 598–9East Africa, 766Egypt, 522–3, 528–9, 532, 534, 550, 584, 618, 755,

824–6, 840–1Europe, 794, 796–7, 799Iraq, 551Jordan, 545, 584, 826Syria, 550, 618Tunisia, 605Yemen, 571

Muslim law. see Shari‘a lawMuslim League, 621, 631, 636–9, 820, 846Muslim Mosque Inc., 807Muslim World League (Rabitat al-‘Alam al-Islami), 755,

797, 828–9Mustafa ‘Ali (1541–99), 261Mustafa b. ‘Azzuz, Shaykh, 588Mustafa Kemal Ataturk. see Ataturk, Mustafa KemalMustafa Reshid Pasha, 496al-Musta‘li, 287al-Mustansir, Caliph, 287Mustarshidin, 745al-Mutanabbi (poet), 126al-Mu‘tasim (Caliph), 104al-Mutawakkil (Caliph), 102, 105Mu‘tazila (theological school), 87–9, 95, 102–3, 135–6,

143, 166, 178, 186, 312Mutesa I (king of Buganda), 778Mutiny, Indian, 623–5al-Muwahhidun. see Almohad dynastyMwiniyi, ‘Ali Hassan, 776mysticism. see also asceticism; Sufism

in Caliphate, 67–8, 82, 90–4, 99–101, 186and diffusion of Islam, 201in Indonesia, 672in Islamic community, 207–10in modern era, 233, 308–9, 623, 631, 814in post-‘Abbasid era, 128, 130, 134, 137, 156, 163,

165, 169–72, 176, 179–80, 193in United States, 808

958 Index






NNabateans, 13Nabiev, Rakhmon, 714Nadir Shah, 245, 380, 722nafs (soul), 16, 93, 162, 167Nagorno-Karabakh, 717Naguib, Muhammad, 523, 840Nahdatul ‘Ulama’, 665–70, 672, 674–5, 821, 843Naima, Mustafa, 281Na’ini, Mirza Muhammad Husayn, 474Najaf, 134, 176Najda, Khariji faction, 49Najiballah, General, 725Najran, 13Nan Rincheh, Tuanku, 391Nan Tua, Tuanku, 391Napoleon, 490, 512, 515Napoleon III, 589–90Naqshband, Baha’ al-Din, 347Naqshbandiya (Sufi order)

in Afghanistan, 722, 724in the Caucasus, 715–16in Egypt, 518in India, 207, 213, 368, 374–5, 377in Inner Asia, 213, 342, 347, 349, 464–5in Iran, 230–1, 242in Islamic community, 209–11in Ottoman empire, 267, 295in Southeast Asia, 390, 394, 662, 664in Turkey, 509, 797, 838in United States, 807

Narimanov, Nariman, 697al-Nasafi, Isma‘ili missionary, 285Nashashibi family, 558–9Nasi, Joseph, Duke of Naxos, 264Nasibin, 33, 78nasiha (advice), 149al-Nasir, Caliph, 139Nasir al-Din (1848–96), 416, 471–2Nasiri, ‘Abd al-Qayyim, 690Nasiriya (Sufi order), 330Nasr, Sayyed Hosein, 810Nasrallah, Amir, 348Nasrid dynasty, 300, 316Nasser, Jamal ‘Abd al-, 523–9, 533, 547–8, 554–5, 575,

614, 766, 840, 859‘nation in arms,’ 44, 58–9Nation of Islam (NOI), 807–8nationalism. see also under the names of countries and

regionsArab (see Arab nationalism)in modern era, 225, 456–7, 459–61, 467, 817–22, 837,

840–4and women, 855–63

nationality, Soviet policy, 693, 698, 702–3, 705–6NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization), 505, 509,

524, 725, 786–9, 835Natsir, Muhammad, 670Nawaz Sharif, 647–8Nayman, 112, 120Nazarbayev, Nursultan, 712–13Nedim, Ahmed, 281Nef‘i, Ottoman poet, 261Nehru, Pandit, 636neo-Islamists. see revivalism, Islamicneo-Platonism. see under PlatoNestorians, 7, 34, 41, 43, 58–9, 78, 105, 116, 185Netanyahu, Binyamin, 565Netherlands. see DutchNiass, Ibrahim, 742, 747, 750Nicopolis, battle of, 250Niffari (d.985), 93Niger, 302, 404, 410, 440–1, 732–3, 735, 738, 755–6, 759,

780Niger Company, 441Nigeria. see also Hausaland

British colonialism, 453, 732–6, 745–50, 850civil war, 750

education, 746–9, 751–3Islam in, 205, 421–3, 427, 736–8, 745–54, 756, 780–1,

818, 825–7, 850–1Muslim identity, 782–3post-independence, 738, 748, 750–4, 850–1in pre-modern era, 427, 438–9, 441state organization, 818women in, 746, 751, 753, 863

Nihawand, 33Nimatullahiya (Sufi order), 242, 806–7Nimrud, 56Nineveh, 56Nishapur, 38–40, 65, 117, 126, 128, 130, 137–8, 143, 146,

160–1, 312Niyazov Saparmund (Turkmenbashi), 713nizam-i mustafa (Islamic system), 646Nizam al-Mulk, vizier, 136, 141–2, 151, 154Nizami (poet), 130Nizamiya school, 160Nizar, 287Nizari Shi‘a (Isma‘ili, Assassins), 284, 287, 375, 377, 806Nkrumah, Kwame, 735, 759Noble Drew Ali, 807nomads. see also bedouins; pastoralism; tribes

and Caliphate, 54, 66and diffusion of Islam, 198, 201–2, 205–6early, 3, 6, 200invasions, 109, 112, 114, 116–17, 119–22, 125, 133,

143–5, 149, 187, 192, 226, 337–8Normans, 287, 304North Africa. see also Algeria; Morocco; Tunisia

Arab conquest of, 33–4, 48, 50, 201, 333–4and Caliphate, 54, 61, 64, 104, 107–8, 283, 285, 287,

299–309diffusion of Islam, 97–8, 178, 197–8, 200–1, 204,

299–309, 333–6and Europe, 225, 255, 302, 304, 321–7, 329, 331–6,

453–4, 458–61, 586–98, 602–17, 785, 793–7,802–3, 839, 841, 849–50

Islamic community, 207, 210–11, 213–14, 217–19,444, 462, 518, 572, 737

in modern era, 586–619, 739, 871nationalism, 460, 591, 593–8, 606–7, 609–12,

616–19Ottoman empire, 222, 253, 255, 269, 280, 447,

489post-‘Abbasid era, 120, 126, 135, 137, 140, 191pre-modern era, 299–309, 319–36and Spain, 310–14, 318–19state and religion, 308, 330–1, 333–6, 818

contemporary, 600, 615–19North Atlantic Treaty Organization see NATONorthern Alliance (Afghanistan), 725, 835Northwest Frontier, 202, 211, 630, 632, 636, 644, 725,

847–8Nubia, 294, 429, 778Numayri, Ja‘far, 766–7, 782Nur al-Din, son of Zengi, 290–1, 294Nur Misuari, 682Nurbaksh (Sufi preacher), 233Nurbakshiya (Sufi order), 242Nurcis, 798–9Nursi, Said, 508, 838Nyerere, Julius, 775–6

OObasanjo, Olusegun, 751, 753Obote, Milton, 778Ocalan, ‘Abdallah, 509Ogaden, 770–1Oghuz peoples, 116–17, 248, 337, 446oil

in Arabian peninsula, 567, 573–6, 578–80in Iran, 478–9, 481–2, 484in Iraq, 552–4in Nigeria, 750–2

Oirat (Mongols), 352Oljeytu (1304–17), 228–9

Index 959






Oman, 32, 49, 178, 214, 434, 565, 568–9, 573, 576, 578,772, 776

Omdurman, battle of, 763Organization of African States, 770Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), 752,

829Orhan (1324-60), 251, 259Osama bin Laden. see Usama bin LadenOsman, founder of Ottoman empire, 250–1Ossets, 698, 717Ottoman empire. see also under agriculture; culture;

elites; intelligentsia; reformism; secularization; stateand religion; taxation; trade, internationaladministration, 125, 217, 258–61, 265–6, 272–5, 294,

296, 334, 444, 446–7, 494–5, 497, 502in Arab Middle East, 292–8, 492–3, 535–41, 543–4,

553, 580in Arabian peninsula, 280, 565–6, 568, 570, 580and Caucasus, 715conquests, 250–3, 268–9culture, 218dissolution of, 218, 275–82, 297–8, 489–93, 511,

537–40, 632, 634, 818, 842, 847and East Africa, 434, 436, 762–3, 772economy, 268–9, 272–3, 275–82, 296, 494in Egypt, 254, 280, 283, 294–8, 512–14, 516, 518, 761,

840and Europe, 222, 225, 250–61, 263–4, 269, 272,

275–82, 296–8, 457–8, 489–501, 511, 536,538–41, 586–97, 600, 613–14, 785–6, 788–9

and Inner Asia, 339, 342, 354, 685, 691–2, 695and Iran, 234–47, 253–4, 258, 266, 268–9, 276, 278,

296–7, 489, 844, 846Islamic community, 207, 210–11, 448, 820and Islamization, 198, 201–3, 216, 444legal reform, 494–5, 498legitimation, 216, 260–1, 282, 444, 446–7, 489military organization, 258–9, 263, 277, 282, 294,

296–7, 334, 493–4and modernization, 457–8, 460–1, 467, 474, 493–501,

692, 819, 837in North Africa and Spain, 280, 299, 301, 319–21,

323–6, 329, 334, 336, 405, 601–2, 606, 612–14,616, 618, 839, 841

origins, 109and provincial administration, 259–60, 273–5,

277–80, 446reform, 462–501rise of, 109, 248, 250–3society, 258, 263–8and Southeast Asia, 387women in, 498, 854, 856–7and world empire, 253–8, 632in World War I, 492–3

Oyo empire, Nigeria, 438Ozal, Turgot, 507, 838

PPadri movement, 211, 464–5, 660, 664Pahlavi, Muhammad Reza Shah, 479–84, 554, 845Pahlavi, Reza Shah, 476–7Pahlavi dynasty, 469, 476–85, 845–6, 857–9painting

Fatimid, 285–6Iran, 229, 231, 445Mongol, 229Mughal, 216, 372, 447Ottoman, 261–3, 282Safavid, 240–1Timurid, 231, 240–1

Pakistan. see also Bangladeshand Afghanistan, 722–3, 725and Arabia, 573, 578, 646and Inner Asia, 712modern state, 459, 622, 641, 644–51, 818, 821, 824–6,

830, 837, 844, 846–8, 850, 871movement to create, 635–40women in, 647, 861

Pakistanisin Africa, 773, 779in Europe and United States, 785, 793, 799, 801–3,

806Palestine. see also Palestinians

and Arab conquests, 32, 40Crusades, 109, 112, 201, 250, 287–93, 297, 316early history, 3, 13–14and Egypt, 522–4Islam in, 562–5in modern era, 539–40, 545, 547, 557–65, 679, 773,

828, 867nationalism, 558–65and Ottoman empire, 264, 297, 457, 492–3, 536partition, 559–61state and religion, 557–60, 562–5

Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), 551, 556, 560,562–4, 680, 820–1

Palestiniansand Egypt, 528–9, 841in Europe and United States, 785, 805–6, 811international support for, 708, 830and Islam, 558–9, 562–5, 827in modern era, 545, 547–8, 550, 554–65, 574, 578,

582–5, 605, 820–1women, 855, 859–60

Palmyra, 13–14pan-Arabism, 523–4, 541, 546–53, 575, 582–3, 591, 614,

616, 618–19pan-Islamism

Egypt, 547Europe, 805in Indian subcontinent, 625, 628, 632, 635, 637Inner Asia, 691–2, 696–7, 702–3, 712in Iran, 474and modernism, 460–1in Ottoman empire, 498in Southeast Asia, 666, 676

pan-Malayanism, 676pan-Turkism, 692, 696–8, 702–3, 712–14, 797pançasila (five principles), 668, 671–4, 821Panipat, battle of (1526), 358Panipat, battle of (1761), 380Parcham, 723Paris, treaty of, 490Parsi language, 127Parthian empire, 6Pasai, Shams al-Din, 388Pashtuns, 464–5, 622–3, 644, 648, 718, 720, 722–5, 819,

847–8Passarowitz, peace of, 281pastoralism. see also bedouins; nomads; tribes

and Arab conquests, 40and Caliphate, 110–11and diffusion of Islam, 197, 200–2, 205, 214India, 362North Africa, 333–5, 614in post-‘Abbasid era, 116pre-Islamic, 4, 10, 12, 22in pre-modern era, 231–2, 304, 337–9, 345, 348, 355,

409, 512Russian limitation of, 686

Pasvanoglu, Osman, 280Pathans. see PashtunsPatriarch, authority of, 265patronage. see also clientage

and Caliphate, 64, 75, 107, 200Islamic community, 207, 816in post-‘Abbasid era, 141–2, 144–5, 188royal, 131, 144–5, 188, 216, 291, 294, 371–2,

447–8penghulu (village headman), 388, 390–2, 665peoples, pastoral. see bedouins; nomads; pastoralism;

tribes“Peoples of the Book,” 36, 100Peres, Shimon, 565Persatuan Islam, 663Persatuan Muslimin Indonesia, 667

960 Index






Persian empires, 3, 6, 10, 14, 32–3, 38, 241, 260. see alsoMughal empire; Parthian empire; Sasanian empire

Persian Gulf states. see Gulf statesPersian language, 42, 44, 50, 74, 76–7, 114, 116–17,

125–30, 260–1, 503, 621, 630, 633, 690–1, 707, 714.see also Persian literature

Persian literature, 76–7, 100–1, 114, 116, 125–32, 218,231, 267, 293, 338, 347mirrors for princes, 147, 149, 151–2

Persiansin China, 725in early Middle East, 40, 42, 44, 56, 59, 68–9, 71,

77–8, 80, 142, 169, 172, 188in India, 620in modern Iran, 488, 845in North Africa, 302in pre-modern era, 204, 216, 228, 231, 235, 239–40,

245, 247, 252, 261, 263–4pesantren (school/brotherhood), 206, 394, 448, 663, 665Peter the Great, 281, 342, 344Petra, 13–14Phanar. see Greeks, in Ottoman empirePhilip II of Granada, 319Philip III of Granada, 319Philippines, 681–3, 827, 830philosophy

in Caliphate, 67–8, 75, 77–80, 87–8, 93–4, 99–101,183, 185–6, 312, 315

in India, 203and political theory, 147, 152–5, 216in post-‘Abbasid era, 114, 126, 128, 132, 140, 156,

159–60, 162, 166–74, 178, 190and Sufism, 169–74, 180, 243and theology, 166–9, 177, 243, 315, 447transmission to Europe, 315–16

pilgrimage. see also hajj (pilgrimage)in post-‘Abbasid era, 134, 138, 140, 176pre-Islamic, 14–16social structure, 211

Piri Re’is (1465-1554), 254, 261Plassey, battle of, 357, 380Plato, 77–9, 147, 152–3, 312

neo-Platonism, 77, 93, 99, 101, 134, 169–70, 172–3,178, 186, 243, 285

Plotinus, 93pluralism

European societies, 219–21Sudan, 767–8

PNI. see Indonesian National Party (PNI)poetry

bedouin, 13, 15–17, 68, 75in Caliphate, 67–9, 73–4, 125–8, 130, 185–6, 229Indian, 361, 366Inner Asia, 347Iran, 445Mamluk, 293Muslim regimes, 218Ottoman empire, 261, 266, 282post-‘Abbasid, 114, 126–8, 131, 153, 188Spain, 309, 311–12, 315Sufi, 92, 126, 130, 266

Poitiers, battle of, 310Poland, 250, 255, 269, 281, 806politics, theory of, 147–55, 285poll tax. see jizyaPolo, Marco, 384polyandry, 25polygamy, 25polytheism, 15–17, 200, 420, 572Poole, Elijah (Elijah Muhammad), 807popular religion. see religion, popularpopulation data, 831–4, 836Portuguese

in East Africa and Persian Gulf, 237, 434, 436, 438,576

and North Africa, 301, 314, 322, 324, 327–9and Ottoman empire, 253–4, 264, 275, 281, 296in Southeast Asia, 203, 223, 384–5, 387–8, 396–7

trade & naval power, 222–4prayer, ritual. see salatpriyayi (Indonesian ruling class), 393–4, 460–2, 467,

657–8, 660–1, 665, 667, 683, 821prophecy

Muslim concept of, 18, 20–4, 27–30, 32, 65, 78–9,96–8, 170, 179

philosopher-kings, 152–3Punjab, 202, 363, 380–1, 636–7, 644–5, 647–8, 720, 799,

802, 847Pythagoras, 77, 80

Qal-Qabisi (935-1012), 308Qabus b. Sa‘id, 576Qadari order, 178, 387, 390al-Qaddafi, Mu‘ammar, 614–16, 792qadi (judges)

in Caliphate, 59–60in East Africa, 772in Inner Asia, 346, 348, 684–5, 696, 703in Iran, 228in Islamic society, 135, 204, 207, 215in North Africa, 322–3, 333, 607in Ottoman empire, 249, 265–6, 294in post-‘Abbasid era, 157in Southeast Asia, 391, 398, 675–6, 678in Spain, 318in West Africa, 406, 408–9, 413–14, 423, 751–2

al-Qadir (Caliph, 991–1031), 140–1al-Qadiri, Muhammad Tahir, 648Qadiriya order

in Afghanistan, 724in the Caucasus, 716in East Africa, 431, 437, 768–9, 772–3, 776, 781foundation, 139in India, 368, 374, 623in Inner Asia, 349in North Africa, 326, 410, 464, 587in Southeast Asia, 392, 394, 659, 662transnational organization, 209, 828in West Africa, 415, 420–1, 425, 741–2, 747, 751, 755,

758Qadisiya, battle of, 33Qadizade Mehmed Efendi (d.1635), 268al-Qaeda network, 571, 725, 830, 835, 848qa’id (district governors), 311, 318, 323, 325, 330, 587,

606al-Qaim (Caliph, 1031–75), 141Qajar dynasty, 244–5, 469–74, 477, 844Qalandariya (Sufi order), 242, 249, 266, 349, 364, 368qalb (heart), 16, 93, 162, 167Qarakhanid dynasty, 112, 116–17, 120–1, 130, 146, 201,

337–8, 345Qarakhitay, 120Qaramanli dynasty, 301, 613Qarluq, 116–17, 337Qarmatian movement, 107–8, 110, 140, 178, 191, 285qasbah (towns), 379qasida (panegyric), 126–8, 261, 315. see also poetry, post-

‘AbbasidQasim Amin, 856Qasimid dynasty, 296, 567, 568Qasr al-Khayr, 69al-Qassam, Shaykh ‘Izz al-Din, 559Qassim, ‘Abd al-Krim, 551Qatar, 577–9, 583Qayrawan, 34, 299–300, 302, 304, 308–9Qays, warring faction, 49, 51, 310Qazvin, 39qiyas (reasoning by analogy), 157Qizilbash (Safavid warriors), 234–5, 237, 242Qum, 39, 65, 176, 242, 482–4Quran. see also law, Quranic; scripturalism

authority in early Middle East, 18, 30, 67, 79, 81–96,100–2, 131–2, 136, 156–8, 166–7, 184, 186

authority in modern era, 462, 482, 522, 529–31, 572,645, 716, 753–4, 783, 867

Index 961






Quran (cont.) authority in pre-modern era, 207–8, 211, 378and Communist states, 729as created, 88–9, 101–2, 141, 308interpretation of, 67, 74–5, 91, 96, 128, 174, 178–9,

181–2, 315–16, 521, 628–9, 681, 808Islamic culture, 77and modernism, 628–9monotheism, 16and reason, 79, 87, 89–90, 517–18, 628–9, 663and reformism, 521, 581, 622–3, 663, 665, 673revealed to Muhammad, 18–26, 28–30, 88, 181–2and revivalism, 650, 863–5scripturalism, 615standard edition, 46and state, 148–9and tribal societies, 17and women, 852–4

Quraysh, 14, 21–3, 28, 46, 49qurra’ (readers of Quran), 42, 82Qusayr ‘Amra, 69al-Qushayri (d.1074), 159–60, 176, 189Qutb, Sayyid, 531Qutb al-Din Aybeg, 356–7qutb (pole of universe), 174, 232, 244, 365, 424Qutb Shah dynasty, 361

RRabbani, Burhanuddin, 724–5, 848Rabi‘a (warring faction), 49Rabi‘a (woman mystic, d.801), 92Rabin, Yitzhak, 565Rabitat al-‘Alam al-Islami (Muslim World League), 755,

797, 828–9race. see ethnicityradical Islamic movements. see revivalism, IslamicRaffles, Sir Stamford, 652–3Rahman, Fazlur, 810Rahmaniya (Sufi order), 326, 464, 588–9railway construction

East Africa, 762, 779Inner Asia, 687–8West Africa, 733

railway construction, West Africa, 746Rais, Amin, 674ra’is (headman in Iran), 349Raj, British. see India, and British controlRajep Pasha, 504Rajputs, 203, 379, 381, 447Rakhmonov, Emanli, 714Ramadan (fast), 24, 82, 181, 230, 286, 322, 395, 404, 415,

605, 642, 655, 707–8, 743, 795, 800–1, 807–8Ramiya, Shaykh, of Bangamoyo, 775–6Ramla, 137Raqqa, 39al-Rashid, ‘Abd al-Rahman, 432Rashid al-Din (1247-1318), 228–9Rashidun (Rightly-guided Caliphs), 45–7, 136Rassemblement Démocratique Africain (RDA), 735, 756Rasulid dynasty, 567, 568rationality. see philosophyRayy, 33, 36, 39, 65, 131Razi, Fakhr al-Din, 167, 267reformism. see also Quran

Africa, 783Algeria, 466–8, 591–3, 597, 599, 616, 819Arabia, 464, 572Caucasus, 464colonial era, 581East Africa, 437, 465, 762–3, 773, 776Egypt, 464, 518, 521–3, 534Europe, 798Indian subcontinent, 210–11, 354, 367–8, 378, 464–5,

621–3, 626–7, 631, 633, 635, 648Indonesia, 467, 821–2Inner Asia, 354, 464, 466, 689–93, 695, 697–8Iran, 482–3in Islamic community, 207, 210–11, 213–14, 216

Java, 662Lebanon, 537Libya, 465in modern era, 459, 461–8, 817, 819–23and modernism, 466Morocco, 466, 609, 616movements, 464–5North Africa, 210–11, 464, 598–9, 606, 616–17Ottoman empire, 267, 295, 819Pakistan, 646Palestine, 559in post-‘Abbasid era, 193in pre-modern era, 815–16Sa‘udi Arabia, 664Southeast Asia, 211, 388, 391–2, 464–6, 658–70,

672–4, 676, 683Tunisia, 602–3West Africa, 413, 416, 419–25, 427, 462, 465, 737–8,

745, 747, 751, 753–9religion

bedouin, 15–17popular, 156, 176, 180–1, 193, 203, 210, 266, 366,

381, 383, 429, 663, 691, 707–8, 782pre-Islamic, 3–9, 13–16, 21, 23, 28

revelation. see Quran, revealed to Muhammadrevivalism, Islamic

Afghanistan, 724Arabia, 571, 573, 575, 578, 583, 585East Africa, 777Egypt, 521–3, 527–34Europe, 792, 795–7, 800, 805Indian subcontinent, 639, 648–9Inner Asia, 712Jordan, 545in modern era, 817, 822–35, 872North Africa, 599–600, 605, 612, 614–19Palestine, 562–3in pre-modern era, 815Southeast Asia, 658–66, 673–5, 679–80Turkey, 507–10West Africa, 738, 741, 745, 751–9and women, 863–7

revolutionary Islamic movements. see revivalism, IslamicReza Shah, 476–7, 479, 845, 857–8ribat (fort, meeting-house), 137, 139, 141–2, 201, 291,

299, 308Rida’, Rashid, 581, 592, 809Rif, 609, 611Rifa‘iya (Sufi order), 139, 249Rightly-guided Caliphs. see RashidunRiza, Ahmad, 497Roderic of Spain, 69, 310Rogova, Ibrahim, 788Roma (Gypsies), 41, 788–9Roman empire, 6, 10, 14, 33, 37–8, 59, 71, 77, 123, 219,

250, 253, 304, 312, 333–4. see also Byzantine empireRomania, 254–5, 259, 264, 268, 274, 276, 280–1, 490–2,

498, 786Romanos I, Byzantine emperor, 248ruba‘i (quatrain), 128, 261. see also poetry, post-‘AbbasidRudaki (poet), 127ruh (spirit), 16Rukh, Shah, 230Rumfa, Muhammad, 406Rumi, Mawlana Jalal al-Din, 130, 267Rushdie, Salman, 792, 801, 812Russia, post-Soviet, 510, 709–18Russia, Soviet

and Afghanistan, 648–9, 722–3, 827, 830, 848and Africa, 603, 769–71and Arab Middle East, 548in Arabian peninsula, 571and the Caucasus, 694, 698, 706–9, 714–17, 827and Egypt, 524–6, 547and Europe and United States, 790, 806in Inner Asia, 455, 693–709, 727, 729, 825and Iran, 476–80and Iraq, 553

962 Index






and Islam, 705–9, 715–17, 731, 818, 821, 872modernization, 700–9and Palestine, 560suppression of Islam, 703–4and Syria, 550–1and Turkey, 502, 505, 507, 509–10women, 860

Russia, Tsaristand Afghanistan, 720anti-semitism, 557and diffusion of Islam, 199and Europe and United States, 790, 806and Inner Asia, 219, 223, 338–9, 342–5, 347, 350,

354–5, 453, 464–5, 471, 648–93, 731and Iran, 244–5, 461, 471–6, 484–5, 844and Japan, 660and Ottoman empire, 253–5, 269, 275, 281, 325, 457,

489–92, 494, 497, 632, 786Rustam, 128Rustamid dynasty, 300, 303, 308Rwanda, 435, 441, 774, 779

Sal-Sabah family, 578–9, 583Sabah b. Jabr, 578Sabaheddin, Prince, 497sabr (patience), 29, 91, 167Sabri, ‘Ali, 524sada’. see ashrafSadat, Anwar, 523, 526–9, 532–3, 560, 840–1, 859Saddam Husayn, 552, 554–5, 563, 582, 585, 801Sa‘dians, 214, 328–30, 335Sadiq al-Mahdi, Sayyid, 767Sadiqi College, Tunis, 601–2Sadozai, Ahmed Shah, 720al-Sadr, Musa, 556Sadr al-Din, 233sadr (religious bureaucrat), 235, 242, 349, 364, 374Safavid dynasty

administration, 216–17, 235, 241, 444–5, 469in Afghanistan, 720concept of monarchy, 233–4, 240, 246–7, 329decline of, 218, 244–7, 253, 282, 844in Inner Asia, 345–7, 715in Iran, 232–47and Islam, 125, 191, 198, 207, 234–5, 241–7, 394,

443–5, 447–8, 815–16legitimation, 216, 218, 233–5, 238–9, 445, 447, 470military organization, 235, 237, 241, 244and Ottoman empire, 253, 256–7, 266, 282, 715relation to uymaqs, 232–5, 237, 244, 246–7, 444–5and West Africa, 733, 741

Saffarid dynasty, 107, 109Safi al-Din, Shaykh, 233Saghanughu, Muhammad al-Mustafa, 414Saghanughu family, 414, 443, 754Saharan Africa

diffusion of Islam, 197, 302, 304, 306, 309, 443and North Africa, 319, 326–7, 331, 334, 586–7, 596,

612–13and Ottoman empire, 489

al-Sa‘id, Nuri, 544al-Sa‘id, Sayyid, 779Sa‘id b. Taymur (1932-70), 576saints, veneration of

in early Middle East, 94, 100, 128, 138, 140, 149, 158,172–6, 180, 191, 193, 814

in modern Inner Asia, 716opposition to, 377–8, 462, 572, 592, 609, 623, 691,

763in pre-modern era, 208, 210, 216, 218, 308, 349–50,

374–5, 383, 415sajjada nishin (Sufi elite), 215, 625, 637Saladin. see Salah al-Din (Saladin)Salafi movement, 464, 518, 571, 581, 592, 600, 603,

609–10, 612, 617–18, 755, 809–10, 820, 822–3, 825,830, 835, 871

Salah al-Din (Saladin), 109, 176, 290–1, 294

Salamat, Hashim, 682salat (ritual prayer), 24, 82, 181Saleeby, Najeeb M., 681Salga, Muhammad, 747Salih, ‘Abdallah, 571Salih b. Tarif, 304Salihiya (reform order), 437, 768–9, 773Salim Suwari, al-Hajj, 414–15Saljuq dynasty

administration, 117, 119–23, 125, 143, 187–8, 217,228, 246, 249, 252, 258, 299, 319

in Anatolia, 248–50, 258in Caucasus, 714and diffusion of Islam, 198empire, 117–20, 337and Iran, 246, 248–9and Islamic culture, 126, 128, 130–1, 192–3, 261, 263,

444legitimation, 117, 121, 141–2in Middle East, 109, 112, 146, 226, 229, 283, 287,

289–94opposition to Shi‘ism, 141–2religious policy, 116, 136, 141–2, 192–3, 201–2, 249,

291, 293, 815–16Sallal, ‘Abdallah, 570Salman movement, 673salvation, 7, 16–17, 77, 94, 134, 153, 169, 171, 179, 814

European view, 220–1Samanhudi, Hajji, 663Samanid family, 61, 107, 109, 112, 114, 116–17, 126–8,

130–1, 136, 146, 169Samarqand, 33, 38–9, 61, 117, 126, 130, 229–30, 345, 351,

687Samarra, 104, 285Sammaniya order, 465, 761Samory Ture, 426–8, 441, 465San Stefano, treaty of, 490Sanhaja people. see BerbersSanjar, Sultan, 129al-Sanusi, Muhammad b. ‘Ali, 464, 613Sanusiya (Sufi revivalist order), 211, 301, 464–5, 613–14,

616, 781, 818Sarekat Islam, 663–4, 666, 669, 821, 843Sargon of Akkad, 4, 6Sasanian empire

culture, 127–8, 130and diffusion of Islam, 10, 14, 31, 33–4, 36–9, 43, 46,

48, 51, 56, 59, 61, 68, 73–4, 78, 85, 99–100,183–5, 200, 217

in Iraq, 119in Oman, 576pre-Islamic, 6, 8women in, 852

Sa‘udi Arabiaand Afghanistan, 648, 723–5, 848and Africa, 748, 752, 755–6, 782and Arabian peninsula, 570–2, 574and East Africa, 771, 777and Egypt, 527–8and Europe and United States, 788, 793, 799, 809,

813and Indian subcontinent, 643, 648–9, 851and Inner Asia, 712–13as Islamic state, 565–6, 572–5, 818, 827, 829–30, 837,

844, 848–9in modern era, 548, 554, 557, 572–5, 578, 580, 582–4,

821, 871and North Africa, 612reformism, 664, 825and Southeast Asia, 680, 682transnational organizations, 829–30, 835women in, 574

Sawakin, 254sayyid. see ashrafal-Sayyid, Lutfi, 518–19Sayyid Ahmad Khan. see Khan, Sayyid AhmadSayyid ‘Ali Muhammad, 473Sayyid Muhammad, 366–7

Index 963






Sayyid Sa‘id b. Sultan, 434, 772science

in early Middle East, 67–8, 76–8, 80, 99, 125, 128,168–9, 179, 183, 185, 216

in modern era, 581, 629, 707scripturalism, 82–7, 156–8, 177–80, 591, 615sects. see associations, religioussecularization

in Africa, 780, 784and Arab nationalism, 537–8, 541, 581–2in Arabian peninsula, 573, 578, 580in Bangladesh, 650in East Africa, 761, 765–6, 779in Egypt, 512, 516, 518–19, 521–3, 527–30, 533in Europe and United States, 800–1, 806in India, 460, 627, 635, 637–8in Indonesia, 661in Inner Asia, 691, 702–4, 708–9in Iran, 472, 477–80and Islamic modernism, 459and Islamic reformism, 467modern states, 817–18, 820, 822, 824, 837–40in North Africa, 460, 603, 605–6, 610–11, 616–18in Ottoman empire, 460, 495–6in Pakistan, 645Palestinians, 562, 565in post-‘Abbasid era, 140, 187, 189pre-Islamic religions, 8pre-modern societies, 815–16in Southeast Asia, 663, 667–8, 671–3, 676, 679, 681,

683in Syria, 538, 550in Turkey, 498–500, 505–11, 645in West Africa, 736–8, 743, 756

Sekou Toure, 782Selim I (Sultan), 251, 262Selim III (Sultan), 251, 494, 500Seljuks. see Saljuq dynastySenegal

and France, 732–3, 735, 737–8, 741–3, 793, 839–40Islam in, 737, 741–5, 747, 755–6, 780–2, 818in modern era, 740–5, 747, 825in pre-modern era, 418–19, 425, 428, 441state and religion, 444, 837, 839–40, 871

Senegambia, 205, 414–16, 419, 424–7, 443, 462, 732, 839

Senghor, Léopold, 735, 743–4Serbs, 250, 252, 265, 273–4, 280–1, 490–2, 498, 785–9Shabbaz, 807al-Shadhili (d.1258), 139, 322–3Shadhiliya (Sufi order), 139, 295, 431, 772–3al-Shafi‘i (767–802), 86, 176, 293Shafi‘i (school of law)

in Arabian peninsula, 565, 570–1in East Africa, 433–4in Egypt, 291in North Africa, 308, 312origins and social structure, 135–7, 140–1, 157, 189,

206, 211–13in post-‘Abbasid era, 177–8in Southeast Asia, 211, 675in Syria, 291

Shagari, al-Hajj Shehu, 751Shah-en-shah (King of Kings), 121Shah-name (‘Book of Kings’), 128, 229, 241, 347Shah-name-i Al-i-Osman (‘Book of Kings of the House

of Osman’), 263shahada (profession of faith), 24, 82, 181Shahji, Shah, 380Shahs

modern Iran (see Pahlavi dynasty)Safavid, 234–5, 237–43

Shailendra dynasty, 383shakiriya (militias), 104shamans, 116, 213, 342, 685, 708Shamil, imam, 715–16Shamir, Yitzhak, 563Shaqiq al-Balkhi, 92

Sha‘rawi, Huda, 857Shari‘a law. see also under Sufism

in Afghanistan, 724in Arabia, 570, 575and Caliphate, 82, 85–6, 100, 147–9, 188in Caucasus, 715–17in East Africa, 432, 762–3, 767, 769, 783in Egypt, 295, 522, 529–30, 532in Europe and United States, 793, 810in Indian subcontinent, 358, 374, 377–8, 621–2, 626,

628, 631, 635, 638–9, 643–5, 648, 847in Inner Asia, 685, 695–6, 703, 706, 713in Iran, 475, 477, 485, 846in modern states, 213, 229, 581, 823–6, 828–9, 867,

869in North Africa, 602, 607, 610in Ottoman empire, 260–1, 266–8, 494–5in post-‘Abbasid era, 131, 186, 190in South Africa, 760in Southeast Asia, 390–2, 657, 662–5, 668, 671–6, 678in Syria, 550theory of, 157, 160, 162, 166, 171, 174, 177–9in Turkey, 503, 797in West Africa, 419–20, 426, 736, 741, 746, 751–3,

755–7, 850–1and women, 854, 860–1, 864–5

Shari‘atallah, Hajji, 623Shari‘ati, ‘Ali, 483sharif (pl. shurafa’, holy men), 208, 215–16, 328–31, 335,

409, 538–40, 544Sharja, 577–8, 580Shattariya (Sufi order), 364–6, 388, 390–1al-Shawkani, Muhammad b. ‘Ali, 567, 570Shaybanid dynasty, 234, 340, 342, 345–6shaykh

as religious teacher, 138, 143, 210, 215, 328, 424,514–15, 565

as tribal chief, 12–13, 21, 29, 32, 39, 41–2, 46, 63Shaykh al-Islam (chief jurisconsults), 215, 229, 265, 294,

349, 352, 364, 498, 684–5, 706Sheng Shih-ts’ai, 727Sher Shah (1540–55), 358, 360, 371Sherley, Anthony and Robert, 237Shi‘a. see also ithna ‘ashari (“twelver” Shi‘a community)

in Afghanistan, 720, 723–5in Anatolia, 249in Arabia, 574–5, 578–9and Caliphate, 47, 49–50, 53–4, 59, 65–6, 81, 94–8,

100, 102–3, 105, 107–8, 133–4, 180–2in East Africa, 776, 779–80in Europe and United States, 797, 806, 809, 813holy places, 176Imami, 96, 98, 134, 140, 178, 180–1, 208, 234, 246,

285in India, 374–5, 377, 622–3, 632in Inner Asia, 685, 693, 706in Iran, 207, 226, 233–4, 241–7, 345, 381, 445–6,

461–2, 470, 473, 482, 485–6, 516, 648, 825in Iraq, 470, 544, 552–5, 583in Islamic community, 133–4, 185–6, 189, 206–8, 213,

814leadership, 180–1, 193, 207in Lebanon, 546, 555–6, 585in North Africa, 191, 214, 306, 308opposition to, 136, 140–1, 148, 192, 308, 581, 622–3in Ottoman empire, 253, 267in Pakistan, 648post-imperial era, 114, 136, 139, 142–4, 146, 156,

178, 293rebellions, 54, 65–6in Spain, 312and state, 140–1, 244–6, 816, 827in Syria, 548in West Africa, 754in Yemen, 567

Shihabi family, 298Shiraz, 143, 263Shirin, 130

964 Index






Shirkuh, general, 290Shivaji, 380Shoa, 435–6, 770shrine veneration

early Islamic, 28Inner Asia, 685, 708modern era, 625, 631, 663, 816, 820opposition to, 149, 295, 466, 581, 621, 623in post-‘Abbasid era, 126, 140, 174–6, 180, 191pre-Islamic, 14, 21pre-modern era, 205, 208–10, 213–15, 244, 349–50,

364, 375, 444–5Shukri Mustafa, 531Shu‘ubiya (literary movement), 76, 101Sibawayh, 75Siberia, 116, 223, 339–40, 342, 685–7, 706, 716Sicily, 197, 255, 287, 304, 316, 322Sidiya Baba (1862/63–1926), 410Sidiya al-Kabir, Shaykh (1775–1868), 410, 740Sierre Leone, 414, 441, 732–3, 736–7, 748, 755, 780, 825Siffin, battle of, 47, 49Sijistan, 107, 114, 126Sikhs, 380, 621, 649, 720silsila (chains of authority), 138, 149, 208, 210, 420al-Simnani (1261–1336), 139, 233Sind, 50, 202, 636, 644, 648, 847Sindbad, 128Singapore, 397–8, 466, 658, 662, 664, 675, 677, 843Singkeli, ‘Abd al-Ra’uf, 388Sinkiang. see XinjiangSirhindi, Shaykh Ahmad, 367, 377–8Sistan, 65Sisters in Islam (Malaysia), 681Siyad Barre, general, 769–70slametan (village ritual), 395slave regimes, 120–2, 125, 133, 143–5, 149, 187, 192, 283slave revolts, 107, 110slave soldiers (ghilman)

in ‘Abbasid empire, 103–4, 107–8Mamluk regime, 292in Mongol regime, 235in North Africa, 330Ottoman empire, 258–60, 263, 277in post-‘Abbasid era, 114, 116, 120, 122, 124–5,

187–8, 206, 217, 286Saljuk empire, 226West Africa, 741

slavery, military. see slave soldiersslaves

in Caliphate, 39, 41–2, 110, 188East Africa, 431–5, 437, 441–2, 762, 773in North Africa, 304, 613in post-‘Abbasid era, 151United States, 897West Africa, 415, 418, 425, 427, 438, 440, 733, 740,

748Slavs

in Eastern Europe, 785–6, 788–9in Inner Asia, 705and Ottoman empire, 264, 280–1in Spain, 311, 313

Slovenia, 786social change. see change, socialsocial reform

Islamic community, 210–11socialism

in Arab Middle East, 548, 571and Arab nationalism, 548, 570–1, 581in East Africa, 769, 775in Egypt, 523–7, 547–8in Inner Asia, 690, 692–4, 697, 702–3, 707–9in Iraq, 548, 552, 618in Lebanon, 556in modern societies, 460, 467, 817–18in North Africa, 468, 597–9, 614–16in Pakistan, 847in Southeast Asia, 658, 661, 666in Syria, 548–50, 618

in Tunisia, 603–5in Turkey, 507in West Africa, 744, 753

Society of Muslim Brothers. see Muslim BrothersSoghdian, 44Sokoto Caliphate, 421, 423, 427–8, 441, 462, 465, 733

religion in, 444, 745, 815, 850Somalia

Islam in, 204, 435–8, 443, 737–8, 780–4, 806lineage groups, 214, 768–9in modern era, 761, 786–72and Western countries, 442, 768–9, 790women in, 769

Songhay, 204, 404, 409, 415, 423, 443, 748, 783Sori, Ibrahim, 418Soroush, Abdol Karim, 488, 823–4South Africa, 760Southeast Asia

diffusion of Islam, 197, 203–4, 223, 382–4, 759Europe and, 218–19, 223, 276, 453Islamic community, 211, 448–9, 464–6, 652–83national societies, 842–4state and religion, 203, 388, 390–1, 398–9, 667–8,

671–7Spain

Arab conquest, 33, 50, 67, 299–300, 302, 307, 309–10Caliphate in, 54, 69, 216, 309–20chronology, 300colonialism, 222, 224, 454, 606, 609, 612, 681–2diffusion of Islam, 197, 199and North Africa, 218, 302, 306–7, 321–4, 327, 329,

331–3, 609, 612and Ottoman empire, 253–5, 264, 283in post-‘Abbasid era, 120, 126, 172, 291, 293Reconquista, 253, 287, 314–16, 320Umayyad dynasty, 54, 108, 216, 283, 300, 303,

311–13, 401Srivijaya kingdom, 383–4Stalin, Joseph, 693–4, 697–8, 700, 704–5state

Islamic concept of, 9, 112–32, 147–55, 215–18legitimation, 815–19 (see also under individual

regimes and states)philosophical theory, 152–5pre-Islamic, 8

state and religion. see also under Shi‘ia; Sufism; and thenames of countries and regionsin Caliphate, 51, 69, 71, 76, 81, 99–102, 184, 187contemporary era, 820–3, 835–50and diffusion of Islam, 205, 207early empires, 4–6, 8–9Fatimid dynasty, 286in modern era, 467–8neo-Islamic states, 844–50Ottoman empire, 207, 210, 264–8, 282, 294–5, 443–4,

446–7, 495–6, 499–500, 816post-imperial era, 126, 131–2, 136, 140–2, 147–55,

187–9, 192–3in pre-modern era, 815–17Safavid dynasty, 234–5, 241–7, 394, 443–5, 815–16Saljuq dynasty, 116, 136, 141–2, 192–3, 201–2, 249,

291, 293, 815–16Subbanu al-Muslimin (Society of Young Muslims), 755Subud, 806Sudan

administration, 762–3, 765, 818British in, 442, 763, 765–6in Caliphate, 286diffusion of Islam, 205, 770and Egypt, 209, 429, 431–2, 512, 516, 519–20, 761–3,

765–6independence, 765–6Islam in, 211, 737–8, 780–4, 821, 825–6, 830, 850in modern era, 584, 761–8, 778, 782–4, 825–7nationalism, 766–7and North Africa, 302, 614–15and Ottoman empire, 268–9pre-modern, 429–32

Index 965






Sudan (cont.)religion in, 755, 781state and religion, 738, 766–8, 837, 844women in, 763, 767, 863

Sudanic statescentral, 405–8, 419–24, 443concept of ruler, 401–2, 404diffusion of Islam, 197, 201, 204–5, 219, 330–1,

401–2, 404–6, 408–9, 732, 780, 782eastern (see Sudan)French in, 732, 735in modern era, 736–7, 739–40, 784and North Africa, 304, 306, 319, 327, 331, 335western, 401–5, 443

Suez Canal, 331, 492, 513, 515, 520, 522, 524, 526–8, 560

Suffah Institute, 669Sufism. see also philosophy; saints, veneration of; shrine

veneration; tariqain Afghanistan, 720, 723–4in Africa, 781in Algeria, 325–6, 334, 586–8, 592–3in Arabia, 571Baghdadi school, 92–3, 178in Caliphate, 81, 95, 187in the Caucasus, 707, 709, 715–16in China, 726and diffusion of Islam, 197, 205–6in East Africa, 432, 437, 762–3, 765, 768–9, 772–3,

775–7in Egypt, 294–6, 512, 515, 518, 521, 531, 840in Europe, 787–8, 798–9, 801–2, 803al-Ghazzali’s theory of, 160–8, 211gnosticism, 158, 171–4, 180, 210, 243and Hinduism, 362–3, 366in Indian subcontinent, 140, 360–1, 372, 374–5,

377–8, 380–1, 444, 448, 622–3, 625–6, 631,635–7, 646

in Inner Asia, 140, 143, 337–8, 347, 349–51, 353, 355,685–6, 688, 695, 708–9, 712–13

intermediary role, 137–40, 181, 191, 207–8, 295, 319,338, 362–3, 366, 410, 685, 768–9

in Iran, 226, 229–35, 242–3, 246, 444–5, 471and Islamization, 201–6, 249, 252Khurasanian school, 92–3, 178and the law, 100, 158–69, 179and leadership, 181, 214–15, 230, 232–4, 321, 424in Libya, 615–16lineage societies, 208, 210, 214, 325, 336, 338, 781,

815–16missionary activity, 201–5, 337–8, 382–4, 390and modernism, 457in Morocco, 328–30, 335, 606–7, 609, 611–12, 618,

849mysticism, 90–4, 631and nationalism, 581, 820in North Africa, 140, 191, 219, 306–9, 319, 321–5,

333–4, 444, 586–7, 594, 611and Ottoman empire, 265–9, 273–4, 296, 446–7poetry, 126, 130, 266and political conquests, 214–15popular, 174–6, 180, 191, 208–9, 246, 266, 336,

374–5, 377–8, 380, 592, 664in post-‘Abbasid era, 114, 116, 135–40, 142–6, 149,

155–6, 158–69, 171–5, 177–81, 189–90, 192–3,291

and Quran, 90–1and reformist movements, 210–11, 295, 416, 420–1,

427, 437, 572, 581, 592, 631, 664, 692, 762and revivalism, 822, 824–5, 828, 835sainthood, 94, 100, 158, 174–6, 180, 191, 208, 374–5,

377–8, 380in Sa‘udi Arabia, 572social organization, 207–11, 213–15, 871in South Africa, 760in Southeast Asia, 382–4, 387–8, 390, 395, 398–9,

448–9, 462, 652, 662–5, 675–6in Spain, 312–15

and state, 101–2, 201, 215–18, 266, 273–4, 325–6,333–4, 336, 364, 367–8, 444, 448–9, 664–5

in sub-Saharan Africa, 400, 409–10in tribal societies, 214, 248, 266–7, 326, 330, 337–8,

367, 444, 768–9, 818in Tunisia, 334, 602in Turkey, 249, 252, 265–6, 269, 500, 502, 506, 508–9in United States, 807–8, 810in West Africa, 414–16, 421, 423–4, 427, 737, 740–2,

745, 747–8, 752, 754–5, 840, 850and women, 854

Suharto, 671–4, 683, 821, 826–7, 843al-Suhrawardi, Abu Najib, 138Suhrawardi, Shihab al-Din (1153–91), 171–2al-Suhrawardi, ‘Umar (1145–1234), 139, 243, 365Suhrawardiya (Sufi order), 139–40, 217, 364–5, 367–8,

374Sukarno, 661, 666–8, 670–1, 674, 683, 821Sulayman I, 251, 260–1, 264–5, 493Sulayman Bal, 419Sulaymancis, 798–9Sultaniya, 228Sultans

Arabia, 565, 570, 576authority of, 117, 119–22, 124, 129, 147–9, 151, 153,

187–8, 260–1, 322, 335, 358, 388, 390, 398Egypt, 290–3Morocco, 328–33, 336, 606, 608, 610–12, 615–16, 794,

849Ottoman, 258–63, 265, 267, 272, 276–7, 280–1, 297,

323, 325, 334, 447, 461, 495, 497–8, 500, 502, 634Southeast Asia, 659, 675–7, 681state and religion, 9, 140, 142, 191, 814, 816–17Zanzibar, 773

Sumatrain modern era, 464–6, 654, 658, 661–2, 664–5,

668–70, 672in pre-modern era, 382–8, 397–8, 448reformism, 211revivalism, 661social structure, 213

Sumerians, 4Sunjata, Mali chieftain, 402Sunna (example of the Prophet)

as authoritative, 29, 32, 378, 530, 622, 645, 716, 752,783

in Caliphate, 36, 84, 86in modern era, 462, 531, 581–582, 581–2, 592, 615,

809in pre-modern era, 211and reformism, 622, 665and revivalism, 825

Sunni. see also law, schools ofin Afghanistan, 723in Anatolia, 249in Arabian peninsula, 567, 570, 579and Caliphate, 47, 53, 82–7, 94–5, 100, 147–9, 153–5,

177, 186, 189–90, 814in Egypt and North Africa, 191, 214, 287, 290–1, 293,

295, 306, 308, 327, 516in Europe and United States, 788, 806, 808, 810, 813holy places, 176in India, 358, 374in Inner Asia, 253, 345–6, 349–50, 351, 685, 706in Iran, 226, 233–4, 242, 244–6, 445in Iraq, 544, 552, 583and law, 166, 177–9, 189–90, 201, 206, 291in Lebanon, 546, 555and Mamluks, 293, 295in Ottoman empire, 266in Pakistan, 648and popular religion, 181–2in post-‘Abbasid era, 114, 133, 139, 144, 191reformism, 191, 214scripturalism, 82–7, 156, 177–9, 374sectarianism, 134–7and Shi‘a, 98, 140–2, 181, 244, 246, 827social organization, 215

966 Index






and state, 140–2, 192, 447in Syria, 541, 543, 548–50, 583and theology, 87–90, 177–82

Sunni ‘Ali, ruler of Songhay, 404Sunni-Shari‘a-Sufi synthesis, 156–69, 179–82, 189–90,

210Sunpadh, rebel leader, 65Suwari, al-Hajj Salim, 758Swahili Islam, 204, 432–5, 772–80Sweden, 791, 803Switzerland, 503, 799, 858Sykes-Picot agreement, 492, 539syncretism, 65, 204, 216, 234, 366, 377, 379, 381–2, 384,

428, 444, 782–3Syria. see also under agriculture; elites; intelligentsia;

secularization; socialismadministration, 51, 541, 543and Arab conquest, 34, 37–40, 43–4, 47and Caliphate, 54, 56, 58–60, 64–5, 68, 78, 85, 87, 93,

97, 107–9, 283, 285, 287–92in colonial period, 540–1, 543, 805early history, 6–7, 10, 13–15, 20, 28, 32–3and Egypt, 514–15, 518, 524, 536and Europe, 311–12, 551Islam in, 201, 207, 211, 548–50and Lebanon, 555–7in modern era, 458–9, 461, 492–3, 509–10, 524,

546–51, 553–4, 581–3, 585, 618, 680, 806, 818nationalism, 459, 461, 537–8, 541, 543, 558and North Africa, 615, 618in Ottoman empire, 251, 254, 258, 264, 268, 283,

295–9, 334, 446, 490, 513, 537–9and Palestine, 558–65in post-imperial era, 109, 112, 120, 122–3, 126, 135,

139, 142–3, 176and Saljuk dynasty, 290–4Shi‘a in, 242Timurids in, 229tribal groups, 541, 543, 549women in, 855, 857

Tal-Tabari, poet, 128Tabaristan, 61, 64Taba’taba’i, Sayyid Muhammad, 474tabligh (evangelical teaching), 663Tablighi Islam movement, 464, 635, 650, 680, 794, 796,

798, 802, 818, 822, 828, 851Tablighi Jama‘at, 643, 799, 804, 809Tabriz, 228–9, 231, 234, 240, 253, 263, 476Taha Husayn, 521Tahir, governor of Khurasan, 64, 103–4Tahirid family, 61, 104, 107, 109, 126–7Tahmasp, Shah, 240, 242al-Ta’if, oasis, 22Tajikistan, 698, 700–1, 705–6, 710, 712, 714, 827Tajiks, 698, 706, 718, 724–5, 819, 848Takrit, 552Takrur, kingdom of, 401–2, 404, 408, 414, 419, 443Talha, Meccan aristocrat, 47Taliban, 649, 725, 792, 812, 824, 826–7, 835, 847–8Talibov, ‘Abd al-Rahim, 474Tall, Tyerno Bokar Salif, 738Tamerlane. see Timur (Tamerlane)Tamim tribes, 15, 42, 49Tanganyika. see TanzaniaTanzania (Tanganyika), 442, 737, 761, 772–6, 780–1, 818,

830Tanzim movement (India), 635, 817Tanzimat (Ottoman reforms), 494–7, 503, 537–8, 613,

722, 762, 848, 857taqlid (obedience to tradition), 157, 160, 162Tariq, Arab ruler, 310Tariqa-i Muhammadi (Way of Muhammad), 623tariqa (Sufi brotherhoods)

in Africa, 211, 324, 328–30, 342, 782in early Middle East, 114, 133–4, 137–40, 144–6, 186,

189, 193

in East Africa, 431, 437, 762, 768–9, 773, 775, 777,781

in Europe, 799, 803in India, 209, 365, 448in Inner Asia, 349in Iran, 226, 234in modern era, 205, 208–15, 443, 814, 816in North Africa, 336, 586, 588, 611in Ottoman empire, 249, 265–7, 295, 447social structure, 211–15in Southeast Asia, 391, 448–9, 462in West Africa, 209, 737–8, 740–4, 747–8, 752, 754

Tarzi, Mahmud Beg, 722tasdiq (truth), 168Tashkent, 351, 687–8, 691, 696, 703, 706–7Taslima Nasreen, 650Tataristan, 698, 700Tatars

intellectual revival, 690–3Islamic community, 201, 223and Ottoman empire, 277political parties, 692–3in pre-modern era, 338–9, 342, 344–5, 350, 355in Romania, 785and Russian control, 686, 689–98, 706, 716and Turks, 249, 255

Taubman Goldie, George, 441tawakkul (trust in God), 91–2, 167taxation. see also iqta‘; jizya; kharaj

in Caliphate, 36–40, 47, 50, 52–4, 59, 61–4, 66, 106–7,110, 122, 185

Dutch, in Southeast Asia, 652–3, 659in Egypt, 40, 513, 516in India, 357, 379–81in Iran, 226in Mughal empire, 371in North Africa, 332–3in Ottoman empire, 259, 294–5in post-‘Abbasid era, 114, 120, 124, 143, 145, 148,

188, 192, 206, 217ta‘ziya (mourning) procession, 623tekke (Sufi hospices), 210, 252, 266–9Teodros, king of Ethiopia, 770terrorism

in Afghanistan, 725in Caliphate, 49in Egypt, 827in Europe, 792, 805in India, 827in North Africa, 600transnational organizations, 829–30, 835against United States, 675, 725, 812, 830, 835,

847–848al-Tha‘alibi, ‘Abd al-‘Aziz, 603al-Thani, Hamad bin Khalifa, 579theology (kalam). see also Ash‘ari school; Karrami

school; Mu‘tazila; philosophyand Caliphate, 67–8, 73, 78–9, 82, 87–90, 95, 99–101,

186and diffusion of Islam, 201, 206in Islamic community, 209Muslim, opposition to, 306in Ottoman empire, 268in post-‘Abbasid era, 126, 132–4, 136, 140–2, 147–9,

153, 156–69, 176–82, 189–92theosophy, 156, 169–74, 179–80, 209Tigris. see IraqTijaniya (Sufi order)

in North Africa, 213, 326, 465reformism, 211, 464, 781in West Africa, 213, 421, 424–5, 465, 737–8, 740–2,

747, 750–1, 755, 758, 822, 828, 840timar (tax revenues). see iqta‘Timbuktu, 331, 404, 409–11, 414, 416, 420, 425Timur (son of Ahmed Shah Sadozai), 720Timur (Tamerlane), 229–30, 250, 260, 347, 349, 692Timurid dynasty, 126, 198, 207, 217, 228–33, 246, 248,

345–6, 381, 720

Index 967






Tippu Tip, 435al-Tirmidhi (d.892), 94, 176Tito, 786–7Titu Mir, 464, 623, 627Tjokroaminoto, ‘Umar Sa‘id, 663Tobacco Rebellion, 473–4, 484–5, 844, 858Togo, 441, 759torodbe (leadership group), 418–20, 425, 427trade, international

Arab Middle East, 535and Caliphate, 110, 184East Africa, 429–31, 433–8, 440–1, 443, 772felt caps, 324India, 624Inner Asia, 344–5, 347, 349–50, 688Islamic community, 213–14, 217Morocco, 327, 329–31in North Africa, 201, 304, 319, 321–2, 324–5in Ottoman empire, 268–9, 272–3, 277–8, 294, 296,

298in post-‘Abbasid era, 117, 191–2pre-Islamic, 3, 12–16, 27–8in Safavid dynasty, 237–8in Southeast Asia, 203, 382–5, 390–1, 652–3, 675in Spain, 313in sub-Saharan Africa, 204–5, 400–1, 404–6, 408,

410–11in West Africa, 415, 418, 733–4

Transcaspia, 223, 687–8Transcaucasia, 245, 685Transjordan, 492–3, 539–40, 544–5, 547, 560. see also

Jordantransnational Islam, 828–9

military and terrorist organizations, 829–30, 835Transoxania

and Arab conquests, 33, 38, 43–4, 50and Caliphate, 54, 58, 61, 65, 104, 107Islam in, 197, 207–8, 337–9, 345Mongols in, 226in post-‘Abbasid era, 112, 114, 116–17, 120, 126–7,

130–1, 135, 137, 139–40, 143, 223, 229Russian control, 688Shaybanids in, 234Timurids in, 230

Transylvania, 250, 254, 259, 274Traore, Mousa, 756Trebizond, 233tribes. see also clans; lineage; Sufism

and Arab conquests, 41, 43–4, 46–7and Caliphate, 68, 75, 100factionalism, 50–1, 53–4, 65Islam in, 200–1, 204–5, 214–15, 307, 814–15and Islamic society, 29–30, 97, 183–5, 337–9, 355,

443–5Muhammad’s relations with, 27–9, 32in post-‘Abbasid era, 119–20, 137, 143, 154–5, 187,

190–3pre-Islamic, 4, 9, 13–17, 21, 26–7and states, 49, 215, 217–19, 274, 321–3, 325–34, 336,

347–8, 572, 768–9Tripoli, 33, 255, 287, 289, 299, 302, 304, 309, 613Tripolitania, 603, 612–14Trucial States, 578, 580Truman, Harry, 505Tuareg, 404–5, 424, 737Tughluq dynasty, 357–8, 360, 368Tughril Beg, 117, 121Tulunid dynasty, 107, 109, 283Tunis, 299, 301–2, 304, 308–9, 322–4, 326–7, 461, 604

battle of, 255Zaytuna mosque, 592–593, 601–602

Tunisia. see also under agriculture; modernization;reformism; socialismadministration, 207, 321–2, 601, 615Arab conquests, 34Caliphal era, 299–305, 307–8chronology, 300–1

economy, 322, 324–5and France, 301, 325, 458–9, 586, 601–4, 617, 793–4,

802, 803, 839Islam in, 592, 605–6, 617, 826, 839and Libya, 613, 615in modern era, 457–61, 562, 595–7, 601–6, 608,

610–11, 615–19, 820, 826nationalism, 603and Ottoman empire, 255, 283, 323–5, 334, 446, 535pre-modern era, 319–26, 328–9, 333–5and Spain, 313state and religion, 818, 837, 839, 841, 871and West Africa, 755women in, 605, 859–60

al-Turabi, Hassan, 767–8, 782, 826Turkestan

Chinese control, 219, 223, 727diffusion of Islam, 201, 338, 345–55Mongols in, 226Russian control, 684, 686–90, 693, 696, 698, 700–1,

704–5struggle for independence, 695–6

Turkey. see also under agriculture; elites;industrialization; intelligentsia; modernization;revivalism; secularization; socialism; Turkseconomic development, 501–11and Egypt, 512, 518, 521–2, 534and Europe, 276, 492, 501–3, 505, 510, 786–9, 793–4,

796–9, 802, 803and Inner Asia, 689, 702, 709–10, 714Islam in, 172, 176, 282, 457, 502–3, 506–11, 581, 584,

667, 820–1, 825–6, 830, 837–9, 871nationalism, 498–500in Ottoman empire, 489, 491, 497, 537, 846political parties, 502, 505–10reformism, 297, 467Republic, 501–11, 524, 535, 539, 543, 547, 555,

584–5, 605–6, 634, 820, 830state and religion, 507–11, 837–41, 846–7, 872tribes in, 818women in, 503, 856–8, 860–1, 864

Turkic languagesin early Middle East, 130in modern era, 460, 496, 498–9, 502–3, 510, 538, 691,

702, 706, 714, 726, 789, 857in pre-modern era, 218, 231, 234, 259–61, 282, 351

Turkmanchai, treaty of, 471Turkmenbashi (Niyazov Saparmund), 713Turkmenistan, 214, 685–6, 698, 706, 708, 710, 712–14Turkmens (Turkomans), 208, 298, 685, 698, 706, 712,

718, 724, 848Turks. see also pan-Turkism

administration, 151in Afghanistan, 718, 848and Arab conquests, 33, 39, 41, 43in Caliphate, 54, 69, 104, 107, 286in the Caucasus, 715, 717in China, 725in Europe, 785–9, 793–4, 796–9, 801–3identity, 826 (see also pan-Turkism)in India, 357, 362, 364in Inner Asia, 690, 692, 713in Iran, 226, 228, 231–5, 237, 241, 245–6, 337–8migrations, 112, 114, 116–21, 143, 187–8, 191, 197–8,

201–3, 216, 248–54, 258, 290–3, 338–9, 345–6,351–2, 444, 785

in North Africa, 307, 321, 325–6, 329in Ottoman empire, 259–61, 263–4, 266–8, 272–3,

279–80, 297, 446, 497–9, 513, 538–9, 580in Sudan, 762–3in Syria, 543in United States, 806, 809women, 853, 856

Tus, 160al-Tustari, Sahl (d.896), 93tuyul. see iqta’“twelvers.” see ithna ‘ashari (“twelver” Shi‘a community)

968 Index






U‘Ubaydallah, imam, 285Ubulla, 32Uccialli, treaty of, 770Uganda, 442, 761, 772, 777–80, 782Uhud, battle of, 27Uighurs, 353–5, 726–7, 730Ukraine, 255, 258, 269, 687, 705, 716‘ulama’ (religious scholars)

in Arabia, 565–6, 570–1and Caliphate, 81, 92, 101–2, 147–9, 186–8in Caucasus, 715–16in East Africa, 762–3, 765, 781in Egypt, 294–5, 512–16, 521–2, 529in India, 217, 358, 360, 364, 367–8, 374, 377–8, 381,

448–9, 465, 621, 626–7, 631–2, 634, 637–8in Inner Asia, 344, 347, 348–9, 355, 444, 685–6,

688–9, 691–3, 695, 697, 703, 706–9in Iran, 206–7, 228, 242, 245–6, 444–6, 462, 469–77,

479, 482–7in Iraq, 470, 553in Islamic communities, 209–10, 213, 815in Libya, 615in Malaya, 675and modernization, 581, 631–2in North Africa, 207, 319, 326–7, 330, 332–4, 336,

597, 602, 607, 609–11, 617in Ottoman empire, 265, 267–8, 282, 294–5, 298, 444,

447, 494, 496, 500, 511in Pakistan, 645–6post-imperial era, 114, 134–5, 137, 140, 143–6, 152,

155, 157, 162relation to state, 152, 155, 206–7, 217–18, 267–8, 294,

332–3, 364, 367–8, 371, 377–8, 444–9, 469–77,482–7, 500, 602, 816

resistance to European influence, 457, 459, 461–2,466–8

social functions, 140, 143–6, 189–90, 192–3, 197, 201,205–7, 215, 295–6

in Southeast Asia, 206, 388, 394, 397–9, 448–9, 652,657–60, 664–5, 667, 669, 672, 680

in Spain, 312–14in sub-Saharan Africa, 405–6, 408–9in Syria, 296, 537–8, 550in Turkey, 502, 508in West Africa, 204, 206–7, 413, 418, 420, 428, 732,

748, 752in Yemen, 567

Ulugh-beg, 229–30‘Umar I (Caliph, 634–44), 34, 36–7, 44–6, 49, 95, 685‘Umar II (Caliph, 717–20), 43, 50, 52–3, 58‘Umar, al-Hajj, 211, 421, 440–1, 444, 465, 747, 840Umayyad dynasty

in Egypt, 283history, 45–51, 53–4, 64, 66, 334, 567and Islamic culture, 67–71, 75–6, 99, 185, 290,

311–13legitimation, 216, 313military organization, 59, 104and Muslim theology, 68, 78, 87and Shi‘a, 81, 95Spanish, 54, 108, 216, 283, 300, 303, 311–13, 401state organization, 50–1

umma (community), 23–4, 26, 28–30, 82, 101–2, 144–5,149, 183–4, 206–11, 215, 220, 581

United Arab Emirates, 577–8, 580, 583United Arab Republic, 524, 548–9, 570United Nations, 528, 554–5, 559, 561, 582–3, 604, 612,

614–15, 649, 668, 674, 768, 770, 787United States

and Afghanistan, 648–9, 713, 722–5, 848African Americans, 785, 806–8and Arab Middle East, 547, 582, 584cultural values, 823and East Africa, 170and Eastern Europe, 786and Egypt, 524, 526–8, 532, 548

and Indonesia, 670–1, 675and Iran, 476, 478–80, 483–4, 487, 845and Iraq, 553–4and Jordan, 545and Lebanon, 555Muslim converts, 806–9Muslim women, 807–8, 810–12, 823Muslims in, 785, 790–1, 803, 805–13, 823, 828, 872and North Africa, 331, 596, 615and Ottoman empire, 277, 500and Pakistan, 847and Palestine, 557, 559–60, 563–5and Philippines, 681, 683and Sa‘udi Arabia, 574–5, 849state and religion, 810and Syria, 551terrorism against, 675, 725, 812, 830, 835, 847–8and Turkey, 505–6, 710

unity, Arab, 546–7Unkiar Skelessi, treaty of, 490Unsuri (d.1039–40), 128Upper Volta (Burkina Faso), 411, 414, 426, 441, 732,

735–6, 738, 755–6, 759, 780, 825‘Uqaylid dynasty, 109, 287‘Urabi, Egyptian rebel, 515, 517–18Urban II, Pope, 289urbanization

in Africa, 780Arab conquests, 9, 31, 38–40, 44in Arabia, 574–5, 578, 580and Caliphate, 56, 67, 73–5, 100–2, 111, 184–7, 193,

197and diffusion of Islam, 198, 200Egypt, 528, 530–1in Europe, 220in India, 379in Inner Asia, 708in Iran, 226Islamic community, 213in post-‘Abbasid era, 126, 130, 133, 143, 145, 155,

189pre-Islamic, 3, 8, 10, 13and religious elites, 81–98, 100–2in West Africa, 734, 744

Urdu, 218, 366, 626, 628, 630, 633, 640, 643, 648, 851Usama bin Laden, 571, 725, 797, 830, 835, 848Ushrusana, 61, 64Usmaniya movement, 748usul al-fiqh (sources of law), 157usul-i jadid. see jadid movementusuli school, 246‘Uthman (Caliph, 644–56), 18, 45–8, 178, 685‘Uthman I (Osman, founder of Ottoman empire), 250–1Uways al-Barawi, Shaykh ‘Umar, 772–3Uwaysiya brotherhood, 768–9, 772–3uymaq (household state), 232–5, 237, 245, 246–7, 339,

345–8, 355, 444–6, 469Uzbek Khan, 339Uzbekistan, 680, 698, 700, 704–6, 709–10, 712–14, 725,

827Uzbeks

in modern era, 686, 691, 698, 706–7, 712, 718, 720,724–5, 819, 848

in pre-modern era, 198, 201, 217, 236, 339–40, 342,345–6, 348–51, 355

VVaramin, 228Varna, battle of, 250Vienna. see Austriavizier. see wazir (viziers)Volga region, 116, 223, 255, 690, 694, 697, 700

WWafd Party, 520, 528, 603, 858wahdat al-wujud (unity of being), doctrine of, 173,

366

Index 969






Wahhabi movementin Arabia, 565, 571–2, 575Chechnya, 716–17in East Africa, 782in Egypt, 512Inner Asia, 712

Wahhabi movement (Icont.)in Islamic community, 211, 462, 464, 823, 835, 848West Africa, 738, 754–9, 825

Wahid, Abdurrahman, 674, 821wajh (face), 13, 16wali (saints), 210, 335, 377, 392, 420Waliallah, Shah, 377, 464, 621–2, 635al-Walid, Caliph, 50–1, 71waqf (endowments)

in Anatolia, 249in Egypt, 513–15, 529in India, 374, 626in Inner Asia, 344–5, 685, 687, 695–6, 701, 703,

706in Middle East, 135, 137, 210, 217, 228in North Africa, 599, 601–3in Ottoman empire, 295–6, 494in post-‘Abbasid era, 192in Syria, 538in Tunisia, 604in Turkey, 502, 506, 509

al-Wasit, 39, 50, 68Wattasid dynasty, 301, 320, 328wazir (viziers), 60, 105, 136, 141, 235, 259, 424, 434Weber, Max, 221West Africa. see also under elites; intelligentsia

anti-colonial movements, 734–5diffusion of Islam, 198, 204–5, 308, 409–28, 732,

736–7, 746, 780, 822, 850and Europe, 331, 416, 425–6, 428, 438–41, 444,

453–4, 732–8, 740–50, 755–6, 772, 785, 793, 799,839–40, 850

independence, 735–7Islam in, 206–9, 211, 213, 443, 462, 532, 736–8,

780–4, 825in modern era, 732–60nationalism, 734–8, 740, 750, 753, 758–60and Ottoman empire, 269state and religion, 204, 738–40states, 216–17

Western Europe, Muslims in, 785, 789–805Wilson, Woodrow, 519, 603Wingate, Sir Reginald, 763Wolofs, 742–3, 747women. see also under the names of countries and

regionsand Arab conquests, 40–1and Islam, 851–67and modernization, 530–1, 592, 605, 664, 704, 729,

769, 779, 782–3and mysticism, 90, 92in national states, 855–63pre-modern era, 852–5Quranic teaching on, 24–6, 29and revivalism, 824, 863–7Shi‘i views, 65Somalia, 769

World Assembly of Muslim Youth, 755, 829World Bank. see International Monetary Fund (IMF)

XX, Malcolm, 807Xinjiang, 341, 355, 726–7, 730, 827, 851

YYahya, Imam, 567, 570Yahya Efendi (1552–1644), 261Yahya Khan, general, 646

Yaji (1348-85), 406Yan ‘Izala, 752, 825Yan Tatsine, 754Yang Tseng-hsin, 726–7Ya‘qub Beg, 355, 464al-Yasavi, Shaykh Ahmad, 338, 347Yasaviya order, 342, 347Yassine, ‘Abdelsalam, 617Yazdagird, Emperor, 33Yazid, Caliph, 49Yaziji, Nasif, 537Yemen. see also Hadhramaut

in Caliphate, 49, 59, 107early history, 10, 13–15, 32Imamate, 565–8, 570–1irrigation, 310Islam in, 178, 211, 570–2in modern era, 565–74, 576–8, 790, 799, 811, 830and Ottoman empire, 254, 258, 275, 294, 296women in, 859

Yemen, People’s Democratic Republic of, 569, 571Yemen (Kalb), warring faction, 49–51, 54, 81, 287, 310Yoruba, 735–7, 748–50, 752–3, 850Young Algerians, 591Young Bukharans, 691, 696–7Young Ottomans, 460, 496, 498, 517, 820Young Tunisians, 464, 602–3, 617Young Turks, 460–1, 497, 499, 691, 820, 837Yuan dynasty, 352Yugoslavia, 785–8, 796, 802Yunnan, 354, 464, 726Yunus, Mahmud, 672Yunus Emre, Sufi poet, 266

ZZaghlul, Sa‘d, 518–19Zahir Shah, 722–4Zahir al-‘Umar, 297Zakariya, Baha’ al-Din, 365zakat (almsgiving), 20, 24, 28–9, 53, 82, 181, 592, 676zamindar (local notables), 369, 371, 379–81, 620–1, 623,

625Zamzam, Hajji, 663Zamzam (sacred well), 20Zands, in Iran, 245Zangid dynasty, 109Zanj (slave laborers), 107Zanzibar, 433–5, 441–2, 576, 760, 772–5, 777, 779al-Zawahiri, Ayman, 532zawaya (persons of holy descent), 208, 210, 409, 418,

740zawiya (Sufi teaching mosques), 210, 323, 328, 330, 410,

431, 464, 515, 588–9, 607, 613Zayanids, 320Zayd b. ‘Ali (Ibn ‘Ali), 53, 572Zaydi dynasty, 178, 565–6, 568, 570Zaytuna mosque, Tunis, 592–3, 601–2Zenata. see BerbersZengi (d.1146), 289–90Zeroual, Liamine, 600Zia ul-Haq, General, 646–8, 847Zia ul-Rahman, General, 650Zionist Organization, 524, 545, 547, 557–9, 582, 614–15,

713Zirid family, 300, 302, 304–5, 308Ziryab (789-857), 311Zongo. see KumasiZoroastrianism

and diffusion of Islam, 200, 242in early Middle East, 6–8, 31, 36, 51, 64–5, 76, 99,

127, 138, 142, 172, 183–4in modern Iran, 234, 486

Zsitva Torak, treaty of, 255Zubayr, Meccan aristocrat, 47

970 Index






Cambridge Unive rsity Pre ss 978-0-521-77056-9 - A History...

Documents

Transcript of Cambridge Unive rsity Pre ss 978-0-521-77056-9 - A History...